COMPENDIUM Chapter 100 U.S. Copyright Office and the ...January 7, 1894, submitted on January 9,...

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C O M P E N D I U M : Chapter100

U.S.CopyrightOfficeandtheCopyrightLaw:GeneralBackground

101 The U.S. Copyright Office

101.1 History of the U.S. Copyright Office

InMay1790,whenCongressenactedthefirstfederalcopyrightlaw,theU.S.CopyrightOfficedidnotyetexist.Instead,authorsandpublishersrecordedtheirclaimswithfederaldistrictcourtsandsubmittedcopiesoftheirworks(inthosedays,book,maps,andcharts)insupportoftheirapplications.Theseworks,knownasdeposits,werestoredinavarietyofplaces,includingintheU.S.DepartmentofStateandtheU.S.DepartmentoftheInterior.Asof1846,theSmithsonianInstitutionandtheLibraryofCongresssharedthem.Thismeantthatrecordsofcopyrightownershipwerescatteredamongdifferentgovernmentoffices,anddespitethefederalschemeofprotection,therewasneitheraconsolidatedtrackingsystemnorcentralizedplanforpreservingorusingdepositedworks.

In1870,CongressmovedregistrationanddepositfunctionsfromthedispersedfederalcourtstotheLibraryofCongress,whichunderAinsworthSpoffordadvocatedforandutilizedthedepositcopiesasafoundationfortheLibrary’scollection.ThismovehelpedtransformtheLibraryofCongressintoanationalinstitution.However,ascopyrightlawevolvedinbothscopeandcomplexity,theNationandtheCongressbegangrapplingwithavarietyofpolicyissuesthatrequiredleadershipandexpertise,including,forexample,provisionsthatextendedthepublicperformancerighttomusicalcompositionsandprovidedcorrespondingcriminalpenaltiesandinjunctiverelief,andamendmentsestablishingreciprocitywithforeigngovernments.Moreover,thevolumeofcopyright-relatedworkrequiredgreaterfocusandsegregationfromgeneralLibraryfunctions.SeeConditionoftheLibraryofCongress:HearingsBeforetheJointCommitteeontheLibrary,54thCong.(1897)(statementofAinsworthSpofford)(“Thefruitof[theCopyrightAct]hasbeentoenormouslyenrichtheLibraryofCongress.Ontheotherhand,ithasatthesametimeenormouslyincreasedthedifficultiesofadministrationinsuchmiserablynarrowquarters.”),reprintedinS.REP.NO.54-1573,at28(1897).

In1897,CongressestablishedandfundedtheU.S.CopyrightOfficeasaseparatedepartmentwithintheLibraryandcreatedthepositionofRegisterofCopyrightstoheadit.Sincethatact,theRegisterhasbeenappointedby,andworksunderthegeneraldirectionof,theLibrarianofCongress.Thisappointmentauthority,however,requiredthattheLibrarianthereafterbeappointedwiththeadviceandconsentoftheSenate.Thus,atthedawnofthetwentiethcentury,Congresshadnotonlycreatedaformalfoundationforcopyrightadministration,butalsocreatedtheRegisterasthecentralpositionofrelatedexpertisewithintheU.S.government,whointurndevelopedanexpertstaff.

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Aswithothermattersofintellectualpropertylaw,CongressionalRulesgivetherespectivejudiciarycommitteesofbothchamberslegislativejurisdictionoverallcopyrightmatters.SeeSenateRuleXXV;HouseRuleX.TheRegisteristheprincipaladvisortoCongressregardingdomesticandinternationalcopyrightissues,butalsoworkscloselyandcollaborativelywithotherfederaldepartmentsandagenciesoncopyrightmatters.

ThelongstandingroleoftheU.S.CopyrightOfficeinpolicymatterswascodifiedintheCopyrightAct.17U.S.C.§701.TheworkoftheOfficetakesseveralforms.ItprovidesexpertsubjectmatterassistancetoCongressoncopyrightpolicyandinterpretationofthecopyrightlaw;providesdraftingsupport,includinganalysisandassistanceforcopyrightlegislationandlegislativereports;undertakesstudiesandpublicroundtablesforCongress;andoffersadviceoncompliancewithtreatiesandtradeagreements.

AsacriticalofficewithintheU.S.government,theU.S.CopyrightOfficealsoworkscloselywithexecutivebranchoffices,includingmostregularlytheDepartmentofJustice,theWhiteHouse,theOfficeoftheU.S.TradeRepresentative,theDepartmentofCommerceandU.S.PatentandTrademarkOffice,andtheDepartmentofState.Itprovidespolicyanalysistotheseoffices;participatesincopyright-relatedlitigation;providessupportontradeandenforcementmeasures;participatesonU.S.delegationstointergovernmentalmeetingsandinotherinternationalevents;hostscopyrighttrainingforcopyrightofficialsfromforeigncountries;andprovidesoutreachandeducationonaroutinebasis.

TheRegisterofCopyrightshasanespeciallyimportantrelationshipwiththeUndersecretaryforIntellectualProperty,whoheadstheU.S.PatentandTrademarkOfficeandadvisesthePresidentonintellectualpropertymatters.TheseofficersfrequentlyworktogetherintheinternationalarenaandtheUndersecretarymustconsultwiththeRegister“onallcopyrightandrelatedmatters”thatinvolvehisOffice.35U.S.C.§2(c)(5).TheU.S.CopyrightOfficealsoworkscloselywiththeIntellectualPropertyEnforcementCoordinator(the“IPEC”),basedintheExecutiveOfficeofthePresident.TheRegisterisastatutorymemberoftheIPEC’sinteragencyintellectualpropertyenforcementadvisorycommittee.15U.S.C.§8111(b)(3)(A)(ii).

Finally,theU.S.CopyrightOffice’suniquepositionastheguardianofcopyrightregistrationdocumentsdeservesspecialmention.TheOfficemaintainsawealthofinformationaboutthedifferenttypesofworksthathavebeenregisteredintheUnitedStatesthroughouttheyears.Thisamountstoanunparalleleddatabaseofculturalheritage,astheOfficehasregisteredmillionsofcopyrightclaimsforauthors,artists,publishers,producers,anddistributorsofcreativeworkssince1897.TheOfficeannuallyregistersmorethanhalfamillioncopyrightclaims,recordsmorethan10,000documentsrelatingtochainoftitleandothercopyright-relatedmattersinconnectionwithhundredsofthousandsoftitles,andcollectsmorethan$300milliondollarsinstatutorylicensingfunds.Likewise,ithasfacilitatedtheacquisitionofhundredsofthousandsofcopiesofbooks,serialpublications,soundrecordings,motionpictures,photographs,maps,andprintsfortheLibrary’scollection.

