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EDUC RSCH CHAPTER 10
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McMillanEducational Research: Fundamentals for the Consumer, 6e© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Educational Research: Fundamentals for the Consumer
Woolfolk / PerryChild and Adolescent Development © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Sixth Edition
McMillanEducational Research: Fundamentals for the Consumer, 6e© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Qualitative Research Designs, Data Collection, and Analysis
Chapter 10
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Qualitative Research
Three assumptions that differentiate qualitative and quantitative studies• Epistemology
Qualitative researchers believe there are multiple realities represented by the participants’ perspectives
Quantitative researchers believe a single, objective reality exists
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Qualitative Research
Three assumptions (continued)• Context
Qualitative researchers believe context is critical to understanding the phenomena being studied
Quantitative researchers do not believe context is an important factor
• Researcher bias Qualitative researchers believe the researcher’s biases
and perspectives must be understood to interpret the results
Quantitative researchers believe researcher bias is controlled through the control of internal validity threats
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Qualitative Research
Characteristics of qualitative research• Natural settings - field research
Behavior is studied as it occurs naturally Beliefs related to a natural setting
– Behavior is understood bests as it occurs without external constraints or control
– The situational context is very important to understanding behavior
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Qualitative Research
Characteristics of qualitative research• Direct Data collection
Data is collected directly from the source– Observations– Interviews– Document analysis
• Rich narrative descriptions• Process orientation
How and why behaviors occur
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Qualitative Research
Characteristics of qualitative research• Inductive data analysis• Participant perspectives define what is
“real”• Socially constructed meaning• Emerging research design
The design plans change as data is collected, analyzed, and understood
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Ethnography
An ethnography is an in-depth description and interpretation of cultural patterns and meanings within a culture or social group• Culture - shared patterns of beliefs,
normative expectations, behaviors, and meanings
• Shared, not individualistic
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Ethnography
Problem statements• Foreshadowed problem - a general
framework for beginning a qualitative study• Specific question - a question(s) that
emerges from the interactive relationship between the problem and data
Often found embedded in the data analysis Changing nature of questions often necessitates
changes in the design (i.e., an emergent design)
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Case Study
In-depth analysis of one or more events, settings, programs, groups, or other “bounded systems”• Focus on one entity• Defined by time and place• Concern with the limited generalizability of
the findings
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Case Study
Types of case studies• Historical organizational - focus on the
development of an organization over time• Observational - study of a single entity
using participant observation• Life history (i.e., oral history) - a first-person
narrative completed with one person
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Case Study
Types of case studies (continued)• Situation analysis - a study of a specific event from
multiple perspective• Multi-case - a study of several different independent
entities• Multi-site - a study of many sites and participants
the main purpose of which is to develop theory• Instrumental - study of an entity, theme, or issue
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Case Study
Research problem statement• Focus on in-depth description and
understanding• Use of a single major question and several
sub-questions• Emerging nature of the problems
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Phenomenological Designs
A phenomenological study describes and interprets the experiences of participants to understand their perspectives
Based on the belief that there are multiple ways of interpreting the same experience and the meaning of that experience is what constitutes reality
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Phenomenological Designs
Research problem• Focused on what is essential for the
meaning of the event, episode, or interaction
• Selecting participants Participants are selected because they have lived
or are living the experience being investigated Participants will share their experiences Participants can articulate their feelings
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Grounded Theory Designs
A grounded theory study discovers or generates a theory• A theory is a set of propositions that pertain to a
specific experience, situation, or setting• The contextual sensitivity of the theory is the basis
for suggesting the theory is “grounded” in the field data
Research problems - broad general questions that focus on what happened to people, why they believed it happened, and what it means to them
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Critical Studies
Researcher’s role is as an advocate to respond to issues of marginalized individual.
Studies are focused of power and control and inequality based on race, gender, or class.
The central issue is typically the struggle of a targeted group to enhance their influence.
