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Option Valuation
Copyright © 2000 – 2006Investment Analytics
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Agenda
Lattice methods of valuation
Binomial model
Black Scholes Model
Extensions to Black Scholes
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Why Valuation Models?
Pricing / Trading Only know terminal payoff value
Need to know interim value
Risk Management
A model will tell us how sensitive a
derivative is to changes in market factors
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Option Pricing
Option payoff depends on stock price Need to model stock prices
Binomial models
Continuous time models
Option values depend on stock volatility
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Binomial Model
Looks at stock price movement oversmall periods of time ∆t
Start with one period, ∆t = 1 It turns out quite easy to determine option
price in this case
Then many periods Ultimately we can model infinite number of
up/down movements
This is continuous time
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Binomial Price Tree
Usual to assume u > 1 > d
S
Su
Sd
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One-Period Model Example
S = 100, u = 2, d = 0.5 Su = 200
Sd = 50
Interest rate: 10% Bond price 100 today, 110 in one period
Suppose call strike price is 100 What is price of call option?
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One-Period Model
At Su Stock worth 200
Option pays 100
Bond worth 110
At Sd
Stock worth 50 Option worth 0
Bond worth 110
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One-Period Model
Up Down
Stock 200 50
Bond 110 110Call 100 0
But look at a portfolio of 0.6667 stocks and -0.30303bonds: produces the same payoff as the call!
UP: (0.6667*200) - (0.30303*110) = 100
Down:(0.6667*50) - (0.30303*110) = 0
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Replication The payoff of the call can be replicated
Using the stock and the bond, combined in a portfolio
The call and the portfolio must be worth the same Because they have the same payoff
So we know the value of the call! Because we know the value of the replicating portfolio
In this case: C = (100*0.6667) - (0.30303*100) = $36.37
This tells us 2 things: How to price the call
How to “create” the call if it didn’t exist
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Replication - General Formula
In general, need to solve: Cu = max{Su-X, 0} = nSu + m B(1 + rf )
Cd =max{Sd-X,0} = nSd + m B(1 + rf ) B(1 + rf ) = value of bond at end of period
n = # stocks, m = #bonds
Solution: n = (Cu-Cd)/(Su-Sd) is also called the delta of the option, will see it again
m = [SuCd
- SdCu]
/[B(1 + rf
) (Su-Sd)]
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Risk Neutral Valuation
Define π = (1 + rf ) - du - d
ThenS = πSu + (1- π)Sd
(1 + rf )
C = πCu + (1- π)Cd
(1 + rf )
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Risk Neutral Probability
Interpretation: π is the risk-neutral probability
S is the NPV of ‘expected’ future stock cash flows
C is the NPV of ‘expected’ future option cash flows
Risk-Neutral:
Expected future cash flows are discounted usingthe risk-free rate: DF = 1 / (1 + rf )
This is true in a risk-neutral world, where there is nopremium for risk
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Two Period Model
S
Suu
Sdd
Su
Sd
Sud
Extension of replication idea:
Must replicatedynamically
Work backwards
Solve asequence of 1-period problems
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Delta Hedging
We know how to value options Next: how to manage risk
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Option Value & Stock Prices
Option value changes as stock moves: Up move: call value increases, put value falls
Down move: put value increases, call value falls
Delta measures sensitivity of option price tostock movements:
Delta = (Change in option price)(Change in stock price)
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Rebalancing
Option deltas change as stock price moves So, position deltas change too
Need to rebalance portfolio periodically to
keep it delta neutral Example: Long 10 calls, delta = 5
Hedge this position by selling 5 stocks
Now stock move up, and call delta increases to 0.6
Position delta is (10x0.6) - 5 = 1
Need to sell another stock to rebalance to deltaneutral
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Delta Hedging: General Case
Idea: Replicate an option positionusing stock and bonds
Suppose we have 1 call and sell δ stock
Need to solve:
- Su + Cu = Br
- Sd + Cd = Br
Then δ = (Cu - Cd) / (Su - Sd)
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The Black-Scholes Model
Can be viewed as limit of the binomial model What happens as the time interval between
up/down movements goes to zero.