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U.S.CopyrightOfficerecordsalsoprovideaglimpseintotheevolutionofU.S.registrationandrecordationpractices.Examplesofsomeimportanthistoricregistrationsandrecordationsinclude:

• Firstfederalregistrationofawork:JohnBarry’sbook,ThePhiladelphiaSpellingBook,registeredwiththeU.S.DistrictCourtfortheDistrictofPennsylvaniain1790.

• Firstfederalrecordationofadocumentpertainingtocopyright:IssuedonJuly25,1870.

• RegistrationoftheStatueofLiberty:OnAugust31,1876,HenrydeStuckleandAugusteF.Bartholdisecuredregistrationnumber9939-Gforthe“StatueofAmericanIndependence,”astheStatueofLibertywasfirstnamed.ThecopyrightclaimwasfiledinAmerica’scentennialyear,adecadebeforethestatuewaserectedinNewYorkHarbor.

• FirstregistrationissuedaftertheestablishmentoftheU.S.CopyrightOffice:“Dr.Quixote–ANewComedyinThreeActs”byCharlesF.Coughlan,registeredbyJ.E.DodsononJuly1,1897.

• Firstmotionpictureregistrations:TheEdisonKinetoscopicRecordofaSneeze,January7,1894,submittedonJanuary9,1894byWilliamKennedyLaurieDickson,istheearliestextantcopyrightedmotionpictureintheLibraryofCongress’scollections.Theshortclip,knowninfilmcirclesasFredOtt’sSneeze,showsamustachioedmansneezing.ThemotionpicturewasregisteredasaseriesofphotographsbecausemotionpictureswerenotcoveredbyU.S.copyrightlawuntil1912.ThefirstworkregisteredasamotionpicturewastheRepublicFilmCompany’sSeptember12,1912registrationforBlackSheep’sWool.

• Firsttelevisionshowregistration:“UnexpectedGuest”byHopalongCassidy,registeredin1947.

• FirstregistrationforachoreographicworkembodiedinLabannotation:HanyaHolm’schoreographyforKissMeKate,registeredasadramaticworkin1952.

• Firstcomputerprogramregistration:JohnF.Banzhaf’scomputerprogramtocomputeautomobilebrakingdistances,registeredin1964.

• Firstsoundrecordingregistration:BobandDorothyRoberts’s“ColorPhotoProcessingCassette,AnAccurateSoundSignalandOralInstructionSystemforProcessing,”registeredonFebruary15,1972.

101.2 Organization of the U.S. Copyright Office

TheRegisterofCopyrightsistheDirectoroftheU.S.CopyrightOfficeandarecognizedleaderandlawyerwithintheU.S.government.Bystatute,theRegisterworksunderthegeneraldirectionoftheLibrarianofCongressandcarriesoutavarietyoflegalandpolicyfunctionsthatareenumeratedthroughoutTitle17.TheU.S.CopyrightOfficehaseightmaindivisions,inadditiontotheRegister’sOffice,andseveralhundredstaff.There

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arefourAssociateRegistersofCopyrightsandfouradditionaldivisionheadsthatreportdirectlytotheRegisterandhelptocarryoutherstatutorymandate.AnorganizationalchartisavailableontheOffice’swebsite.

101.2(A) Office of the Register

TheOfficeoftheRegisterofCopyrightshasoverallresponsibilityfortheU.S.CopyrightOfficeanditsstatutorymandate,specifically:forlegalinterpretationofthecopyrightlaw;administeringtheprovisionsofTitle17;promulgatingcopyrightregulations;advisingCongressandothergovernmentofficialsondomesticandinternationalcopyrightpolicyandotherintellectualpropertyissues;determiningpersonnelandotherresourcerequirementsfortheOffice;organizingstrategicandannualprogramplanning;andpreparingbudgetestimatesforinclusioninthebudgetoftheLibraryofCongressandU.S.government.

101.2(B) Office of the General Counsel

TheOfficeoftheGeneralCounsel(“OGC”)isheadedbytheGeneralCounselandAssociateRegisterofCopyrights,whoisanexpertcopyrightattorneyandoneoffourlegaladvisorstotheRegister.ThisOfficeassiststheRegisterincarryingoutcriticalworkoftheU.S.CopyrightOfficeregardingthelegalinterpretationofthecopyrightlaw.TheGeneralCounselliaisonswiththeDepartmentofJustice,otherfederaldepartments,andthelegalcommunityonawiderangeofcopyrightmatters,includinglitigationandtheadministrationofTitle17.TheGeneralCounselalsohasprimaryresponsibilityfortheformulationandpromulgationofregulationsandtheadoptionoflegalpositionsgoverningpolicymattersandthepracticesoftheU.S.CopyrightOffice.

101.2(C) Office of Policy and International Affairs

TheOfficeofPolicyandInternationalAffairs(“PIA”)isheadedbytheAssociateRegisterofCopyrightsandDirectorofPolicyandInternationalAffairs,whoisanexpertcopyrightattorneyandoneoffourlegaladvisorstotheRegister.ThisOfficeassiststheRegisterwithcriticalpolicyfunctionsoftheU.S.CopyrightOffice,includingdomesticandinternationalpolicyanalyses,legislativesupport,andtradenegotiations.PIArepresentstheU.S.CopyrightOfficeatmeetingsofgovernmentofficialsconcernedwiththeinternationalaspectsofintellectualpropertyprotection,andprovidesregularsupporttoCongressanditscommitteesonstatutoryamendmentsandconstruction.

101.2(D) Office of Registration Policy and Practice

TheOfficeofRegistrationPolicyandPracticeisheadedbytheAssociateRegisterofCopyrightsandDirectorofRegistrationPolicyandPractice,whoisanexpertcopyrightattorneyandoneoffourlegaladvisorstotheRegister.ThisOfficeadministerstheU.S.copyrightregistrationsystemandadvisestheRegisterofCopyrightsonquestionsofregistrationpolicyandrelatedregulationsandinterpretationsofcopyrightlaw.ThisOfficehasthreedivisions:Literary,PerformingArts,andVisualArts,whicharedescribedinChapters700,800,and900ofthisCompendium,respectively.Italsohasanumberofspecializedsections,forexample,intheareaofmotionpictures.ThisOfficeexecutesmajorsectionsoftheCompendiumofCopyrightOfficePractices,particularlywithrespecttotheexaminationofclaimsandrelatedprinciplesoflaw.

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101.2(E) Office of Public Information and Education

TheOfficeofPublicInformationandEducation(“PIE”)isheadedbytheAssociateRegisterforPublicInformationandEducation,whoisanexpertcopyrightattorneyandoneoffourlegaladvisorstotheRegister.ThisOfficeinformsandhelpscarryouttheworkoftheRegisterandtheU.S.CopyrightOfficeinprovidingauthoritativeinformationaboutthecopyrightlawtothepublicandestablishingeducationalprograms.TheOfficepublishesthecopyrightlawandotherprovisionsofTitle17;maintainsarobustandaccuratepublicwebsite;createsanddistributesavarietyofcirculars,informationsheets,andnewsletters,includingNewsNet;respondstopublicinquiriesregardingprovisionsofthelaw,explainsregistrationpolicies,procedures,andothercopyright-relatedtopicsuponrequest;plansandexecutesavarietyofeducationalactivities;andengagesinoutreachwithvariouscopyrightcommunitystakeholders.

