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Aircraft Design :
Propulsion Systems
Olivier Leonard
University of Liege
Turbomachinery Group
October 2008
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Action - Reaction
Reaction: action which does not have initiative
Newtons law: action opposite reaction of same amplitude
action to be defined (easy for still bodies - less for mobiles)
Stone on a support : action and reaction are equal to the stones weight
Stone falling down : action and reaction depend upon the rate of decrease
of the stones velocity
Stone thrown away : action exerted on the stone reaction by the stone on the support
support may start moving
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Reaction
Application to aircraft propulsion :
action(initiative) exerted by a mobile (the engine) on the air (the support)
air (the support) moves due to the action
reactionexerted by the air on the engine
Action and reaction areindependentof the ease with which the body moves inthe medium
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Propulsion
Natural forces (wind, water stream, gravity, magnetic field, ...)provide movement
free and ecological but random and risky
Propulsion allows to moveindependently of natural forces
Propulsion may be produced
usingmuscles
usingsources of energy
(wood, coal, hydrocarbons, electricity, atoms, ...)
noisy, polluting, expensive but fast, reliable, isotropic
Propulsion is done by means of anaction on a support
support may be fixed or moving
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Propulsion
On theground: propulsion by friction forces
On thewater: floating is the first concern
propulsion by action on water :
rowing, paddle wheels, propellers, jet pumps...
In theair : lift is the first concern -musclesare not sufficient propulsion by action on air surrounding the engine :
piston engines and propellers
pulse jet engines
ramjet engines
gas turbine engines
rocket engines
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Airbreathing engines : historical perspectives
Lightness is the main quality of an engine steam machines never succeeded
Other qualities of an engine are reliability, easy maintenance, low drag,
efficiency
Reciprocating engines
Wrights engine, 1903 : 4 cylinders in-line, 90 kg, 12 Hp
In-line engineshave a low drag but must be cooled with liquid
drag of the heat exchangers
Rotary cylindersare naturally cooled but noisy, high oil and fuel
consumption, strange inertia effects and high centrifugal forces
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Airbreathing engines : historical perspectives
Radial engines do not need extra cooling
light, simple, robust, less vibrations but higher frontal area
The most successful configurations wereV12 cylindersand
radial 7 or 9 cylinders(one or several rows)
Many breakthroughs were issued for aircraft propulsion :
high-quality fuels, supercharging, cooled valves
During World War II power reached 2500 to 5000 Hp
At these speeds the cooling system was bringing too much drag
a technological limit was reached
another type of engine was needed
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Airbreathing engines : historical perspectives
Gas turbines engines
Steam cycles worked correctly since end of 19th century
Piston engines worked correctly since end of 19th century
Gas turbines work according to a continuous process
high temperatures are severely limited
the compression work is close to the available work
the success is much dependent on component efficiencies
Principles of gas turbines were known since 18th century
First modern gas turbine by Stolze, 1872 - no output power
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Airbreathing engines : historical perspectives
First jet engine byLorinin 1913 - a ramjet
First turbojet engine by Guillaume in 1921
At that time the flight speeds were too low
jet propuslion uneffective and rejected
Stodola and Brown-Boveri improve compressors in the 30ies immediatly
thespecific powerwas 3 times better than for reciprocating engines -
nowadays 20 times
The cycle efficiency was around 15% (30% for piston engines)
nowadays 40%
Patent of FrankWhittlein 1930 for a new turbojet
1st flight in England in 1941 with the Whittle W1 developed by Rolls
Royce and de Havilland
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Airbreathing engines : historical perspectives
von Ohainin Germany is supported by Heinkel 1st flight in august 1939 (4900 N, 361 kg)
Messerschmidt and Junkers build theJumo004
(8900 N, 750 kg) with cooled turbine blades - lifespan 25 hours
1st flight in USA in 1942 with a General Electric derived from Whittles
Since then most of the progress are due to advances in
materials, forging, casting, manufacturing
aerodynamics
combustion
dynamics of structures
control of systems
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Airbreathing engines : the pulse jet engine
Developed by the Germans for the V1 rocket
Auto-regulated intermittent cycle
No rotating parts, cheap and simple
Noisy and many vibrations
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Airbreathing engines : the ram jet engine
Invented by aFrench, developed by the Germans, improved by the
Americans : first successful flight in 1945
Needs a gas generator at low speeds and a variable geometry
Efficient at Mach 3+
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Airbreathing engines : the gas turbine engines
A continuous process allows very high mass flows
high power output
Gas turbine engines are based on agas generator:
core compressor + combustion chamber(s) + high pressure turbine
powering the compressor
Iso-p lines in the (T,s) plane show that there is some enthalpy left behind
the gas generator - existing engines differ by the propulsion system using
this residual enthalpy
The simplest configuration is a nozzle but cycle optimization induces
ejection velocities up to 2500 km/h
poor propulsive efficiency for most civil and military planes
A subsonic propeller is efficient up to 600 km/h
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Airbreathing engines : the gas turbine engines
There is a need for intermediate solutions !This is possible since thrust is proportional to mass flow and to gas V
Turbojet : simple nozzle
rather low mass flow rate but high output velocity
used for missiles, drones, Concorde or Lockheed SR71
often combined with reheat