Take a time period t, divide it into n intervals
Let σ = volatility of the stock
u = exp{σ√t/n}, d = 1/u
This value ensures process has correct volatility σ
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Black-Scholes Model In limit, stock price process has the following
properties:
a) returns are normally distributed
b) returns over different periods are independent c) stock prices over any interval are log-normally
distributed
Formally, can be represented by a continuoustime stochastic process
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Continuous Time
Random Walk Model
Stochastic Differential Equation
S is stock price
µ is drift factor
σ is stock volatility
X is Weiner Process X = ε(δt)1/2
ε is standardized Normal random variate
dX dt S
dSσ µ +=
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Black-Scholes Equation
Consider delta-hedged option portfolio Must grow at risk free rate, else arbitrage
Leads to following relationship:
rV S
V rS
S
V S
t
V =
∂
∂+
∂
∂+
∂
∂2
222
2
1σ
DeltaGamma
Theta
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Black-Scholes Option Pricing
Solution of Black-Scholes equation:
t d d
t
t r X S
d
d SN d N XeP
d N Xed SN C
rt
rt
√−=
√
++
=
−−−=
−=−
−
σ
σ
σ
12
2
1
12
21
)2 / () / ln(
)()(
)()(
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Properties of the Model
Call prices increase with S, r Put prices decrease S, r
Both prices increase with volatility Value depends on time to maturity
Called time decay
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Application
IBM Options S = 107 1/2, strike = 105, Call option
Expiration:
Sat after third Fri = July 20
0.137 years
Int rate: use 6.15% Volatility 30%
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Option Calculator – Pricing
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Implied Volatility
Use quoted option price to back out volatility Using Newton-Raphson or other iterative method
Volatility estimate implicit in option price
Assuming Black-Scholes model used
Market’s estimate of future volatility Over the life of the option
May be higher or lower than historical volatility
Option “prices” often quoted in terms of implied
volatility
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Application: Implied Volatility
Sun Microsystems Options S = 104, strike = 95
Option price $11.5
Expiration (Aug options): 0.08 years
Int rate: 6.15%
Implied Volatility: 53.29%
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Option Calculator - Implied Vol
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Black-Scholes Assumptions
Returns are normally distributed
In reality return distributions are non-Normal
Can modify model to accommodate other forms of
distribution (Student T, Pareto-Levy) Zero transaction costs
Bid-Offer spreads and other costs can be factored in
Volatility is static In fact volatility is stochastic
Use GARCH & other stochastic volatility models
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Limitations of Black Scholes
Stocks Cannot handle dividends
American options
Options on Futures Assumes underlying is deliverable today
Foreign exchange
Two assets both paying “dividend” Domestic and foreign risk free rate
Bonds Bonds prices are constrained, unlike stocks
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Validity of Black-Scholes Model
Can be extended quite easily Asset classes
Dividends
Foreign Exchange
Futures
More realistic assumptions E.g. stochastic volatility
Vanilla model is a benchmark May not use it to value options, but use for
reference quotes
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Extensions of Black Scholes
Index Options Options on e.g. the S&P500
European options, but with dividends
Merton’s model
Extension of Black Scholes
Underlying asset pays continuous dividends
Good approximation for S&P500
not as good for smaller indices
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Merton’s Model
q: dividend yield
Futures: q = r
Currencies q = foreign interest rate
t d d
t t qr X Sd
d N Sed N XeP
d N Xed N SeC
rt rt
rt qt
σ
σ σ
−=
+−+=
−−−=
−=
−−
−−
12
2
1
12
21
)2() / ln(
)()(
)()(
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Application to Index Options
S&P500 Index 1368.36 Yield: 2%
June options (mature June 22) t = 0.06
Risk free rate: 6.15%
1375 call priced at 45.25
Option trading at implied vol. of 34.46%
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Option Calculator:S&P500 Index Options
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Foreign Exchange Options
Garman-Kohlhagen model Identical to Merton’s model
q is foreign risk free rate
Holding cost
h = r - q
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Black’s Model Simple extension of Black-Scholes
Originally developed for commodity futures Used to value caps and floors
Let F = forward price, X = strike price Value of call option:
t d d
t
t X F d
d XN d FN eC rt
√−=
√+=
−= −
σ
σ
σ
12
2
1
21
)2 / () / ln(
)]()([
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Application to Caps
Example: 1-year cap NP = notional principal
R j = reference rate at reset period j
R x = strike rate Then, get NP x Max{R j - R x,0} in arrears
But this is an option on R j, not F j Use F j as an estimator of R j and apply Black’s