101.2(F) Office of Public Records and Repositories

TheOfficeofPublicRecordsandRepositoriesisheadedbytheDirector,whoisanexpertinpublicadministrationandoneoftheRegister’stopbusinessadvisors.ThisOfficeisresponsibleforcarryingoutmajorprovisionsofTitle17,includingestablishingrecordspolicies;ensuringthestorageandsecurityofcopyrightdeposits,bothanaloganddigital;recordinglicensesandtransfersofcopyrightownership;preserving,maintaining,andservicingcopyright-relatedrecords;researchingandprovidingcertifiedanduncertifiedreproductionsofcopyrightdeposits;andmaintainingtheofficialrecordsoftheU.S.CopyrightOffice.Additionally,theOfficeengagesregularlyindiscussionswithleadersintheprivateandpublicsectorsregardingissuesofmetadata,interoperability,datamanagement,andopengovernment.

101.2(G) Copyright Modernization Office Office of the Chief Information Officer

TheCopyrightModernizationOffice("CMO")directsandcoordinatesallmodernizationactivitiesonbehalfoftheU.SCopyrightOffice,includingresources,communications,stakeholderengagement,andbusinessprojectmanagement.TheCMOensuresthatmodernizationactivitiesarecontinuouslyalignedwiththeOffice’sandtheLibraryofCongress’sstrategicgoals,andcollaborateswiththeOfficeandtheLibrarytodrivemodernizationefforts.TheCMOprovidesprojectmanagement,datamanagement/analytics,andbusinessanalysis.ItalsoservesastheprimaryliaisonwiththeLibraryofCongress’sOfficeandChiefInformationOfficer(“OCIO”)andservesinaleadershipfunctionontheOffice'sModernizationGovernanceBoard.

TheOfficeoftheChiefInformationOfficerisheadedbytheChiefInformationOfficer(“CIO”),whoistheRegister’stopadvisoronthedevelopmentandimplementationoftechnologypolicyandinfrastructure.TheOfficeoftheCIOprovidesstrategicleadershipanddirectionfornecessaryplanning,design,development,andimplementationoftheU.S.CopyrightOffice’sautomatedinitiatives.TheOfficeoftheCIOisaliaisontothecentraltechnologyofficeoftheLibraryofCongress,whichadministerstheU.S.CopyrightOffice’snetworksandcommunications.TheCIOalsosupervisestheCopyrightTechnologyOffice(“CTO”).CTOmaintainstheU.S.CopyrightOffice’senterprise-wideinformationtechnologysystemsforregistration,recordation,publicrecordsmanagementandaccess,andrelatedpublicservices,aswellasinternalandexternalhelpdeskfunctions.

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101.2(H) Office of the Chief Financial Officer

TheOfficeoftheChiefFinancialOfficerisheadedbytheChiefFinancialOfficer(“CFO”),whoadvisestheRegisteronallfiscal,acquisition,budget,andfinancialpolicymattersoftheU.S.CopyrightOffice.TheOfficeoftheCFOsupervisestheCopyrightOffice’sappropriationsprocess,budgetexecution,acquisitionsandprocurements,feeprocessing,statutoryroyaltyinvestmentsanddisbursements,financialcontrols,andresourceplanning.ThisOfficeinteractswitheveryotherseniormanagementofficethatreportstotheRegisterandfrequentlycoordinateswithmanagementoftheLibraryofCongress.

TheOfficeoftheCFOalsooverseestheLicensingDivision.ThisdivisionadministerscertainstatutorylicensessetforthintheCopyrightAct.Itcollectsroyaltypaymentsandexaminesstatementsofaccountforthecablestatutorylicense(17U.S.C.§111),thesatellitestatutorylicenseforretransmissionofdistanttelevisionbroadcaststations(17U.S.C.§119),andthestatutorylicensefordigitalaudiorecordingtechnology(17U.S.C.chapter10).Italsoacceptsandrecordsdocumentsassociatedwiththeuseofthemechanicalstatutorylicense(17U.S.C.§115).

101.2(I) Office of the Chief of Operations

TheOfficeoftheChiefofOperationsisheadedbytheChiefofOperations(“COO”),whoadvisestheRegisteroncorebusinessfunctionsandcoordinatesanddirectstheday-to-dayoperationsoftheU.S.CopyrightOffice.TheOfficeoftheCOOsuperviseshumancapital,mandatorydepositsandacquisitions,contracts,andstrategicplanningfunctions.ThisOfficeinteractswitheveryotherseniormanagementofficethatreportstotheRegisterandfrequentlycoordinatesandassessesinstitutionalprojects.TheCOOchairstheU.S.CopyrightOffice’soperationscommittee.

ThefollowingdivisionsfallundertheoversightoftheChiefofOperations:

TheReceiptAnalysisandControlDivisionisresponsibleforsorting,analyzing,andscanningincomingmail;creatinginitialrecords;labelingmaterials;andsearching,assembling,anddispatchingelectronicandhardcopymaterialsanddepositstotheappropriateserviceareas.TheDivisionisresponsibleforoperatingtheU.S.CopyrightOffice’scentralprintroom,mailfunctions,andtemporarystorage.

TheCopyrightAcquisitionsDivision(“CAD”)administersthemandatorydepositrequirementsoftheCopyrightAct,actingasatrustedintermediarybetweencopyrightownersofcertainpublishedworksandtheacquisitionsstaffintheLibraryofCongress.17U.S.C.§407.ThisOfficecreatesandupdatesrecordsforthecopiesreceivedbytheU.S.CopyrightOffice;demandsparticularworksorparticularformatsofworksasnecessary;administersdepositagreementsbetweentheLibraryandcopyrightowners;andassiststheOfficeinpublicdiscussionsandrulemakingsregardingthesubmissionrequirementsfordigitalworksandthebesteditionrequirements.

101.3 Functions of the U.S. Copyright Office

ThefunctionsoftheU.S.CopyrightOfficearesetforthinTitle17oftheU.S.Code,whichincludestheprovisionsoftheCopyrightActof1976aswellchaptersontheDigital

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MillenniumCopyrightAct(“DMCA”),vesseldesigns,andothersuigenerisprotectionsandexemptions(referencedinthisCompendium,asthecasemayrequire,as“Title17,”the“DMCA,”orthe“CopyrightAct,”orwithrespecttothelatter,the“1976Act”or“Act”).ThestatutedirectstheRegisterofCopyrights,asDirectoroftheU.S.CopyrightOffice,tocarryoutavarietyofactivities,whicharedescribedinSections101.3(A)through101.3(D).

