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DOI: 10.4018/IJCBPL.2017100103
International Journal of Cyber Behavior, Psychology and LearningVolume 7 • Issue 4 • October-December 2017
Copyright©2017,IGIGlobal.CopyingordistributinginprintorelectronicformswithoutwrittenpermissionofIGIGlobalisprohibited.
Domestication of Smartphones Among Adolescents in Brunei DarussalamAnnie Dayani Ahad, School of Business & Economics, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam
Muhammad Anshari, School of Business & Economics, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam
Abdur Razzaq, Universitas Islam Negeri Raden Fatah, Palembang, Indonesia
ABSTRACT
This article describes how smartphones have converged into multifunctional personal devices.SmartphonesareequippedwithfeaturessuchasInternetaccess,cameras(picturesandvideos)andMP3players.Whileamajorityofpreviousresearchinvestigatedtheuseandeffectsofmobilephonesandyoungpeople,thesestudiesfocusedontheWesterncontext.Aqualitativeresearchmethodwasusedtoinvestigatetheresearchquestions.Specifically,focusgroupsandin-depthinterviewswereusedtocollectdata.Nevertheless,whileagrowingnumberofstudieshasinvestigatedmobilephoneuse by teenagers in non-western countries, there is little research on smartphone uses and theirimplicationstoteenagersinanIslamiccontext.Thisarticleexaminestheusesofsmartphonesby,andtheirimplicationsto,Bruneianteenagers.Theresearchseekstomapandunderstandthecomplexforcesthatinfluenceandchallengethesocio-culturalvaluesandreligiousbeliefsofteenagersinanon-Western,Malay,IslamicsocietysuchasBrunei.
KeywoRDSBrunei Darussalam, Domestication of Media & Technology, Smartphone, Value
INTRoDUCTIoN
With rapid technological advancements, from a mere mobile talking device, smartphones haveconverged into a multi-purpose communication medium with progressively improved features,multiplefunctionsandlatestapplications(e.g.mobileInternet,mobilechat,social-networkingsites,etc.).Ingeneral,researchsuggeststhatyoungpeopletodayhavegrownupwithsmartphones.Theyarecommonlyregardedasthemostenthusiasticandextensiveusersofnewtechnologies;theyarequicktoadopt;andtheyarecreative,flexible,andubiquitouslyconnectedtotheworld(Ito,2005;Grinter,Goggin,2006;Ahad&Anshari,2017).Statisticsshowthatanacceleratedgrowthofmobilephoneuseishighestamongyoungpeopleoryouths.Theyconsumemoremediatechnologiesandinmanydifferentways(Hill-Wood,et.al.,2009).Hence,itbecomesapparentthatsmartphonesarecommonplaceandmostinfluentialinyoungpeoples’everydaylives.Inrelationtothis,amajorityofstudieshavepointedtothecomplexissuessurroundingmobilephoneuse(ornon-use)eitherintheWest(Green,2003;Kasesniemi,2003;Campbell,2005;Weerakkody,2008;Walsh,2009)orinthenon-westerncontext(Miyaki,2005;Ibahrine,2008;Hijazi-Omari&Ribak,2008);eitherforgoodorbad,orasopportunitiesorthreats(Mackay,1997;Weerakkody,2008;Ibahrine,2008).
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Thesestudieshavedemonstratedthatsmartphonesarewidelyadoptedbyyoungpeopleoryouthsastheyallowedbetteraccessibility,mobilityandemancipation;mobilephonesalsofreedthemfromauthoritativefigures,particularlyparents.Butwhatdoesallthisentail?Smartphoneshavealsobeenassociatedwiththewaysteenagerscommunicateormicro-coordinate.Theyarealsousedforavarietyofentertainmentpurposesandforsharinginformation(Green&Singleton,2007;Wu,2008;Hill-Woodetal.,2009).Inaddition,thereareconcernsabouttheimpactofsmartphoneusesuchaspooracademicperformance(Campbell,2005),smartphoneaddictionordependency(Aoki&Downes,2003;Walsh,2009),andexposuretopornographiccontent(Ibahrine,2008;Al-Rasheed,2007;Rodzi,2009;Chew,2009).Alltheseareassociatedwiththeprevalentuseofmobilephonesbyyoungpeople.
Thisstudyhastheoreticalsignificance.Oneofthekeycontributionsofthestudyisthatitextendsourunderstandingoftheinteractionbetweenyoungpeopleandmobilephones.Itfurtheraddressespreviousresearchonyoungpeopleandmobilephonesandtherelevantissuessurroundingthem,inacontinuouslychangingglobalenvironment.Generally,Jacksonetal.(2006)reportedthatthenatureofchildren’stechnology-basedactivities,forinstance,isunclearbecausetherearealimitednumberofstudiesandhardlyanymeasuresofactualuse(comparedtoself-reporteduse).Alsouncleararetherelationshipsbetweenyoungpeople’ssocio-demographiccharacteristicsandtechnologyuse,eitherintheUnitedStatesorelsewhere(Jacksonetal.,2006).
The researchquestions examined in this studywere:What are the intendedandunintendedconsequencesofsmartphoneusebyBruneianteenagers?TowhatextentdoestheuseofsmartphonesbyBruneianteenagersupholdorchallengetheirsocio-culturalvalues,theirreligiousbeliefsandtheirculturalidentity?