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Data Collection
Identifying and entering the research site• Access to all parts of the site
Participants Documents Physical location
• Rapport - need to be “integrated” within the site to gain the trust of the participants
• Often site entry takes a long time
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Data Collection
Selecting participants• Use of purposeful sampling strategies to
select “information rich” participants• Purposeful sampling strategies
Maximum variation - selecting individuals or cases to represent extremes
– Very positive or very negative attitudes– Highest and lowest achieving students)
Snowball (i.e., network) - initially selected participants recommend others for involvement
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Data Collection
• Purposeful sampling strategies Sampling by case - selecting individuals or cases for
their unique characteristics– Extreme– Typical– Unique– Reputation
Key informant - selecting an individual(s) particularly knowledgeable about the setting and or topic
Comprehensive - selecting all relevant individuals or cases
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Data Collection
Three primary methods for obtaining data• Observation• Interview• Document analysis
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Data Collection
Observation• Unstructured in nature• Comprehensive - continuous and total over an
extended period of time• Participant-observer role of the researcher
Continuum between complete participant and complete observer
– Passive participant– Moderate participant– Active participant– Complete participant
Rare for an ethnographer to be a complete participant
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Data Collection
Observation (continued)• Use of field notes to record observations
Two types of information– Descriptions of what occurred– Reflections of what the descriptions mean (i.e.,
speculations, emerging themes, patterns, problems)
Accuracy Extensive nature of notes
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Data Collection
Interviews• Unstructured in nature• Begins with a general idea of what needs to be
asked and moves to specific questions based on what the respondent says
• Types of interviews Key informant Life history Focus group
• Tape recording and transcribing interviews afford the opportunity to study the data carefully
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Data Collection
Document analysis• Written records
Print (e.g., minutes from meetings, reports, yearbooks, articles, diaries)
Non-print (e.g., recordings, videotapes, pictures)• Types of sources
Primary - original work Secondary - secondhand interpretations of original work
• Commonly used to verify other observations or interview data
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Data Analysis and Interpretation
Observations, interviews, and document analyses result in large quantities of narrative data
Analysis includes critically examining, summarizing, and synthesizing the data
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Data Analysis and Interpretation
Three stages of analysis• Data Organization
Organizing the data into reasonable, meaningful units that are coded with words or very short phrases that signify a category
– Emic categories - information provided by the participants in their own language and organizational units
– Etic categories - the researcher’s interpretation of emic data
Use of major codes and sub-codes is common
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Data Analysis and Interpretation
• Data Summary Examining all similarly coded data and summarizing it
with a sentence or two that reflects its essence Computerized sorting of data is common and effective
• Data Interpretation Synthesizing identifies the relationships among the
categories and patterns that suggest generalization The researcher interprets findings inductively,
synthesizes the information, and draws inferences
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Data Analysis and Interpretation
• Data Interpretation (continued) Developing patterns
– Begins with the researcher’s informed hunches and ideas
– Tentative patterns are identified and additional data collected to determine if they are consistent with those patterns
– Characterized by enlarging, combining, subsuming, and creating new categories that make sense
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Credibility of Qualitative Research
Credibility is the extent to which the data, data analysis, and conclusions are believable and trustworthy
Eight procedures to enhance credibility• Prolonged Engagement• Member Checking
Participants review interpretations• Triangulation
Compares the findings from different techniques
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Credibility of Qualitative Research
Enhancing credibility (continued)• Negative Case Analysis• Peer Debriefing• External Audit• Researcher Reflection• Thick Descriptions
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Generalizability
Transferability is the appropriateness of applying the findings to other settings.
It is enhanced by thick, rich descriptions that make it easier for someone wanting to aplly the results to his or her setting.
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Evaluating Qualitative Studies
The researcher’s background, interests, and potential bias should be clear
Conceptual and/or theoretical frameworks for the study should be clear
The method for selecting participants should be clear
Field notes should contain detailed objective descriptions of just about everything
The researcher should be trained in data collection procedures
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Evaluating Qualitative Studies
Credibility of the research should be addressed
Descriptive data should be separated from the interpretations of the data
The researcher should use multiple methods of data collection
The duration of the study must be long enough
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