101.3(A) National Copyright Registration and Recordation System

TheCopyrightActestablishestheU.S.CopyrightOffice’sstatutoryobligationtoadministerbothacopyrightregistrationandcopyrightrecordationsystemonbehalfoftheNation.Pursuanttoitsprovisions,theOfficeundertakesthefollowingduties,amongothers:

• Registration:TheU.S.CopyrightOfficeexaminesapplicationsforregisteringclaimstocopyrightandanyaccompanyingdepositcopy(ies)todeterminewhethertheysatisfythestatutoryrequirementsforregistrability,includingcopyrightability,andotherwisecomplywiththeOffice’sregulations.Basedonitsfindings,theOfficetheneitherregistersorrefusestoregistertheclaims.ManyofthecontrollingprovisionsforregistrationaresetforthinChapter4oftheCopyrightAct.Section408oftheActauthorizestheRegistertopromulgateregulationstoallowidentifyingmaterialinplaceofdepositcopy(ies),permittheregistrationofgroupsofrelatedworkswithoneapplication,andprovideforthecorrectionandamplificationofregistrations.Section410oftheActsetsforththeRegister’sauthoritytoexamineandeitherregisterorrefusecopyrightclaims.Sections411and412addressregistrationasaprerequisiteforcivilinfringementclaimsandcertainremedies.Chapters200through2200ofthisCompendiumdiscusstheOffice’spoliciesandpracticesrelatingtotheexaminationofclaimsforcopyrightregistration.

• Recordation:ThestatutoryprovisionsgoverningrecordationaresetforthinChapter2oftheCopyrightAct.UnderSection205,anytransferofcopyrightownershiporotherdocumentrelatingtocopyrightmayberecordedintheU.S.CopyrightOffice,subjecttocertainconditions.Therecordationofdocumentspertainingtotransfersorotherownershipmattersisvoluntary,butrecommendedbecause:(i)itprovidesconstructivenoticeofthefactsstatedintherecordeddocumentifcertainconditionshavebeenmet;(ii)whenatransferofcopyrightistimelyrecorded(withinonemonthofitsexecutionintheUnitedStatesortwomonthsofitsexecutionoutsideoftheUnitedStates,oranytimebeforeaconflictingtransferisrecorded),therecordedtransferprevailsoveralaterexecutedtransfer;and(iii)acompletepublicrecordmaymitigateproblemsrelatedtoorphanworks.Interestedpartiesalsorecordorconsultdocumentspertainingtolicenses,deathofauthors,expirationofterm,wills,trusts,securityinterests,andmortgages,tonameafew.Foradiscussionofsomeofthesedocuments,seeChapter2300ofthisCompendium.

• Terminationnotices:TheCopyrightActallows,undercertaincircumstances,authorsortheirheirstoterminateanagreementthatpreviouslygrantedoneormoreoftheauthor’sexclusiverightstoathirdparty.TheseterminationprovisionsaresetforthinSections203,304(c),and304(d)oftheAct.Toterminateanagreement,anotice

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ofterminationmustbeservedonthegrantee,anditmustberecordedwiththeU.S.CopyrightOfficeinatimelymannerasaconditionofeffect.17U.S.C.§§203(a)(4),304(c)(4),304(d)(1).Foradiscussionofrecordationofnoticesoftermination,seeChapter2300,Section2310ofthisCompendium.

• Publicrecords:TheU.S.CopyrightOfficemaintainsextensivepublicrecordsofcopyrightclaimsdatingbackto1870andinsomeinstancesearlier,including:

• Certificatesofregistration,whichattestthatregistrationhasbeenmadeandmayconstituteprimafacieevidenceofthevalidityofthecopyrightandofthefactsstatedinthecertificate(ifregistrationismadebeforepublicationorwithinfiveyearsoffirstpublication).17U.S.C.§410(c).

• Theonlinepublicrecord,whichprovidesthebasicfactsofregistrationsandrecordationsmadeafterJanuary1,1978.ThisinformationisavailableinasearchabledatabaseontheOffice’swebsite.

• TheCopyrightCardCatalog,whichisaphysicalarchiveavailableforpublicuseattheCopyrightOfficeinsearchingforcompletedregistrationsandrecordeddocumentsmadebeforeJanuary1,1978.

Insomecircumstances,theOfficewillissuecertifiedcopiesofapplications,correspondence,depositcopy(ies),documents,andothermaterialssubmittedtotheOfficeinconnectionwithcopyrightregistrationsandrecordeddocuments.Inaddition,theOfficehasareferencesearchservicethatprovidessearchreportsregardingthefactsofregistrationandrecordationcontainedintheOffice’sfiles.Foradiscussionoftheseservices,seeChapter2400ofthisCompendium.

• Mandatorydeposit:TheU.S.CopyrightOfficeadministersSection407oftheCopyrightAct,whichrequirescopyrightownerstodepositcertainpublishedworkswiththeLibraryofCongressforitscollections.Inthisrole,theOfficemayfacilitate,demand,negotiate,orexempttheprovisionofcopiesorphonorecords.Absentaspecialexemption,thelawrequiresthatoneortwocopiesofthebesteditionofeverycopyrightableworkpublishedintheUnitedStatesbesenttotheOfficewithinthreemonthsofpublication,regardlessofwhetheraclaimintheworkisregistered.17U.S.C.§407(a).Foradetaileddiscussionofmandatorydeposit,seeChapter1500,Section1511ofthisCompendium.

• Serviceproviderdirectory:TheOfficeofPublicRecordsandRepositoriesadministersadirectoryofserviceprovideragentstoreceivenotificationsofclaimsofinfringementasprovidedunderSection512(c)oftheCopyrightAct.

• Maskworks:TheU.S.CopyrightOfficeexaminesandregistersclaimstomaskworksfixedinsemiconductorchipproductsfiledundertheSemiconductorChipProtectionActof1984,titleIIIofPub.L.No.98-620,98Stat.3335,3347(codifiedasamendedat17U.S.C.§§901-914).Chapter1200ofthisCompendiumdiscussestheexaminationofclaimsinmaskworks.

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• Vesseldesigns:TheU.S.CopyrightOfficeexaminesandregistersclaimsinvesseldesignsfiledundertheVesselHullDesignProtectionAct,titleVoftheDigitalMillenniumCopyrightAct,Pub.L.No.105-304,112Stat.2860,2905(1998)(codifiedasamendedat17U.S.C.§§1301-1332).Chapter1300ofthisCompendiumdiscussestheexaminationofclaimsinvesseldesigns.