LITeRATURe ReVIewS
Statisticsshowthatin2007,accordingtotheSoutheastAsiaMobileCommunicationsandMobileDatareport(citedinPrice2008),Brunei’smobilepenetrationratewasoneofthehighestinSouth-eastAsia,atapproximately114percentor0.4millionsubscribersintotal.Indeed,thisfigurecontinuestoriseandthereiswidespreaduseofmobilephones,particularlyamongyoungBruneians,justasinanyothercountry.AccordingtoHan(2009),thereisincreasingdemandformobilephonesamongtheyoungergenerations.Additionally,mobilephoneswhichboastthird-generation(3G)capabilitiessuchasmobileInternet,mobilecomputing,andmobilechat,amongothers(e.g.text,call,musicandcameraorvideo)arepopularamongBruneianteenagers(Han,2009)
AccordingtoHan(2007),bothteachersandstudentsinBruneiadmittedthatmobilephonesconstituteamajorproblematschoolasmanystudentstendtoabusethem,particularlyinclass,andthistendstoaffecttheirstudies.AnEnglishteacherfromapublicschoolreportedinHan’s(2007)articlesaidsomestudentswerecaughtusingmobilephonesinclasstochat,toplaymusicandgames.Thereportalsonotedthatstudentsusedtheirmobilephonesatschoolforthepurposeof‘showingoff’.Ateacheralsosaidthatparentstrustedtheirchildrentoomuchthattheybecamelessconcernedaboutthenegativeimplicationsofmobilephonessuchaspooracademicperformance.
Anotherconcerninvolvingmobilephoneuseatschoolismobilephonethefts(Han,2007).DuringanIslamicReligiousKnowledgeTeachers’ foruminBrunei,Roslan(2008)reported thatdespiteschoolsprovidingtelephonesforstudents’useincaseofemergency,88percentofBruneianstudentsstilltooktheirmobilephonestoschool.Inanotherreportin2009byBruneiTimes,youngchildrenwereseentobeusingmobilephonesasmostparentssaidtheywerenecessary.Forexample,mobilephonewasseenasessentialforsecurity,astheneedaroseandforconvenience(BruneiTimes,2009).
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There are worrying trends in regard to the younger generation misusing the Internet. Theirstudyfoundthatabout79percentoftheBruneipopulationwereonlineandthecountryhadthehighestFacebookpenetrationinAsia.Atthesametime,thereportnotedthatinternationalchat-roomplatformswerepopularwithyoungBruneiansbecausetheyusedtheplatformstomeetstrangers,fordatingoreventooffersexualservices.InMarch2012,theBruneiangovernmentrolledoutnewlegislationsconcerningtheInternet.Thelawsweredesignedtoprotecttheyoungandvulnerablefromusingtechnologytopursuedeviantbehaviourssuchaschildpornography,prostitution,andsexualactivitieswithminors,sexualgrooming,voyeurismandsexualexploitations(Bandial,2012).In2012,ataChildOnlineProtectionworkshopinBrunei,majorconcernswereexpressedaboutmisuseofpersonalinformation,personaladdressorlocationandalsosexualimagesonsocialnetworkingsitessuchasFacebook.Piri(2011)reportedastudybyBruneiWomenandChildAbuseInvestigationUnit,whichrevealedthat100percentofunderagerapeandunlawfulcarnalknowledgecaseswerecausedbyonlinemeetings(excludingcasesofabusingmodestyandincest).Thestudyshowedanumberof theperpetratorswerechildrenandsomevictimssaid theysoughtpartnersonlineviachat-roomsandFacebook,whichledtotheirmeetingwithstrangersandconsentingtosexualacts.Itmustbenotedthatfurtherresearchisneededbecauseotherrelevantfactorsmayalsobeinvolvedbehindthesexualassaults.
Inlightofall these, thisstudyexaminedhowBruneianteenagersconsumedorappropriatedmobilephones,includingtheunintendedconsequencesofmobilephoneusebytheteenagers.
DoMeSTICATIoN oF MeDIA AND TeCHNoLoGy
Thefirsttheoreticalframeworkusedinthisstudyisthedomesticationtheory.Domesticationfocusesonthesocialrelationshipssurroundinginformationcommunicationtechnologies(ICTs).ItinvolvesaprocessofunderstandingthecomplexityofhowICTsareexperiencedineverydaylife.AsICTsareacquired(consumed)inthepublicandprivatespheres,domesticationinvestigatestheirsymbolicmeanings,theinteractionsandnegotiationsthattakeplacebetweenindividualswithinthewidersocialnetworks(SilverstoneandHirsch,1994;Haddon,2004,2006).
Domesticationhasbeendescribedas‘tamingtheuntamed’(Berkeret.al.,2006).ItprovidesvaluableinsightsintohowICTsfitintothestructuresandroutinesofindividuals’dailylives,thosewho negotiate their use or non-use of ICTs in association with others within their wider socialenvironment.Whileithasbeencriticizedforneglectingthesocialprocessesofproductionandsomeaspectsofthetechnologicalcontent(Bakardjieva,2005),domestication’sbenefitslieinitsemphasisonseveralpoints.Theseincludetherecognitionthattechnologyisevolutionary,doublyarticulatedasobjectsymbolizedandasmediawithcontent;thefocusontheuser(ascreativeindividuals)involvinganon-linear,two-wayprocessintohowICTsareintegratedintotheirlivesthroughappropriation,objectification,incorporationandconversion.AspointedoutbyLieandSorensen(1996,p.2),‘weadoptandadapttechnologies,weshapeandareshapedbythem’.Domesticationtheoryisthususefultoinvestigatetheadoption,useandimplicationofmobilephoneusebyteenagersintheBruneiancontext.