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Airbreathing engines : the gas turbine engines
By-pass engine : part of the mass flow is by-passed after a LPcompressor or a wide singlestage fan
the ejection velocity and the noise are lowered
the propulsive efficiency is increased from high subsonic to medium
supersonic
compatible with higher mass flows
may be combined withreheat
this cold flux may generate up to 85% of the total thrust
the by-pass air may be released to atmosphere through a nozzle or
mixed with the core hot stream before ejection
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Airbreathing engines : the gas turbine engines
Turbopropeller : a subsonic propeller is powered through a gearbox by anadditional turbine section
almost no thrust is generated by the hot stream exhaust
the drag is lower than the drag of a piston engine
it is the most efficient solution for the low subsonic range
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Airbreathing engines : synthesis
Today aircraft propulsion is performed bygas turbinesRamjet is used only for the highest speeds or for missiles
Piston engines are now used only for the smallest planes
Gas turbine engines induced a real disruption
Action on air may be measured as an increase of its momentum theuseful poweris measured by the variation of the gas kinetic energy
Agas turbine engineis made up of
agas generatordelivering a high enthalpy mass flow
anozzleturning this enthalpy into kinetic energy
aturbinethat converts enthalpy into mechanical energy and drives a
fan or a propeller
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Thrust production process
Thrust= reaction force exerted by the fluid on the engine
Compressor blades and diffusers are the main sources of thrust
Combustion induces air expansion and a positive thrust
Turbine blades and nozzle induce a negative thrust
Uninstalled thrustis T = qm,9V9 qm,0V0+ (p9 p0)A9
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Airbreathing engines : performance
Gas turbineperfomanceare described in terms of
Installed thrust
A given engine may be installed on different aircrafts
influences of the pod or the fuselage must be identified
Specific thrust= thrust divided by the air mass flow
Specific fuel consumption= fuel mass flow divided by thrust
Cycle efficiency= quality of transformation of fuel heating value into
useful power = rate of production of kinetic energy
Propulsive efficiency= quality of the transformation of the cycles useful
power into power used to propel the vehicle
Component efficiencies= intake, compressor, combustion
chamber, turbine, nozzle...
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Propulsive efficiency
Thepropulsive efficiencymeasures the quality of the transformation of theuseful power delivered by the cycle into power utilized for propelling the vehicle
T =Propulsive power
Useful power =
Thrust speed
Useful power
Thrust reads
T = qm(V9 V0) + (p9 p0)A9| {z }0
thenT =
2(V9 V0)V0
(V9 V0)(V9+ V0) =
2V0
V9+V0=
2
1 +V9
V0
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Propulsive efficiency
The difference between the useful power and the propulsive power is trapped
in the air
Pair = 1
2qm(V
2
9 V
2
0) qm(V9 V0)V0 =
1
2qm(V9 V0)
2
Improving the propulsive efficiency implies lowerV9 V0
Optimizing the cycle efficiency means high TET values
By-pass air is used to obtain a globally lower ejection speed
For ...600... km/h the turboprop is the best solution
Propfans use advanced propellers to obtain by-pass ratios 25...50
Turbofans are optimized for ...900... km/h with by-pass ratios 5...9
By-pass engines can go up to Mach 2.5 with a by-pass ratio 0.5...1
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Gl b l ffi i
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Global efficiency
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P i th C t
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Progress since the Comet
A car doubles its consumption from 100 km/h to 150 km/h
An aircraft can go higher to go faster
a car at 200 km/h burns about 10 liters of fuel per 100 km and per seat
same for last piston engine aircrafts (DC.6) flying at 500 km/h same for the early jets (Comet, Caravelle, 707, DC.8) flying at 800 km/h
same for modern turbofans at 900 km/h and for Concorde at Mach 2
At commercial speeds the consumption per seat and per km has been
reduced by 70 % in 50 years
The noise has been reduced by 75 %, the weight by 30 %
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Progress since the Comet
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Progress since the Comet
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Progress since the Comet
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Progress since the Comet
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Integration issues
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Integration issues
Lowering the specific fuel consumption may be done by increasing the
cycle and the propulsive efficiencies
Increasing the propulsive efficiency is done by decreasing the
specific thrust the mass flow must be augmented to keep the thrust level
the size of the engine must be increased
the weight, the drag, the cost increase
The integration of the engine is more difficult or impossible the optimal engine configuration depends on the mission of the vehicle
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Integration issues
For a long rangecivil airplaneSFC is THE criterion
at high subsonic speeds, the best configuration is a huge flow of air
fairly accelerated through awide fan(2 to 3 m)
For a high speedmilitary planethe engine must be narrow and specificthrust is THE criterion
the usual configuration is a moderate flow of air strongly accelerated
through anarrow fanwith multiple stage
Military planes must have a wide range of performance variable cycles (reheat)
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Integration issues
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Integration issues
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Integration issues
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Integration issues
The jet engine is theoretically rather simple but is actually very complexbecause ofmany conflicting design goals:
high speed air flow through the engine
steady high temperature levels active cooling
engine must be light
consumption must be low even for military engines
lifespan up to 20000 hours !