101.3(B) Regulatory Work

TheU.S.CopyrightOfficepromulgatesregulationstoimplementvariousregardingitspoliciesandprocedurespursuanttotheprovisionsofTitle17,whichauthorizestheRegisterofCopyrights“toestablishregulations“notinconsistentwithlawfortheadministrationofthefunctionsanddutiesmadetheresponsibilityoftheRegisterunderthistitle.”17U.S.C.§702.TheseregulationsaresubjecttotheapprovaloftheLibrarianofCongress,whoistheagencyhead.Seeid.

CongressexpresslymadetheRegister’sactionsunderTitle17subjecttotheprovisionsoftheAdministrativeProcedureActofJune11,1946,asamended.17U.S.C.§701(e).

101.3(C) Advising Congress and Intergovernmental Work

TheRegisteradvisesCongressonnationalandinternationalcopyrightissues.TheU.S.CopyrightOfficealsoworkscloselywiththefederaldepartmentsandagenciesdiscussedinSection101.1above.17U.S.C.§701.Amongotherthings,theOfficeprovidesexpertassistancetoCongressintheinterpretationofTitle17andcompliancewithinternationalagreements,suchastheBerneConventionfortheProtectionofLiteraryandArtisticWorks(the“BerneConvention”)andtheWIPOInternetTreaties.TheOfficealsoconductspublicdiscussionsonlawandpolicy;producesmajorlegalstudies,makespolicyrecommendations;participatesincopyright-relatedlitigationwhentheU.S.governmenthasaninterest;providessupportontradeandenforcementmeasures;attendsintergovernmentalmeetingsandotherinternationalevents;andhostscopyrighttrainingforcopyrightofficialsfromforeigncountries.

101.3(D) Administering Statutory Licenses

AsdiscussedinSection101.2(H)(2),theU.S.CopyrightOffice’sLicensingDivisionadministersthestatutorylicensesforcableandsatelliteretransmissionsandthestatutorylicensefordigitalaudiorecordingtechnology.Italsorecordscertaindocumentsassociatedwiththemechanicalstatutorylicense.Thesestatutorylicensesallowthirdpartiestomakecertainlimitedusesofcopyrightedworkswithoutthecopyrightowners’permission,providedthatcertainstatutoryrequirementsaremet.TheDivisiondeductsitsoperatingcostsfromtheseroyaltyfeesandinveststhebalanceininterest-bearingsecuritieswiththeU.S.Treasuryforlaterdistributiontocopyrightowners.

101.4 U.S. Copyright Office Seal

TheRegisterofCopyrightshasadoptedthefollowingofficialsealpursuanttotheauthorityoftheCopyrightAct.17U.S.C.§701(c);NoticeofNewCopyrightOfficeSeal,68Fed.Reg.71,171(Dec.22,2003).TheU.S.CopyrightOfficeusesthissealoncertificates

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ofregistration,certifiedrecords,andinconnectionwithotherofficialdocuments,includingreportstoCongress.

102 Sources of Law

U.S.copyrightlawisderivedfromseveralauthoritativesources,includingtheU.S.Constitution,statutoryprovisions,courtdecisions,andregulations.ThesesourcesandtheirroleinshapingcopyrightlawintheUnitedStatesarereviewedinSections102.1through102.7below.

102.1 Constitutional Basis for and Purpose of Copyright Law

CopyrighthasbeenapartoftheAmericanlegallandscapesincecolonialtimes,whenmanyofthecoloniesadoptedcopyrightlaws.SeeU.S.COPYRIGHTOFFICEBULLETIN3,COPYRIGHTENACTMENTS1783-1900,at9-29(listingcopyrightlawsenactedbyConnecticut,Massachusetts,Maryland,NewJersey,NewHampshire,RhodeIsland,Pennsylvania,SouthCarolina,Virginia,NorthCarolina,Georgia,andNewYorkbetween1783and1786),availableatwww.copyright.gov/history/Copyright_Enactments_1783-1973.pdf.Uponratification,theU.S.ConstitutionprovidedCongresswiththeabilitytomakefederallawstoprotectcopyright.Specifically,Article1,Section8,Clause8(whichincludesthe“CopyrightClause”)statesthat“CongressshallhavePower...TopromotetheProgressofScienceandusefulArts,bysecuringforlimitedTimestoAuthorsandInventorstheexclusiveRighttotheirrespectiveWritingsandDiscoveries.”Thepromotionof“science,”asthattermisusedintheCopyrightClause,isunderstoodtorefertothepurposeofcopyrightlaw(despitethecontemporaryusageoftheterm).SeeEldredv.Ashcroft,537U.S.186,197(2003).TheSupremeCourthasconfirmedthatthisclauseempowersCongresstoenactacopyrightsystem.SeeGolanv.Holder,565U.S.302,323-25(2012).

U.S.courtshaveanalyzedthepurposeoftheCopyrightClauseinanumberofcases.TheSupremeCourthasinterpretedtheCopyrightClausetomeanthatcopyrightlawsshouldpromoteboththecreationanddisseminationofcreativeworks.See,e.g.,Golan,132S.Ct.

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at888-89.Thus,“[t]heFramersintendedcopyrightitselftobetheengineoffreeexpression.”Harper&RowPublishers,Inc.v.NationEnterprisesetal.,471U.S.539,558(1985);seealsoGolan,132S.Ct.at890(“Byestablishingamarketablerighttotheuseofone’sexpression,copyrightsuppliestheeconomicincentivetocreateanddisseminateideas.”).

102.2 Statutes and Regulations

Congresshasexerciseditsauthoritytoenactfederalcopyrightlawsonnumerousoccasions.ThefirstCopyrightAct,enactedin1790,andsubsequentlawsaresummarizedinthehistoricaltimelineinSection102.7below.ThecurrentCopyrightActwasenactedin1976andbecameeffectiveonJanuary1,1978.Ithasbeenamendednumeroustimessinceitsenactment.TheCopyrightActprotects“originalworksofauthorship”thatare“fixedinanytangiblemediumofexpression….”17U.S.C.§102(a).Section106oftheActprovidescopyrightholderswithanumberofexclusiverights(includingtherighttoreproduceworks,preparederivativeworks,distributeworks,andincertaincases,topubliclyperformanddisplayworks).Italsoprovidescertainexceptionsandlimitationstotheseexclusiverights.See17U.S.C.§§107-122.

Worksthatpredatetheeffectivedateofthe1976Actaregovernedbystatutoryprovisionsofthe1909CopyrightAct;themostrelevantoftheseprovisionsarediscussedinChapter2100ofthisCompendium.

102.2(A) Copyright Act of 1976

The1976Actreplacedthe1909CopyrightActandchangedmuchofhowcopyrightlawoperates,includingasfollows:

• The1976Actimplementedanewcalculusfordeterminingthedurationofcopyright(knownasthe“termofprotection”or,moresimply,the“term”).Previously,workswereprotectedforaspecificinitialtermandcouldberenewedforanadditionalrenewalterm.The1976Actdoesnotrequirerenewal.Inmostcases,theActprovidesprotectiontoworksbasedonthetimeframeoftheauthor’slifeplusseventyyears.17U.S.C.§302(a).Inthecaseofananonymouswork,apseudonymouswork,oraworkmadeforhire,thecopyrightlastsforatermofninety-fiveyearsfromtheyearofitsfirstpublication,oratermofonehundredtwentyyearsfromtheyearofitscreation,whicheverexpiresfirst.17U.S.C.§302(c).