WhilepastresearchstudiedthedomesticationofICTindomesticsettingssuchasthehousehold(Silverstone,1994;Bakardjieva,2006),Silverstone(1994)arguedtheneedtoconsiderdomesticationoutsidethiscontext,suchasintheworkplaceorineducationalinstitutions(e.g.,Pierson,2006;Hynes&Rommes,2006).Inanycase,accordingtoHaddon(1994),itisrelativelyimportanttoalsoconsiderthesecontexts inthewidersocialenvironment,suchasintheentiresocietyor indifferent typesofsociety(e.g.,Norwegiansociety,inSkog,2002;Chinesefamilies,inLim,2006).Furthermore,domesticationhasbeenappliedtoinvestigatenuclearfamilies,single-parenthouseholds,middle-classhouseholds,teleworkers,youngelderly,andyoungadults,evengroupsofindividuals;onvarioustypesofICTsinthehomeorbeyond,suchastelevision,personalcomputers,theInternetandmobilephones(Anshari,et.al,2016,2017;Low&Anshari,2013).Fewstudieshavebeenpublished,(Haddon,2007;Hijazi-Omari&Ribak,2008)tothebestofthisresearcher’sknowledge,investigatedtheprevalent
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convergenceof technologyknownas ‘mobilemedia’, ormobilephoneuse and its implications,particularlyamongteenagerswhorepresentthelargestandmostactivegroupofthemobilephonepopulation(Green&Singleton,2007).Therefore,thisstudyextendspriorresearchintotheseareasthroughanunderstandingoftheimplicationsofmobilephoneusebyteenagersinanIslamic,non-westernsocietysuchasBruneiDarussalam.
Demographic ProfileBruneiDarussalamislocatedinSouthEastAsia,ontheislandofBorneo.Ithasalandareaof5,765sq.km,withanestimatedpopulationofabout406,200 in2009 (BruneiDarussalamNewsletter;InformationDepartment,n.d.),consistingpredominantlyofethnicMalays(67%)andChinese(15%).TherearealsoIndians(12%)andotherindigenousgroupssuchastheMuruts,DusunsandIbans(6%).TheofficiallanguagesareMalay,EnglishandChinese,andtheofficialreligionisIslam,butBuddhismandChristianityarealsopractised.Bruneihasfourdistricts;namelytheBrunei-Muara,Belait,TutongandTemburong.BandarSeriBegawan,thecapitalcityofBrunei,ismostdenselypopulatedandlocatedintheBrunei-Muaradistrict(BruneiPress,n.d.).
Brunei’sPoliticalandLegalPhilosophyisMalayIslamicMonarchy.BruneiDarussalamwasunderBritishProtectoratefrom1889tillitgaineditsfullindependencein1984.HisMajestySultanHajiHassanalBolkiahistheSultanofBrunei.HeistheheadofstateandalsoheadofgovernmentofBrunei’sMalayIslamicMonarchyor‘MelayuIslamBeraja’(MIB).TheMalayIslamicMonarchyisthecountry’sdistinctiveideologywhichguidesitslifeandgovernmentadministration,“promotingIslamasthestatereligionandmonarchicalruleasthesolegoverningsystem,upholdingtherightsandprivilegesoftheBruneiMalayrace”(U.SDepartmentofState,2008).ApartfromtheShari’a(Islamiclaw),applicableonlytoMuslimsinthecaseofdivorce,inheritanceorsexualcrimes(immoralactivitiessuchasadultery,closeproximitybetweensexesinsecludedareas,orillicitsexresultinginunlawfulpregnancy),BruneianjudicialsystempracticestheSecularlaw,originatingfromEnglishcommonlaw(U.SDepartmentofState,2008).MeanwhileinBrunei,theBruneigovernmentalsoprohibitsthesaleofalcohol.
Intermofeconomicdevelopment,Brunei’smainexportsincludecrudeoil,liquefiednaturalgasandpetroleumproducts,withpercapitagrossdomesticproduct(GDP)overUS$36,000(InternationalMonetaryFund,2009).Bruneigovernmentisalsokeentodiversifyitseconomythroughvariousaspects,particularlybystrengtheningitstourismandbankingsectors.Followingthis,Bruneihasavisioninhumanresourcesbuilding;itfocusesonareassuchasICTliteracyandfullICTintegrationineducation,skilledtrainingtowardsasustainableandqualifiedICTgenerationandtheelectronicgovernmentrealization(BruneiPress,n.d.)
While,TelekomBruneiBerhad(TelBru),DSTCommunications(DSTCom)andProgresifarethethreeleadingtelecommunicationsserviceprovidersinBrunei.In2007,theapproximatetotalnumberofInternetusersinBruneiwas45percentor180,000(U.SDepartmentofState,2008).Bruneianscanopttousebroadband,wireless,third-generation(3G)mobileordial-upInternetconnections.Accordingtothe2007SoutheastAsiaMobileCommunicationsandMobileDatareport(citedinPrice2008),Brunei’smobilepenetrationrateisoneofthehighestinSouth-eastAsia,atabout114percent.Establishedin2003,theAuthorityforInfo-communicationsTechnologyIndustry(AITI)isastatutorybodyresponsiblefortelecommunicationsandradiocommunicationsregulationandICTindustrydevelopment(AITIBrunei,n.d.).AITIandtheAttorney-General’sChambershavealsobeenappointedin2006toadviseInternetserviceproviders,whoareassumedtomonitoranycontentcontrarytopublicinterest,nationalharmony,socialmorals,traditionalandIslamicvaluesthroughitsnationalMalayIslamicMonarchyideology.(U.SDepartmentofState,2008).