model to F j Previously was a forward price, now a forward rate
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Black’s Model for Caps Payments: NP x Max{R
j
- R x
,0} in arrears
These are a series of options:
One for each R j , the future spot interest rate
Called caplets Let F j = forward rate from j to j+1
Value of caplet j:
Discount by (1+ F j) as paid in arrears
C = NP x e-rt[F jN(d1) - R xN(d2)] / (1 + F j)
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Black’s Model - Example
8% cap on 3-m LIBOR (R x = Strike = 8%) Capped for period of 3m, in 1-year’s time
f = 1-year forward rate for 3m LIBOR is 7%
R f = 1-year spot rate is 6.5%
Yield volatility is 20% pa
See Excel workbook Black’s Model - Example Spreadsheet
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Black’s Model - Example
C = BSOpt (8%, 1, 0, 7%, 20%, 6.5%, 0, 0, 0)
Holding Cost
Hcost = (R f -d) for stocks, 0 for Futures
Cap Premium = 0.00211
Convert to %: C% = C x t / (1 + F * t)
0.00211 x 0.25 x 1 / (1 + 7% x 0.25)
Cap Premium % = 0.0518% (5.18bp)
So cost of capping $1000,000 loan would be $518
Strike Term Fwd
Rate
VolHCostC/PRf
E/A
Bl k’ M d l E i l t
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Black’s Model - Equivalent
Formulation in Terms of Price
Cap = Put option on price Equivalent of call option on rate
Useful if know price volatility rather than yield vol.
F = 1 / (1 + f x t) is forward price F = 1 / (1 + 7% x 0.25) = 0.982801
X = 1/(1 + R x x t) is strike price X = 1 / (1 + 8% x 0.25) = 0.980392
Require price volatility Other parameters as before
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Black’s Model - Price Example
C = BSOpt (.980392, 1, 0, 0.982801, 0.3702%, 6.5%, 1, 0, 0)
Cap Premium % = 0.0518% (5.18bp) So cost of capping $1000,000 loan would be $518
NOTE:
Premium already expressed as % of FV This time we are price a put option
Strike TermFwd
Price
Vol
HCost
C/PRf E/A
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Limitations of Black’s Model
Problems: Unbiasedness: empirically false
Option on R j not same as option on F j Discount rate: fixed - but F j variable
Rates both stochastic and fixed!
If applied to prices the additional problem Assumes prices can be any positive number
But can’t exceed value of future cash flows
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Time Dependent Volatility
Black-Scholes still valid if σ is functionof time
Instead of σ, use: σ(t) =
Fit σ(t) to implied volatilities of options
of varying maturities
∫
t
d t 0
2)(1
τ τ σ
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Stochastic Volatility dσ = p(S, σ, t)dt + q(S, σ, t)dX
X is a Weiner process
Example: GARCH(1,1) model
{et}is a white noise process
Black-Scholes differential equation includesextra terms:
λ(S, s, t) is market price of volatility risk
222
1 t t t αε βσ ω σ ++=+
σ λ
∂∂− V
q p )(
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Volatility Smiles & Surfaces Implied volatilities of options with
different strikes varies Inconsistent with Black-Scholes
Implies volatilities of OTM options typicallygreater than ATM options
Smile: Plot IV vs. Strike Shows “smile” effect
Surface: Plot IV vs. Strike & Maturity
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Volatility Smile – Example
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Volatility Surface – Example
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Lab: YAHOO Construct implied volatility smile &
surface
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Solution: YAHOO
95
10 0
10 5
11 0
11 5 0.07
0.15
0.32
0.57
70 %
71 %
71 %
72 %
72 %
73 %
73 %
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Solution: YAHOO
95
10 0
10 5
11 0
11 5
0.07
0.15
0.32
0.57
70 %
71 %
71 %
72 %
72 %
73 %
73 %
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Non-Normal Models Significant skewness and excess
kurtosis in returns
Increases with sampling frequency
Skewness 0 for Normal distribution
Kurtosis
3 for Normal distribution
33 / ])[( σ µ τ −= X E
44 / ])[( σ µ κ −= X E
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MOT 5-Minute ReturnsMOT 5-Minute Returns
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
-2 . 0 0 %
-1 . 0 0 %
0 . 0 0 %
1 . 0 0 %
2 . 0 0 %
Kurtosis= 27.5
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Impact on Options
Option Valuation
ATM / OTM options undervalued
Volatility Curve
Volatility curve smiles & skews
Risk Measurment
VaR
Option Greeks
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Modeling Non-Normality
Extreme value distributions
Models maximum values
Normal mixture models
Simulate market jumps
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Extreme Value Distributions Extreme value M
n Mn = Max(X1, . . . , Xn)
Standardized: Y n = (Mn – µn) / σn
Generalized Extreme Value Distn
{ }{ }⎩⎨⎧ >+≠+− =−= −
−
0)1(,0)1(exp0exp)(
/ 1 yif y
if e yF
y
ξ ξ ξ ξ
ξ
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Extreme Value Distributions Gumbel: tail index ξ = 0
Positive skew
Exponential tails
Normal or Lognormal returns Weibull: tail index ξ = <0
Uniform density in returns
Frechet: tail index ξ = >0 Returns generated by GARCH, Student-t or stable
Pareto
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Gumbel DensityGumbel
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
- 1 .