• UnlikepriorU.S.copyrightlaws,copyrightprotectionunderthe1976Actisnotcontingentonpublicationorregistration.Allcopyrightableworksarenowprotectedfromthemomentoffixationinatangiblemediumofexpression,regardlessofwhethertheyarepublished,registered,orrecordedatanytime.17U.S.C.§102(a).

• The1976Act(inSections203,304(c),and304(d))allowsanauthortoterminatecertaingrantsofcopyrightintheauthor’sworkafteraspecifiednumberofyears.The1909Act,bycontrast,gavetheauthoranopportunitytorecouphisorherrightsbyvestingthecopyrightintherenewaltermintheauthor,meaningthattheauthorhadtoprovideaseparategrantexpresslytoapublisherorotherthirdpartyfortherenewalterm(i.e.,afterthefirsttwenty-eightyears).

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• The1976Actaddedprotectionsforcertainadditionaltypesofworks,includingpantomimeandchoreography.17U.S.C.§102(a)(4).Since1976,thestatutehasbeenamendedtoprovidecopyrightprotectionforarchitecturalworksandcertainprotectionformaskworksandvesseldesigns.

• Congressaddednumerousexceptionsandlimitationstothestatute(currentlysetforthinSections107through122oftheAct),includingSections107(whichcodifiedthejudicially-createdfairusedoctrine)andSection108(whichcreatedspecificexceptionsforlibrariesandarchives).

Congresshasupdatedthe1976Actseveraltimes.Formoreinformationconcerningtheseamendments,seethehistoricaltimelineinSection102.7below.

102.2(B) U.S. Copyright Office Regulations

Section702oftheCopyrightActauthorizestheRegisterofCopyrights,subjecttotheapprovaloftheLibrarianofCongress,topromulgateregulationsrelatingtotheRegister’sduties,includingtheregistrationofcopyrights.Pursuanttothisauthority,theU.S.CopyrightOfficehaspromulgatedregulationspertainingtotheexaminationandregistrationofcopyrightsandtherecordationoftransfersofcopyrightownership,amongotherthings.TheseregulationsareembodiedinTitle37oftheCodeofFederalRegulations.Theycoveravarietyofregistrationtopics,suchashowtosubmitapplications,howtocontesttheOffice’srefusaltoissueacopyrightregistration,andspecificdepositrequirements.Ordinarily,whentheOfficedecidestoissueanewregulation,itpublishesanoticeofproposedrulemakingintheFederalRegisterinaccordancewiththeAdministrativeProcedureAct.17U.S.C.§701(e);seealso5U.S.C.§553.Typically,theOfficealsonotifiesthepublicthroughitsNewsNetservice.Inmostcases,thepublicisinvitedtoprovidecommentsonproposedregulationsfortheOffice’sconsideration.

102.3 Administrative Procedure Act

CongressexpresslymadetheRegister’sactionsundertheCopyrightActsubjecttotheprovisionsoftheAdministrativeProcedureActofJune11,1946,asamended.17U.S.C.§701(e).Congresslegislatedonlyoneexpressexceptiontothisrule:Section706(b)oftheCopyrightActwhichprovidesfortheU.S.CopyrightOfficetoissueregulationsspecifyingtheconditionsunderwhichtheOfficemayauthorizeorfurnishcopiesorreproductionsofdepositedarticlesretainedbytheOffice.

102.4 Federal Court Decisions

Federalcourtshaveinterpretedthe1976Actonnumerousoccasions,resultinginawell-developedbodyofcaselaw.Sometimescourtsdecideissuesthatarenotsquarelyaddressedbythe1976Actand,indoingso,developstandardsthatareconsistentwiththeActandprovideadditionalguidance.Thus,certaincopyrightlawdoctrinesarederivedlargelyfromcourtdecisions.

Forexample,theCopyrightActdoesnotexplainwhatlevelofcreativityisnecessaryforaworktoqualifyasa“workofauthorship”undertheAct.Section102(a)oftheActstates—withoutfurtherelaboration—that“[c]opyrightprotectionsubsists…in

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originalworksofauthorshipfixedinanytangiblemediumofexpression,nowknownorlaterdeveloped,fromwhichtheycanbeperceived,reproduced,orotherwisecommunicated,eitherdirectlyorwiththeaidofamachineordevice.”NumerouscourtshaveanalyzedwhatanoriginalworkofauthorshipisundertheAct.Formoreinformationontheoriginalityrequirement,seeChapter300,Section308ofthisCompendium.

Thestandardsforcomparingworksanddeterminingwhenaworkprotectedbycopyrightisinfringedbyanotherworkalsocomefromjudicialdoctrine.Forinstance,courtshaveheldthat,toprevailinacopyrightinfringementcase,acopyrightownermustshow(i)directevidencethatthedefendantcopiedthecopyrightowner’swork,or(ii)thatthedefendanthadaccesstothecopyrightedwork,and(iii)thatthecopyrightowner’sanddefendant’sworksaresubstantiallysimilar.

CertainU.S.copyrightlawdoctrinesareentirelyjudicially-createdandhaveneverbeendirectlycodifiedintheAct,suchastheoriesofcontributoryandvicariousliabilityforinfringement.Others,suchasprinciplesoffairuse(Section107oftheAct),arecodifiedatahighlevelinthe1976Act,butareinterpretedonacase-by-casebasisbythecourts.

Forthesereasons,itisimportanttoconsultcourtopinionsoncopyright-relatedissues.Whendoingso,notethatcopyrightlawdoctrinesmaydifferamongjurisdictions,asdifferentcircuitshavefolloweddifferentstandards.Forexample,theinfringementstandardintheNinthCircuitissomewhatdifferentfromthatoftheFirstandtheSecondCircuits.Additionally,somecircuitsallowaclaimforcopyrightinfringementtobebroughtuponsubmissionofanapplicationforregistrationtotheU.S.CopyrightOfficeunderSection411oftheCopyrightAct,whileothersrequireacertificateofregistrationorrefusaltoregisterissuedbytheOffice.Formoreinformationonthisissue,seeChapter600,Section625.5ofthisCompendium.