TheBruneianvalues,attitudesandgeneralbehaviourarecommonlyinfluencedbytheMalayIslamicMonarchy,thecountry’sdistinctiveideology.Thetraditionalsocio-culturalvaluesandattitudesarehistoricallyshapedbytheBruneianidentity,beingaMalay(orChineseandotherindigenousethnics),andMuslim(orBuddhist,Christianor‘Free-thinker’)undertheSultanate’sMonarchy.Some
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ofthesevaluesandattitudesincluderespectfortheelderly,goodmanners,honesty,trustworthiness,hardworkandobediencetoreligiouspracticesandobligationstoAllah(BruneiPress,n.d.).
MeTHoDS
Thissectionfocusesontherelevanceoftheseresearchstrategiestoachievetheresearchobjective.It includesadescriptionof thesamplingprocedureanddataanalysis techniquesusedduringthestudy.Thesectionlaterconcludeswiththejustificationsforthetriangulationofmethods.ThestudyexploredhowBruneianteenagersuse(domesticate)theirmobilephones,includingtheirmotivationsorfrustrationsinusingtheirmobilephones.Teachersandparentswereincludedinthisstudytoenabletheresearchertoinvestigateandunderstandtheirperspectivesonteenagers’useofmobilephonesinpublicplaces(schools)andinprivatespaces(homes).Atotalof143Bruneianteenagersbetweentheagesof13and19,involvingmalesandfemales,acrossthecountrywererecruited.Itisconveniencesamplingtechniquebyselectingparticipantsbecauseofeaseoftheirvolunteering,theiravailabilityandeasyaccess.The studydeployedconvenience samplingbecausegeographicallybetween thestatesinBruneiisincloseproximity.Theteenagersareeasytoreachandeasyforresearcherstocontactand,therefore,convenientinourresearch.Inaddition,conveniencesamplingoffersspeedatwhichdatacanbecollectedandcontactindividualsthatarerandomlyselectedtobeapartofthefocusgroupandin-depthstudy.TheteenagerswereselectedbecausetheyrepresentedthelargestpercentageoftheBruneipopulationandalsobecausetheyownedmobilephones(Salim,2008;Han,2009).Furthermore,theteenageyearsrepresentedanimportanttransitionperiodbetweenchildhoodandadulthood(Richter,2006).Thisprovidedanopportunityfortheteenagerstobeheard,tonarratehowtheynegotiatedtheirexperienceswithmobilephonesindividuallyorcollectively,whichcouldbedifferentfromtheadults(Kaufmanetal.,2002;Green&Hill,2005).Focusgroupsandin-depthinterviewswereusedinthisstudytoinvestigatetheBruneianteenagers’useofmobilephonesandthe implicationsofusingmobilephones.Wedividedparticipants intosomegroupswithsimilareducationalbackgroundsandgenderstohelpthemshareideasmoreeasily.Thesessioneachgroupwasnotlastmorethanaroundtwohourstoavoidparticipantsbecometiredandloseinterestafterthattime.Questionswereopen-endedtoallowparticipantsgoodscopefordiscussion.Thegroupstartedwithintroductoryquestionsthataddressthegeneraltopic.Themoderatorposedquestionsthatmovefromthegeneraltothespecific.Then,endingquestionswereusedtogettheparticipantstosummarizetheiropinions.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIoN
ThissectionpresentstheresultsoffocusgroupdiscussionswithBruneianteenagers.Itillustratestheprocessesthroughwhichtheteenagersdecidetoappropriateorrejectmobilephones,theteenagers’mobilephoneusagepatterns,rulesandregulationsformobilephoneuse,andimplicationsofmobilephonesintheeverydaylivesoftheteenagers.Theinterviewquestionsexploredissuessuchaswhentheteenagersfirstownedtheirmobilephones,thenumberofmobilephonestheyowned,howandwhytheyadoptedorrejectedmobilephones,thesignificantfactorsinvolvedinthisprocess,howtheyusedmobilephones(e.g.athome,inschool),aswellaswhattheyperceivedastheimplicationsofusingmobilephonesintheBruneiancontext?
Mobile Phone ownership: Adopters and UsersThediscussionsshowedthat127ofthe143Bruneianteenagerswhoparticipatedinthefocusgroupssaidtheyownedmobilephones.Theyalsosaidtheirparentsboughtthemobilephonesforthemormadethedecisionwhetherornottheyshouldhavemobilephones.In2001,thewidespreaduseofmobilephonesinBruneihadbegunandastheyearspassed,thepricesofmobilephonesstartedtodrop.Consequently,itwasnotsurprisingtonotetheprevalentuseofmobilephonesbytheteenagers.
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InBrunei,parentshavethreeoptionswhentheybuymobilephones.Theycandosobycash,bycreditorthroughacustomerproductloan.