easy inspection and maintenance (on plane)
total security and reliability
Thehighest technological capabilitiesare required
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Integration issues
How many engines ?
Criteria : performance, reliability, enonomy
For a given performance at take-off, 2 large engines are less expensive
than 3 or 4 smaller ones
More engines increase the redundancy and the reliability of propulsionforce but also of electrical and auxiliary systems
More engines increase the probability of failure
Failed engines 1 2 3 4
Total engines
1 P
2 2 P P2
3 3 P 3 P2 P3
4 4 P 6 P2 4 P3 P4
P = 0.02 ... 0.1
per 1000 hours
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Integration issues
ETOPS rules have been modified with time
from 60 to 180 minutes (with failure) for a twin engine a/c
twin engine a/c are becoming most popular
Twin engine a/c must climb with 50 % thrust, 4 engine a/c with 75 %
2 engine a/c are oversized for cruise : weight, cost, drag (T/W 0.30) 4 engine a/c need more maintenance (T/W 0.20)
3 engine a/c are losing favor because of installation issues (T/W 0.25)
Final choice :
estimation of T/W selection of an existing engine scale the available engine
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Why jet propulsion did not succeed on the ground
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Why jet propulsion did not succeed on the ground
A vehicle must be powered at a velocity of 40 m/s
At that speed its drag is 2000 N and the required power is 80 kW
Why not a propeller to power it ?
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Why jet propulsion did not succeed on the ground
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y jet p opu s o d d ot succeed o t e g ou d
Thrust is proportional to the air mass flow and toV
propeller will be large for a smallV propeller will be small for a substantial V
Propeller 1expels air at 200 m/s, provides a Vof 160 m/s and has an
average velocity of 120 m/s
Propeller 2expels air at 50 m/s, provides a Vof 10 m/s and has an
average velocity of 45 m/s
Mass flow ofpropeller 2= 16 mass flow ofpropeller 1
Propeller 2must be more than 6 times biggerfor the same thrust
Propeller 1leaves in the air an energy propotional to (160 m/s)2
which is dissipated behind the vehicle
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y j p p g
Propeller 1consumes 2.667 more fuel than propeller 2
Propeller 2consumes 1.125 more than a direct wheel drive
Propeller 2is too big
If ajet engineis used : Ve 600 m/s the necessary mass flow and engine size would be small
the fuel consumption would be 8 times the standard one
If arocket engineis used withVe = 40 m/s the propulsive efficiency is
unity but a mass flow of 50 kg/s is required
If arocket engineis used withVe = 2000 m/s only 1 kg/s is required but
the propulsive efficiency is 0.04
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Conclusions
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Propulsion is always performed by action and reactionon dry land, on the water or in the air
Action on a fixed support is always preferable as far as energy is concerned
Action on a moving support is done by augmenting the
momentum of the support
The moving support consumes a certain amount of energy
Minimizing losses implies maximizing the mass flow and
minimizing the momentum increase
Working rangeof the different configurations is limited in terms of altitude
and speed
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Flight envelope
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g p
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Rolls Royce Trent
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Pratt & Whitney JT9D
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CFM 56
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General Electric GE 90
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Leduc 021-1
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Leduc 021-2
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Leduc 022
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Daedalus
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Airbreathing engines : piston engines
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Airbreathing engines : piston engines
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Airbreathing engines : piston engines
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Airbreathing engines : piston engines
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The pionneers : Lorin
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The pionneers : Whittle
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The pionneers : Jumo
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Airbreathing engines : Evolution
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Airbreathing engines : the gas turbine engines
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Airbreathing engines : the gas turbine engines
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Airbreathing engines : the gas turbine engines
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TOC
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Aircraft Design : Propulsion Systems : Contents
Action - Reaction
Propulsion Airbreathing engines : historical perspectives
Airbreathing engines : the pulse jet engine
Airbreathing engines : the ram jet engine
Airbreathing engines : the gas turbine engines
Airbreathing engines : synthesis
Thrust production process
Airbreathing engines : performance
Braytons cycle efficiency
Propulsive efficiency
Global efficiency
Progress since the Comet
Integration issues
Why jet propulsion did not succeed on the ground
Conclusions
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