102.5 State Laws

U.S.copyrightprotectionisgovernedbyfederallaw.Section301(a)ofthe1976Actpreemptsallsimilarprotectionsprovidedbystatelaw,otherthanwithrespecttosoundrecordingsfixedbeforeFebruary15,1972,asprovidedunderSection301(c)oftheAct.PreemptionappliesonlywhenastatelawprovidesprotectionsthatareequivalenttothosesetforthintheCopyrightAct(i.e.,rightsequivalenttoanyoftheexclusiverightsunderSection106oftheActinfixedworksofauthorshipthatfallwithinthesubjectmatterofcopyright).ThereareasignificantnumberofcourtdecisionsinterpretingexactlywhenastateclaimiscloseenoughtoanexclusiverightprovidedbytheCopyrightActtobepreempted.Thiscaselawshouldbeconsultedforquestionsregardingpreemptionandmayvarytosomeextentbyjurisdiction.

Sections301(b)and(c)ofthe1976Actalsospecificallysetforthsometypesofcopyright-likeprotectionsthatstatesmayprovide.Theseinclude:(i)worksnotfixedinatangiblemediumofexpression;(ii)pre-1972soundrecordings;(iii)stateandlocallandmarks,historicpreservation,zoning,orbuildingcodesrelatingtoarchitecturalworksprotectedunderSection102(a)(8)oftheAct;and(iv)causesofactionsforactsthattookplacebeforeJanuary1,1978.

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102.6 Territorial Scope of U.S. Copyright Law

Generallyspeaking,U.S.copyrightlawappliesonlytoactsthattakeplaceintheUnitedStates,includingtheCommonwealthofPuertoRicoandU.S.territories.SeeSubafilms,Ltd.V.MGM-PatheCommunicationsCo.,24F.3d1088,1094-95(9thCir.1994).UndertheBerneConvention,nationallawappliestoforeignworks,andthelawofthecountryinwhichinfringementtakesplacegenerallyappliestoinfringementdisputes.BerneConventionfortheProtectionofLiteraryandArtisticWorks,art.5(1),(3),Sept.9,1886,asrevisedatParisonJuly24,1971andamendedonSept.28,1979,S.TreatyDoc.No.99-27(1986).Thus,copyrightinfringementthatoccursintheUnitedStatesisgovernedbyU.S.law.However,courtsmaylooktothelawofaforeigncountrywhereownershipoftheworkwasestablishedortransferredincaseswherequestionsareraisedconcerningforeignownershipandcopyrightorigineveninthecontextofaU.S.infringementaction.See,e.g.,Itar-TassRussianNewsAgencyv.RussianKurier,Inc.,153F.3d82,88-92(2dCir.1998).

102.7 Timeline of Selected Historical Dates in U.S. Copyright Law

TheUnitedStateshasalongandrichhistoryofcopyrightlaw.Belowisatimelineofsomeofthemostinterestingdevelopmentsthathaveoccurredsincethecolonialera.Inadditiontothistimeline,theU.S.CopyrightOffice’swebsiteincludesawealthofhistoricalinformation,includingadditionalnotabledates,extensiveinformationonpastcopyrightlaws,andpriorpublications.

• August18,1787:JamesMadisonsubmitstotheframersoftheConstitutionaprovision“tosecuretoliteraryauthorstheircopyrightsforalimitedtime.”

• June23,1789:Firstfederalbillrelatingtocopyrights(H.R.10)presentedtothefirstCongress.

• May31,1790:Congressenactsthefirstfederalcopyrightlaw,“Anactforencouragementoflearningbysecuringcopiesofmaps,charts,andbookstotheauthorsandproprietorsofsuchcopiesduringthetimesthereinmentioned.”Thislawprovidedforatermoffourteenyearswiththeoptionofrenewingtheregistrationforanotherfourteen-yearterm.Thelawonlyappliedtobooks,maps,andcharts.ItalsonotedthatacopyrightshouldberegisteredintheU.S.districtcourtwheretheauthororproprietorresided(nottheU.S.CopyrightOffice,whichhadnotyetbeencreated).

• April29,1802:Congressaddsprintstoworksprotectedbycopyrightlaw.

• February3,1831:Firstgeneralrevisionofthecopyrightlaw.Musicaddedtoworksprotectedagainstunauthorizedprintingandvending.Firsttermofcopyrightextendedtotwenty-eightyearswiththeoptionofrenewalforanotherfourteen-yearterm.

• August18,1856:Congresspassesasupplementarylawtoprotectdramaticcompositions.

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• December31,1864:PresidentAbrahamLincolnappointsAinsworthRandSpoffordtobethesixthLibrarianofCongress.SpoffordservedasthedefactoRegisterofCopyrightsuntiltheformalpositionofRegisterwascreatedin1897.

• March3,1865:Congressenacts“AnActtoamendtheseveralActsrespectingCopyright,”whichaddedprotectionsforphotographsandphotographicnegatives.

• July8,1870:Inthissecondmajorrevisionofcopyrightlaw,Congresscentralizedcopyrightactivities(includingregistrationanddeposit)intheLibraryofCongress.Thelawadded“worksofart”tothelistofprotectedworksandreservedtoauthorstherighttocreatecertainderivativeworks,includingtranslationsanddramatizations.

• March3,1891:WiththepassageoftheInternationalCopyrightAct,Congressextendedcopyrightprotectiontocertainworksbyforeignauthors.ThiswasthefirstU.S.copyrightlawauthorizingestablishmentofcopyrightrelationswithforeigncountries.

• July1891:TheCatalogofCopyrightEntries,whichincludesrecordsofregisteredworks,ispublishedinbookformforthefirsttime.

• 1895:CongressmandatesthatU.S.governmentworksarenotsubjecttocopyrightprotection.

• January6,1897:Congressenactsalawtoprotectmusicagainstunauthorizedpublicperformance.

• February19,1897:TheU.S.CopyrightOfficeisestablishedasaseparatedepartmentoftheLibraryofCongress.PositionofRegisterofCopyrightscreated.

• July1,1909:Effectivedateofthirdgeneralrevisionofthecopyrightlaw.Certainclassesofunpublishedworksnoweligibleforregistration.Termofstatutoryprotectionforaworkcopyrightedinpublishedformmeasuredfromthedateofpublicationofthework.Renewaltermextendedfromfourteentotwenty-eightyears.

• August24,1912:Motionpictures,previouslyallowedtoberegisteredonlyasaseriesofstillphotographs,addedasaclassofprotectedworks.

• July13,1914:PresidentWoodrowWilsonproclaimsU.S.adherencetotheBuenosAiresCopyrightConventionof1910,whichestablishedcopyrightprotectionbetweentheUnitedStatesandcertainLatinAmericannations.

• July1,1940:EffectivedateoftransferofjurisdictionfortheregistrationofcommercialprintsandlabelsfromtheU.S.PatentOfficetotheU.S.CopyrightOffice.

• July30,1947:ThecopyrightlawcodifiedasTitle17oftheU.S.Code.

• January1,1953:Recordingandperformingrightsextendedtonondramaticliteraryworks.

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• September16,1955:UnitedStatesbecomespartytothe1952UniversalCopyrightConventionasrevisedinGeneva,Switzerland.