Whentheteenagerswereaskedwhentheyfirstownedtheirmobilephones,ingeneral,thoseteenagerswhoownedmobilephonesreportedtheyacquiredtheirfirstmobilephonesattheageof11or12or13,specificallybetweenYear6andYear7ofschool.InBrunei,astudentcouldbe11,12or13yearsoldinYear6or7,dependingontheage(i.e.,3or4yearsold)whentheyfirststartschool.However,therewere10teenagerswhosaidtheyfirstownedtheirmobilephonesattheageof10orless,betweenYear3andYear5ofschool.ThesefindingsindicatethatBruneianparentshavenoobjectiontobuyingmobilephonesfortheirchildren.Thediscussionsrevealedthatinthepasttwotoeightyears,theteenagerswhoparticipatedinthefocusgroupsownedatleastoneormoremobilephones.Morethanhalf(127)ofthestudentssaidtheyownedtheirthirdorfifthmobilephone.Theysaidthiswasbecausetheyhadexperiencedaseriesof‘broken’mobilephones(astheyrefertoit;e.g.keypadandscreenfaults,cameraglitch,switchbuttonproblem).Thereweresomeotherteenagerswhoadmittedthat,owingtotechnologicaldevelopmentsandboredom,newmobilephonemodelsinthemarketseemtoattracttheirattentionbecausethenewmodelswere‘advanced,’‘attractive,’‘fun’and‘cooler.’Thisraisesanimportantquestionabouthowtheteenagersactuallyusetheirmobilephones.
ThestudyrevealedthatowingmobilephonesforteenagersareconsideredasappropriatesinceBruneianparentshavenoobjectiontobuyingmobilephonesfortheirchildren.Thus,appropriationcanbecomedependentontheindividualswhoultimatelymakethedecisiontoacquiremobilephones.
Factors Contributing to Mobile Phone Adoption and UseWhenaskedhowandwhytheyadoptedmobilephones,theysaidtheyweregiventheirmobilephonesbecausethephoneswereincorporatedwithpracticalbenefitssuchas:convenience,transportmicro-coordination(literallypermitsthemtoorganizetheirdailyactivities,particularlyintermsoftransportarrangementstoandfromschool),safetyandemergency,giftsforgoodacademicperformance,asbirthdaygifts,asgiveawaysfornoparticularreason,peerpressure,andsomethinginheritedfromsiblingsorhandedover.Conversion,astheoppositeofappropriation,isaprocesswheretechnologies(meanings and uses) are converted or re-enter the public (outside) from the private (domestic)sphere.Mobilephonesconversamessageoftenwithanobjectiveofshapingasocialstatusorsocialperceptiontotheoutsideworld.
Domesticationinthatregarduncoversthemeaningsandpracticesofmobilephonesbyteenagers,thepatternsofspaceandtime,aswellasthewidersocialnetworks.Domesticationtheorythereforeisausefultounderstandauser’sacceptanceofmobilephones.Domesticationbecomesthecentralframeworkofthisresearch.Mobilephonesasamediaanditscontentsareobjectifiedintheindividual’sgrouporhouseholddiscussion.Green(2002,p.45)referstothisasthepracticeoflocatingmobilephoneinaspecifieddomesticspaceorenvironment,involvingrearrangementsofotherobjects.Inaddition,theincorporationphaseofdomesticationlooksathowthemobilephonesareappropriatelyadjustedtoteenagers’everydaylifeandroutines.
Different Contexts of Mobile Phone UseThereareseveraltypesofusesidentifiedbytheteenagers.Theseareclassifiedintofourcategories:social networking; entertainment and personal; communication; and education. This study alsoidentifiedhowteenagersusetheirmobilephonesathome,atschoolandinotherpublicplaces.
Whenaskedtoexplainhowtheyusetheirmobilephones,theteenagerssaidtheirmajorusewastoaccessthesocialnetworkingsite,‘Facebook’&WhatsApp.Theyalsomentioned‘Twitter’buttheyuse‘Facebook’or‘WhatsApp’morefrequently.Morethanhalfoftheteenagerssaidtheywereactivesocialnetworkingwhoconstantlyconnect,chatorexchangemessageswiththeirfriends,partnersandfamilies.Inanotherfocusgroupdiscussion,ateenageboy(School2,StudentGroup1)reported
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thatanearlymorningroutinewastoaccesshissocialnetworkingaccount:tochat,checkandreplyinboxmessages.Accordingtohim,thesesocialnetworkingactivitieskeephimawakeandenergetic.
AnotherpopularuseofmobilephonesidentifiedbyBruneianteenagerswhoparticipatedinthefocusgroupswasentertainment.Thestudents frequentlymentionedplayinggamesand listeningtomusicastwoofthemostcommonusesoftheirmobilephones.Often,theteenagerssaidtheydownloaded their favorite music or MP3 (Media Player 3) songs to their mobile phones. Thesedownloadedsongswerethensettothemobilephone’sringtonesormessagetones.Theteenagersalsodownloadedmobilegames,commonly‘Tibia’,wheretheycanplayaswellaschatwithothergameplayers.Otherdownloadableitemsweremobilethemes(fortheirmobilephonedisplayimages)suchasimagesoffavoriteartistesoridolsandimagesoftheirhobbies(e.g.cars,scenes,cartoons).Additionally,theteenagerssaidtheywerealsointerestedinbrowsingtheInternetthroughtheirmobilephonesforleisureactivitiessuchasYouTube-ing,watchingmusicvideo,andsearchingforrecentnews,sports,hobbies,dramaandfavoriteartists.
