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Explaining Mental Disorder
The study of mental disorder involves:
Definition: What do we mean by mental disorder?
Classification: How do we distinguish between different mental disorders?
Explanation: How do we understand mental disorder?
Treatment: How do we treat mental disorder?
Different Approaches to Explaining Mental Disorder
No completely dominant approach.
Different Approaches to Explaining Mental Disorder
All of the approaches we will explore assume that the proximal cause of behaviour and experience is biological.
The approaches emphasize different distal causes.
Different Approaches to Explaining Mental Disorder
Most psychologists today do not propose linear, one dimensional causal explanations
Approaches to Explaining Mental Disorder
Biological / Neuroscience PerspectivePsychodynamic PerspectiveCognitive PerspectiveBehavioural PerspectiveSociocultural PerspectiveHumanistic / Existential PerspectiveInterpersonal Perspective
Biological / Neuroscience Perspective
the functioning of the brain and other biological systems
Behaviour Genetics
Behaviour Genetics studies the extent to which mental disorder is caused by genetics.
The “nature-nurture” debate explores the role of genes vs. the environment.
Behaviour Genetics
Three different methods are used: family studies twin studies adoption studies
Family Studies
Examine family members of an individual with a mental disorder to see what percentage of relatives also have the disorder.
Twin Studies
Monozygotic twins (MZ) share exactly the same genotype.
Dizygotic twins (DZ), have 50% of their genes in common.
Adoption Studies
Attempt to remove environmental influence that DZ and MZ twins share by studying twins that have been separated at birth.
Adoption Studies
Adoptions studies still do not control for all environmental factors because:
People with the same genes seek out and elicit the same kinds of environments. Outgoing vs. Shy Energetic vs. Passive
Genes and BehaviourSummary
It is most helpful to think of how genes and environment interact to produce disorders.
Interactions, or “that depends”
What is the influence of X? that depends on Y.
The Diathesis-Stress Model
Individuals inherit tendencies to express certain traits or behaviours, which are then expressed or activated under conditions of stress.
The reciprocal Gene-Environment Model
Genes may actually increase the probability that an individual will experience a stressful event.
Evaluating the Biological Approach
Effective treatment does not mean we understand causation
Side effects of biological treatments Correlation does not mean
causation the disorder could cause the biological
correlate a third factor might cause both the
disorder and the biological correlate
The Psychodynamic Explanation of mental disorder
Psychodynamic Model mental mechanisms emphasis on childhood experiences emphasis on unconscious motives
Freud and the “Classical” Psychodynamic model
Unconscious: most mental activity takes place
outside of awareness the unconscious contains passively and
actively forgotten information
The Structure of the Mind according to Freud
Id basic primitive biological drives or
instincts Ego
develops to help the Id find adaptive ways to fulfill it’s desires and cope with reality
Superego internalized moral standards of parents does not consider what is realistic only
what is abstractly ideal
Reality
Super Ego
EgoMediator
Id
Conscience
Logical / Rational
Illogical / Emotional
Competing / Conflicting Demands on the Ego
The Ego’s Defense Mechanisms
Ego defense mechanisms involve distorting or denying internal and external reality.
Repression
Repression is the basis of all defense mechanisms.
Impulses that are unacceptable to the ego are pushed into the unconscious
Sublimation
Sublimation is the most adaptive defense mechanism
Sublimation is the transformation of Id impulses into more socially acceptable forms.
Anxiety
Anxiety is a signal that the ego’s controls are at risk of being overcome by the id or the superego.
The Psychodynamic Explanation of mental disorder
Disorder occurs when the ego is not able to adequately balance the Id, Superego and reality.
The Psychodynamic Explanation of mental disorder
Poor ego defense leads to anxiety Rigid ego defense leads to
constricted behaviour and impoverished relationships.
Ego collapse leads to a flooding of id impulses.
Evaluating the Psychodynamic Approach
First well developed approach to mental disorders that did not consider mental disorder as a biological or a moral, religious problem.
Difficult to subject many of the ideas to empirical testing.
Gender and cultural bias in original Freudian ideas
The Cognitive Explanation of mental disorder
“Men are disturbed not by things but by the views they take of them” Epictetus
Cognitive Appraisal
Stimulus--->Appraisal---> Response evaluation of stimulus based on
memories, beliefs, and expectations
Cognitive Appraisal
Appraisals are determined by: Competencies (acquired skills) Perception/Understanding Expectancies Values Plans and Goals
Cognitive Appraisal
Attribution is an example of an appraisal belief about the cause of an event
global/specificstable/unstable internal/external
Information Processing
Selective Attention what information we take in from the
environment (Schizophrenia, depression, anxiety)
Schema how we organize and understand the
information we take in (self schemas)
Evaluating the Cognitive Approach
Does it explain causes or describe symptoms? (Why do people have maladaptive beliefs?)
If an individual could change their thoughts then they would not have a problem.
Changing beliefs or views about the world may not be the best solution in some situations.
Behavioural Approach
mental disorder is the result of “learning” or environmental experience
The Background of Behaviourism
Learning the process whereby behaviour
changes in response to the environment
Pavlov The conditioned Reflex
Watson study only what can be observed “Little Albert”
The Background of Behaviourism
Thorndike The Law of Effect
Skinner Radical Behaviorism predict and influence behaviour by
focusing on environmental contingencies
Respondent (Classical) Conditioning
UCS -----> UCR the unconditioned or unlearned
stimulus causes an unconditioned or unlearned response
UCS -----> UCRCS -----> CR after conditioning the conditioned
stimulus causes a conditioned response
Operant Conditioning
The organism does something or “operates” on the environment.
The likelihood of a response is altered by its consequences.
Punishment and Reinforcement
Reinforcement any consequence of a behaviour that
increases the probability of the behaviour occurring again
Punishment any consequence of a behaviour that
decreases the probability of the behaviour occurring again
Learning Mechanisms
Extinction Generalization Discrimination Shaping
Behavioural Explanation of Mental Disorder
Abnormal behaviour, or mental disorders are the result of various environmental experiences (learning or conditioning) eg Dog Phobia
respondent conditioning negative reinforcement
eg Depression extinction
Behavioural Explanation of Mental Disorder
Less inclined to use Diagnostic Labels symptoms have different functional
roles in different people
Less focused on the past, more focused on present environmental factors
Sociocultural Approach
mental disorder is the result of social and political factors
Sociocultural Approaches
Mental disorder is a social label or a social construction.
Social Construction
Social Concept the boundary between what is and is
not a mental disorder is not “natural” but “cultural” (think back to mental disorder defined as a norm violation)
Social Construction
Social Role the “cause” of a mental disorder is the
fact that an individual is fulfilling or carrying out a social role
this role has a function for the individual, and/or society as a whole
Three umpires are sitting around over a beer, and one says, “There’s balls and there’s strikes, and I call ‘em the way they are.” Another says, “There’s balls and there’s strikes, and I call ‘em the way I see ‘em.” The third says, “There’s balls and there’s strikes, and they ain’t nothin’ until I call ‘em.”
Anderson, 1990 p. 75
Humanistic / Existential Approach
Natural vs. Human Science Importance of ‘Understanding’ and
entering into subjective world of client Emphasis on uniqueness of each person
rather than general patterns Agency
Contrast with determinism Authenticity, Freedom, and Responsibility
Humanistic Approach
‘Acorn’ Theory Potential and Uniqueness Fulfill possibilities Self actualization
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