• September19,1962:Firstofninespecialactsextendingtermsofsubsistingrenewalcopyrightspendingcongressionalactionongeneralcopyrightlawrevision.

• February15,1972:Effectivedateoftheactextendinglimitedcopyrightprotectiontosoundrecordingsfixedandfirstpublishedonorafterthisdate.

• March10,1974:UnitedStatesbecomesamemberoftheConventionfortheProtectionofProducersofPhonogramsAgainstUnauthorizedDuplicationofTheirPhonograms.

• July10,1974:UnitedStatesbecomespartytothe1971revisionoftheUniversalCopyrightConventionasrevisedatParis,France.

• October19,1976:FourthgeneralrevisionofthecopyrightlawsignedbyPresidentGeraldFord.Thisextensiverevisionincludednumerousprovisionsthatmodernizedcopyrightlaw,asdescribedinSection102.2(A)above.

• January1,1978:Effectivedateofprincipalprovisionsofthe1976copyrightlaw.

• December12,1980:Copyrightlawamendedtoaddresscomputerprograms.

• May24,1982:Section506(a)amendedtoprovidethatpersonswhoinfringecopyrightwillfullyandforpurposesofcommercialadvantageorprivatefinancialgainshallbesubjecttocriminalpenalties.

• October4,1984:EffectivedateofRecordRentalAmendmentsof1984,whichgrantedtheownerofcopyrightinasoundrecordingtherighttoauthorizeorprohibittherental,lease,orlendingofphonorecordsfordirectorindirectcommercialpurposes.

• November8,1984:FederalstatutoryprotectionformaskworksbecameavailableundertheSemiconductorChipProtectionAct,withtheU.S.CopyrightOfficeassumingadministrativeresponsibility.TheOfficebeganregisteringclaimsinmaskworksonJanuary7,1985.

• June30,1986:ExpirationofthemanufacturingclauseoftheCopyrightActof1976,whichrequiredthatcertaintypesofworksbetypeset,printed,andboundintheUnitedStates.Formoreinformationaboutthemanufacturingclauseunderthe1909Act,seeChapter2100ofthisCompendium.

• March1,1989:TheeffectivedateofUnitedStatesadherencetotheBerneConventionfortheProtectionofLiteraryandArtisticWorks,asrevisedinParis,Francein1971.

• December1,1990:Copyrightprotectionextendedtoarchitecturalworks.Section106AaddedtocopyrightlawbytheVisualArtistsRightsAct,whichallowsauthors

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ofcertaintypesofvisualworksofartcertainmoralrightsofattributionandintegrity.

• December1,1990:EffectivedateoftheComputerSoftwareRentalAmendmentsAct.Grantstheownerofcopyrightincomputerprogramstheexclusiverighttoauthorizeorprohibittherental,lease,orlendingofaprogramfordirectorindirectcommercialpurposes.

• June26,1992:Renewalregistrationbecomesoptionalonaprospectivebasis.Anyworkinitstwenty-eighthyearofcopyrightprotectionnolongerrequiresarenewalapplicationwiththeU.S.CopyrightOfficeinorderforthecopyrighttoextendintoandthroughtherenewalterm.Assuch,allworksinitiallycopyrightedbetweenJanuary1,1964andDecember31,1977wererenewedautomatically,evenifthepartyentitledtoclaimtherenewalcopyrightfailedtofileatimelyrenewalwiththeOffice.

• October28,1992:EffectivedateoftheAudioHomeRecordingAct.TheActrequirestheplacementofserialcopymanagementsystemsindigitalaudiorecordersandimposesroyaltiesonthesaleofdigitalaudiorecordingdevicesandmediathataredistributedtothecopyrightowners.

• December17,1993:CopyrightRoyaltyTribunalReformActof1993eliminatestheexistingCopyrightRoyaltyTribunalandreplacesitwithadhocCopyrightArbitrationRoyaltyPanelsadministeredbytheLibrarianofCongressandtheU.S.CopyrightOffice.

• December8,1994:TheUruguayRoundAgreementsActrestorescopyrighttocertainforeignworksunderprotectioninthesourcecountrybutinthepublicdomainintheUnitedStates.ItalsorepealsthesunsetoftheSoftwareRentalAmendmentsActandcreateslegalmeasurestoprohibittheunauthorizedfixationandtraffickinginsoundrecordingsoflivemusicalperformancesandmusicvideos.

• November16,1997:TheNoElectronicTheft(NET)Actdefines“financialgain”inrelationtocopyrightinfringementandsetspenaltiesforwillfullyinfringingacopyrighteitherforthepurposesofcommercialadvantageorprivatefinancialgainorbyreproducingordistributing(includingbyelectronicmeans)phonorecordsofacertainvalue.

• October27,1998:TheSonnyBonoCopyrightTermExtensionActextendsthetermofcopyrightformostworksbytwentyyears.

• October28,1998:TheDigitalMillenniumCopyrightActof1998(“DMCA”)addsseveralmajorprovisionstotheCopyrightAct.ItprovidesfortheimplementationoftheWorldIntellectualPropertyOrganization(“WIPO”)CopyrightTreaty(“WCT”)andtheWIPOPerformancesandPhonogramsTreaty(“WPPT”),byaddingprohibitionsagainstcircumventingtechnologicalmeasuresprotectingcopyrightedworksandremovingoralteringcopyrightmanagementinformation.ItalsocreatestheSection512safeharborsfromliabilityforinternetserviceproviders;providesanexemptioninSection117oftheActpermittingthetemporaryreproductionof

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computerprogramsmadeinthecourseofmaintenanceorrepair;clarifiesthepolicyroleoftheU.S.CopyrightOffice;andcreatesanewformofprotectionforvesseldesigns.

• November2,2002:TheTechnology,Education,andCopyrightHarmonization(“TEACH”)Actprovidesfortheuseofcopyrightedworksbyaccreditednonprofiteducationalinstitutionsindistanceeducation.

• November30,2004:TheCopyrightRoyaltyandDistributionReformActphasesouttheCopyrightArbitrationRoyaltyPanelsystemandreplacesitwiththeCopyrightRoyaltyBoard.

• April27,2005:TheArtists’RightsandTheftPreventionAct(“ARTAct”)allowsforpreregistrationofcertainworksbeingpreparedforcommercialdistribution.

• October13,2008:ThePrioritizingResourcesandOrganizationforIntellectualPropertyActof2008(“PRO-IPAct”)isenacted.Amongotherthings,thePRO-IPActestablishedthenewgovernmentpositionoftheIntellectualPropertyEnforcementCoordinator,codifiedcaselawregardingtheeffectofinaccurateinformationknowinglyincludedinanapplicationforcopyrightregistration,andprohibitedtheexportandimportofinfringingcopiesofworksthatareorwouldbeprotectedundertheU.S.CopyrightAct.

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