Although the teenagers used their mobile phones for accessing social networking and forentertainmentpurposes,theyalsodescribedthefunctionaluseoftheirmobilephonesasalarmclocks,organizers,remindersandasadevicetorecordmemoriesbytakingpicturesandvideos.Althoughtheteenagersusedmobilephonesasremindersororganizers, itdidnottranslateintoaction,nordiditnecessarilyresultintoapositiveoutcome.Inanotherfocusgroupdiscussion,threeteenagersexplainedthattheyusedtheirmobilephonesastheir‘watches’.
Mobilephoneswerealsocommonlyusedby the teenagers for interpersonalcommunicationpurposes.Theteenagerssaidthemobilephonesenabledthemto‘contact’theirnetworks,particularlyviaWhatsAppCallortexting,regardlessoftime,spaceandlocation.Thestatementsdemonstratethattheteenagerswere‘selective’whentheymakeorreceivecallsandwhentheysendorreplytotextmessages,dependingonthecircumstances.Thesituationsincludeurgentmatters,ifthepersonistheirpartner,parentsorfriendsanditcouldalsobeseasonal(e.g.duringschoolholidays,eventsandexaminationsorannouncementofresults).
Whentheteenagerswereaskedwhoboughtthemobileprepaidcredits, theysaidrepeatedly‘mum’,‘dad’and‘parents’.Thediscussionsshowedthattheteenagersweremostlydependentontheirparentsfortheirphonecredits.Buttheteenagersalsosaidthat,sometimes,theywouldbuytheirmobilecreditsthroughtheirownpocketmoneyorallowances,oftenmeantfordailymealsatschool.Theteenagerssaidthatincertainsituations,theirparentsgivethemafixed‘mobilecredit’budgeteverymonth.Asaresult,whentheyrunoutofcredit,theysaidtheirmobilephonescouldbecomeuselesstothem.Thisrevelationdemonstratesthatwhentheteenagersaredesperate,theycoulduse theirparents’mobilephones (even friends’mobilephones, as shownbelow) for theircommunicationpurposes.
Anotheruseofmobilephoneswas toaccess the Internet for thepurposeof schoolworkorinformation search. Though rarely mentioned throughout the discussions, this pattern of mobilephoneusewasparticularlyobviousamongteenagerswhosaidtheydidnothaveanyothermeansofaccessingtheInternetexceptwiththeuseoftheirmobilephones.Theappropriateuseofmobilephonesforthepurposeofeducation,asanalternativelearningtoolatschool,shouldbeencouraged.
DISCUSSIoN
Indomesticationtheory,informationandcommunicationtechnologies(ICTs)areinvolvedineveryaspectofthefollowingfourprocesses:appropriation,objectification,incorporationandconversion(Silverstone,HirschandMorley,1994,p.21;Figure1).Theseprocessesofdomesticationinvestigatetheintegrationofnewtechnologiesintotheeverydaylifeofanindividualorgroupofindividuals:fromthemomentthetechnologiesareappropriatedintotheprivatespacefromthepublicsphere,to themomentwhere the technologies’meaningsandpractices are continuously renegotiated intheprocess,orre-entersthepublicspherefromtheprivatespace.Green(2002,p.43)arguesthat
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thedomesticationprocessisamulti-stageprocesswhere“astechnologyisdomesticatedwithinthehousehold,thehouseholdiscorrespondinglytechnologized”.Detailsofeachoftheseprocessesareelaboratedinsubsequentparagraphs.
InrelationtotheadoptionofmobilephonesbyBruneianteenagers,thisstudyfoundthatoneoftheimportantfactorsthatfacilitateorhindertheuseofmobilephoneswastheteenagers’parentsandtheirattitudestowardmobilephones.Thisstudyfoundthatparentscreatedtheirownmeaningsofmobilephones(e.g.asnecessities,astrends,asgifts)andhowaccess(suchasaffordability)andperceivedusefulness(suchasforconvenienceincommunication,safetyandemergency)wereequallycrucial to mobile phone adoption. This conforms to the appropriation process of domesticatingtechnologieswhere,accordingtoPierson(2006),theindividuals’creativeoracceptedmeaningsofthetechnologiesaswellasaccessandperceivedusefulnessofthetechnologiesarecrucialbeforeanyappropriationcanoccur.
Nevertheless,whilemostparentssaidtheyhadnoobjectiontobuyingmobilephonesfortheirchildren, someothers said theywouldnotallow theirchildren toownmobilephones.Thus, theownershipofmobilephonethereforedependsontheindividualparentwhoultimatelymakesthedecisionwhetherornottoallowtheirchildrentoadoptoruseatechnology(Green,2002).However,whiledomesticationtheoryarguesthispoint,theappropriationofmobilephonescanalsobedependentonotherindividuals,suchasan‘aunt’inthecaseofoneteenagerinthisstudy.Thisfindingissomewhatsimilartopreviousstudies(e.g.Hijazi-Omari&Ribak,2008)inwhichitwasreportedin2003thatPalestiniangirlsinIsraelownedmobilephonesasasymbolof‘havingaboyfriend’orasasignofaromanticrelationship.Thus,theappropriationofmobilephoneswassignificantlydependentonthePalestiniangirls’‘partner’or‘boyfriend’,notontheirparentsorthemselves.Thissituationwasparticularlyinevitableduetotheconservative,strictMuslimparentswhocontrolledtheirdaughters’behaviour,aswellaswhorejectedandperceivedthemobilephoneasatechnologythatcancauseliberalizationeffects.InBrunei,therearealsostrictMuslimparents.However,thisstudyfoundthatamajorityoftheparents,regardlessoftheirracialorreligiousbackground,allowedtheirteenagechildrentoownmobilephonesdespitetheirconcernsoverthenegativeinfluencethatmobilephonesmighthaveonthechildren.Amajorityofparentsinthisstudyreportedthattheytrustedtheirteenagechildrentousetheirmobilephonesinappropriateandresponsibleways.