0
- 0 .
6
- 0 .
2
0 .
2
0 .
6
1 .
0
1 .
4
1 .
8
2 .
2
2 .
6
3 .
0
3 .
4
3 .
8
4 .
2
4 .
6
5 .
0
5 .
4
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Normal Mixtures Weighted sum of two Normal processes
Low volatility
High volatility (“jumps”)
)()1()()( 21 y y yg φ ρ ρφ −+=
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Moments of Normal Mixture Mean
Weighted sum of means (zero)
Variance - weighted sum of variances
Skewness – zero
Kurtosis { }224 / 3 ∑∑ iiii σ ρ σ ρ
∑= 2ii M σ ρ σ
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Selecting Appropriate Mixtures Three parameters
ρ, σ1 and σ2
Need three equations to solve
Match variance, kurtosis and sixth momentof empirical distribution
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Applications Option Pricing
Using MCS
Value at Risk
Improves measure of tail risk
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Option Pricing with Kurtosis Kurtosis will affect option value if present
over life of option Hence typically more relevant to shorter dated
option
Option value is weighted sum of price undereach density in mixture
f(σi) is option price assuming normal distributionwith volatility σi
NB: NOT price at volatility of mixture distribution
)(...)( 11 nn f f P σ ρ σ ρ ++=
Option Pricing with
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Normal Mixture 45 day Call option
$105 strike, $100 stock
Normal mixture
Vol1 = 15%
Vol2 = 30%
Probability of jump = 0.5 “Expected” vol 22.5%
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Normal Mixture Example
0.0000
0.0200
0.0400
0.0600
0.0800
0.1000
0.1200
0.1400
80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 100 102 104 106 108 110 112 114 116 118
Strike
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Jump Diffusion Brownian Motion with jumps
Poisson process
dq = 0 with probability (1-λ)dt dq = 1 with probability λdt
λ is the inter-arrival time of jumps
dq J dX dt
S
dS)1( −++= σ µ
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Jump Diffusion ExampleJump Diffusion
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
0 .
0
0 .
9
1 .
7
2 .
6
3 .
5
4 .
3
5 .
2
6 .
0
6 .
9
7 .
8
8 .
6
9 .
5
1 0 .
3
1 1 .
2
1 2 .
1
1 2 .
9
1 3 .
8
1 4 .
6
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Ito with Jump Diffusion Hold portfolio
Option and –∆ of stock
Π =V(S,t) - ∆ S
If dq = 0 then ∆ = δ V/δS eliminates risk
If there is a jump the portfolio changes byan amount that cannot be hedged away
dqS J t SV t JSV dSS
V dt
S
V S
t
V d ))1(),(),((
2
12
222 −∆−−+⎟
⎠
⎞⎜⎝
⎛ ∆−∂∂
+⎟⎟ ⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛ ∂∂
+∂∂
=Π σ
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Pricing with Jump Diffusion Merton (1976):
if jump component is uncorrelated then jump risk should not be priced in
Since diversifiable Option value is weighted sum of n Black-
Scholes values
Weights are probability of n jumps
),;,()(
!
1
1
nn BS
nt
n
r t SV t e
n
σ λ λ ′′∞
=
∑ ])1[1( −+=′ J E λ λ
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Jump Diffusion Option Pricing
Jump Diffusion vs Black-Scholes
0.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
BS
JD
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Summary: Option Valuation Binomial
Option replication Black-Scholes
Limiting case of binomial
Simple extensions Merton
Black
More complex extensions Stochastic Volatility Extreme value
Jump models
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