Appropriationimpliestheprocesswhereanobjectortechnologyisacquiredandappropriateduponownershipandusebyanindividualorthehousehold.Itinvolvestheindividual’sdecisiontoadoptornottoadoptthetechnology,fromthepublic(outside)totheprivate(domestic)sphere(Green,
Figure 1. Mobile phone usage in domestication theory
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2002)orthatformaltomoraleconomytransferwherecommodityturnsintoobject(Silverstone,1994,p.22).Through‘commodification’,ICTsobtaintheirpublicmeanings,thematerialandsymbolicmeaningsfromrelevantindustriesandcommercialnetworks.TheseinturndependontheindividualwhowillsimilarlyconstructtheirowncreativeICTmeaningsbut‘access’tothenewtechnologiesandtheirperceivedusefulnessarealsocrucialbeforeanyappropriationcanoccur(Pierson,2006,p.211).HynessandRommes(2006,p.128)arguethatappropriationcanonlyoccurwhenindividualshaveacceptedthepublicmeaningsofthenewtechnologiesandtransformedthemintotheirownobjectsofdesire(ornon-desirable),whichsometranslateintothedecisiontoappropriatewhilesomedon’tseetherelevancetotheirlives.Appropriationthuscanbecomedependentontheindividualswhoultimatelymakethedecisiontoacquirethenewtechnologies.
Haddon(2006)furtherdescribeshowdomesticationprocesseshaveinfactalsoincludedthemomentevenbeforetechnologygetsappropriated,whereprimarydiscussionoccursaboutthedecisiontoacquirethetechnologyornot.ThisperspectivefundamentallyexaminesthechangingrelationshipsoftheindividualwithICTinthelongrun.Domesticationinthatregardisanon-goingprocess,notjustaone-offevent(Haddon,2006).Itisatheoreticalframeworkthatuncoversthemeaningsandpracticesoftechnologybyindividuals,thepatternsofspaceandtime,aswellasthewidersocialnetworks.Domesticationtheorythereforeisauseful,non-lineartheoreticalframeworktounderstandanindividual’sacceptance,usageorrejectionofICTs.
Anothervaluabledimensionofdomestication is that it recognizes technologynot justasanobjectbeingsymbolizedbutalsoasamediathatcarrieswithitfunctionalvalues,rolesandmeanings.Technologiesarethus‘doublyarticulated’(SilverstoneandHirsch,1994)carryingpublicmeaningsintotheprivaterealmofthehousehold(Hartmann,2006).Thisimpliesacomplexmeaning-makingprocesswhenconsumingtechnologies.Itisthusimportanttonotethatthetypeofresearchmethodsadoptedshouldbecriticallyjustifiedinordertoinvestigatethiscomplexityoftechnologyormediaintermsofbothcontentandcontext.Forexample,whilequantitativeresearchprovidesusefuldevelopmentandbehaviortrends,qualitativeresearchstudiesrevealevenvaluableor‘differentiated’information(Hartmann, 2006). An analysis of these issues has been presented in the research methodologysection.Thus,insupporttoGreen’s(2002)argument,thisstudyalsodemonstratesthatinamulti-stageprocessofdomestication,notonlythehouseholdorhomeistechnologisedortechnologicallyaffected,buttheinstitutionssuchastheschoolswasalsotechnologisedortechnologicallyaffected.
Symbol of StatusInrelationtotheimplicationsofmobilephoneuseforcommunicationpurposes,thisstudyisalsoinagreementwithearlierstudies(Geser,2006;Oksman&Rautiainen,2002;Ling&Yttri,2002;Kasesniemi&Rautiainen,2002;Yoon,2003;Hijazi-Omari&Ribak,2008)whichfoundthatmobilephoneshelped tostrengthen,maintainandextendsocialandromantic relationships. Indeed, thisparticularfindingisconsistentwithBonevaetal.’s(2006)study,whichfoundthatmobilephonesallowedaprivateandpersonalspacetosocialiseintheconfinementofpeople’sowntime.Thisstudyfoundthatwhile the teenagersused theirmobilephoneswhereverandwheneverathome,eitherinthefamilyroom,orinfrontoftheirparents,however,somefemaleteenagerssaidtheywouldbemorecomfortableusing theirmobilephones in theirownspace, forexample, theirbedroom,oranywherebeyondtheirparents’knowledge.Thishighlightshowsimilaryoungpeopleusetheirmobilephonesforemancipation,tocommunicatewithpeerswithoutparents’knowledgeorcontrol(Green,2001;Skog,2002;Ling,2004;Taylor&Harper,2002;Oksman&Rautiainen,2003;Miyaki,2005;Ito,2005;Ling&Yttri,2006;Ibahrine,2008;Hijazi-Omari&Ribak,2008;Karim,etal.,2010;Kumjonmenukul,2011).SimilartoIto(2005),likeJapaneseparents,Bruneianparentsdonotallowromanticrelationshipsamongschoolchildren,althoughsomeparentsdo.Butmobilephonesprovidethemeanstocommunicatebetweenpartners,withouttheirparentsorsiblingsmonitoring.
Overall,thisstudyvalidatestheusefulnessofdomesticationtheoryasatheoreticalapproachforunderstandingthecomplexityofeverydaylifeandtechnology’splacewithinitsdynamics,rituals,
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rules,routinesandpatterns(Berkeretal.,2006,p.1).However,thisstudyalsocorroborateswiththefindingsofHartmann(2006)andWard(2006),whereinnegotiatingtechnologicaluseornon-use,itisoftennotwithoutproblemsorchallenges.TheresultsofthisstudyalsopointtowhatSilverstone’s(citedinLally,2000)andHaddon(2004)described,thatdomesticationasaprocessinvolvesmakingtechnology,inthiscasethemobilephones,ontheteenagers’ownruleorpower.Asevidenced,.someteenagers,particularlyamongboyswhoadmittedhowtheyusemobilephonestowatch,distributeandrecordsexuallyexplicitcontents,thusmakingtechnologytotheirownrules(needsordesires)orpower(abilities)whichcontradictstheirreligiousbeliefsandpractices.However,incontrast,thisnegotiationdoesnotnecessarilysignifytheteenagers’identitiesastheyclaimedthattheyarestillBruneianMalaysandMuslims.Theresultsthusrevealedthattheimplicationsofmobilephoneusehavethuschallengedtheteenagers’ownsocial-culturalvaluesandreligiousbeliefsandpractices.Domesticationisindeedauser-centredconceptusedtofocusonBruneianteenagersinthisstudyandtheiruseofmobilephonesathomeandatschool.ThissupportsBakardjieva’s(2006)andSilverstone’s(2006)arguments.
Whilethisstudyconfirmspreviousfindingsintheliteratureondomesticationtheoryintermsofhowthemobilephoneasatechnologyrepresentsteenagers’status,incertaincases,someteenagerssaidmobilephoneswasnotnecessarilyassociatedwithone’sstatus.Forexample,urbanteenagersreported how there could be many factors that must be considered before making assumptionsaboutone’sstatussuchaswhattheywear,includingwhereorhowtheyboughtthemobilephones.Thisstudyalsocontradictsintermsofhowdomesticationisplacingtechnologysuchasthemobilephonesintoritualsandroutines,becauseinthisstudy,theteenagersalsousedtheirmobilephonesinunconventionalwayssuchastheuseofSMSmessagesinshortabbreviations,with‘emoticons’oremotions,theuseofmobilephonesaswatchesandalsotheuseofmobilephonesformakingmisscallsassociatedwithcodes.
CoNCLUSIoN
The theoretical frameworks of this thesis is domestication, which focuses on understanding thecomplexityofteenagersandtheiruseofmobilephones,aswellastheirinteractionsandnegotiationsbetweenthem,particularlywithinthewidersocialnetworks(SilverstoneandHirsch,1994;Haddon,2004).ThefindingsofthisstudyextendpriorresearchintotheseareasthroughanunderstandingoftheusesofmobilephonesbyBruneianteenagersinaMalay,Islamicsociety.Thefindingsofthisstudyhaveanumberofimportantimplicationsforthetheoreticalframeworksofdomestication.Theresultsofthisstudyprovideanewunderstandingoftheindividualsinvolvedinmakingtheultimatedecisiontoadoptornottoadopttechnologyforyoungpeople.ThisstudyhasshownthatintheprocessofdomesticatingmobilephonesbyBruneianteenagers,theuseofthetechnologybytheteenagersdependsontheparents’willingnesstopermittheteenagerstoownandadoptmobilephones.
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Muhammad Dayani Anshari is a researcher and lecturer. He received his BMIS (Hons) from International Islamic University Malaysia, his Master of IT (E-Business) from James Cook University Australia, and his PhD program from Universiti Brunei Darussalam. His professional experience started when he was an IT Business Analyst at Astra International. He earned a Research Fellowship from The Government Republic of China (Taiwan) at National Taiwan University 2014 and a Research Fellowship from King Saud University The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia 2009. He was awarded Best Paper and Presenter Award International Conference on ASEAN Studies 2 (ICONAS2) at Chulalongkorn University Bangkok, Thailand in 2015. He won Best Paper and Presenter Award, ASEAN Graduate Business Economic Programs Doctoral Colloquium April 2013, at Gadjah Mada University Indonesia. He is a recipient of Graduate Research Scholarship PhD program at UBD.
Annie Dayani has served as a lecturer at the School of Business and Economics UBD since 2001. She graduated from UBD with a Bachelor of Business Administration. Under UBD study exchange program and earned a Diploma in European Management Science from University Kent, Canterbury, UK. Her Master’s Degree is in Applied Information Technology from Monash University Australia. In 2013, she completed her PhD in Communication Technology at University of Queensland, Australia. Her research interests include business and management, information systems and e-government as well as knowledge management.
Abdur Razzaq is senior lecturer and researcher at Universitas Islam Negeri Raden Fatah, Palembang - Indonesia. He is also active public speaker sharing his knowledge and expertise in social science, education and Area studies.
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