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Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
CognitionCognition
Long-Term MemoryLong-Term Memory
Chapter 5Chapter 5
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
IntroductionIntroduction
long-term memory—large capacity; memory for experiences and information accumulated over a lifetimeepisodic memory—your memories for events
that happened to yousemantic memory—organized knowledge
about the worldprocedural memory—knowledge about how
to do something
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
IntroductionIntroduction
encoding—initial acquisition of informationretrieval—locating information in storage and
accessing that informationautobiographical memory—memory for
events and topics related to your own everyday life
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Encoding in Long-Term Encoding in Long-Term MemoryMemory
Levels of ProcessingLevels of ProcessingCraik and Lockhart (1972)
levels-of-processing/depth-of-processing approach—argues that deep, meaningful kinds of information processing lead to more permanent retention than shallow, sensory kinds of processing
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Encoding in Long-Term Encoding in Long-Term MemoryMemory
Levels of ProcessingLevels of ProcessingLevels of Processing and Memory for General Material
Craik and Tulving (1975)—meaning vs. physical appearanceDistinctivenessElaborationdeep processing also enhances memory for
faces
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Encoding in Long-Term Encoding in Long-Term MemoryMemory
Levels of ProcessingLevels of ProcessingLevels of Processing and the Self-Reference Effect
self-reference effect
1. Representative researchRogers and coauthors (1977)—visual, acoustic, semantic,
self-referencepositive vs. negative instancesacross age groups, instructions, stimulimeta-analysis technique
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Encoding in Long-Term Encoding in Long-Term MemoryMemory
Levels of ProcessingLevels of ProcessingLevels of Processing and the Self-Reference Effect
2. Participants' failure to follow instructionsFoley and coauthors (1999)
compare different types of mental imageinstructions vs. what students actually used
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Participants Failure to Participants Failure to Follow InstructionsFollow Instructions
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Encoding in Long-Term Encoding in Long-Term MemoryMemory
Levels of ProcessingLevels of ProcessingLevels of Processing and the Self-Reference Effect
3. Factors responsible for the self-reference effect• the self produces a rich set of cues• self-reference instructions encourage people to consider
how their personal traits are related to one another• you rehearse material more frequently if it is associated
with yourself
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Encoding in Long-Term Encoding in Long-Term MemoryMemory
The Effects of Context: Encoding The Effects of Context: Encoding SpecificitySpecificity
encoding specificity principle—recall is better if the retrieval context is similar to the encoding context
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Encoding in Long-Term Encoding in Long-Term MemoryMemory
The Effects of Context: Encoding The Effects of Context: Encoding SpecificitySpecificity
Research on Encoding SpecificityMarian and Fausey (2006)—read stories in
English and Spanish; questions about the stories in matched or mismatched languages
gender of voice of reader and questioner
present context vs. other contexts
real life vs. laboratory
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Encoding in Long-Term Encoding in Long-Term MemoryMemory
The Effects of Context: Encoding The Effects of Context: Encoding SpecificitySpecificity
Research on Encoding Specificity1. Different kinds of memory tasks
recall vs. recognitionencoding specificity effect is most likely to occur in memory tasks that• assess your recall• use real-life incidents• examine events that happened long ago
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Encoding in Long-Term Encoding in Long-Term MemoryMemory
The Effects of Context: Encoding The Effects of Context: Encoding SpecificitySpecificity
Research on Encoding Specificity2. Physical versus mental context
feel may be more important than look
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Encoding in Long-Term Encoding in Long-Term MemoryMemory
The Effects of Context: Encoding SpecificityThe Effects of Context: Encoding SpecificityLevels of Processing and Encoding Specificity
similarity between encoding and retrieval conditions
encoding specificity can override levels of processing
To determine how to store some information, you'll need to figure out the characteristics of the retrieval task
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Encoding in Long-Term Encoding in Long-Term MemoryMemory
Emotions, Mood, and MemoryEmotions, Mood, and Memoryemotionmood
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Encoding in Long-Term Encoding in Long-Term MemoryMemory
Emotions, Mood, and MemoryEmotions, Mood, and MemoryMemory for Items Differing in Emotion
Pollyanna Principle
1. More accurate recall for pleasant itemsMatlin & Stang (1978); Balch (2006)learn lists of words—pleasant, neutral, unpleasantrecall after delaypleasant items recalled significantly more accurately than
unpleasant items; neutral items recalled least accuratelymemory for eventsmemory for near-accidents
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Encoding in Long-Term Encoding in Long-Term MemoryMemory
Emotions, Mood, and MemoryEmotions, Mood, and MemoryMemory for Items Differing in Emotion
2. More accurate recall for neutral stimuli associated with pleasant stimuli
Bushman (1998)—media violence and commercials
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Encoding in Long-Term Encoding in Long-Term MemoryMemory
Emotions, Mood, and MemoryEmotions, Mood, and MemoryMemory for Items Differing in Emotion
3. Over time, unpleasant memories fade fasterWalker and coauthors (1997)personal events recorded and rated for pleasantness and
intensitypositivity effect—people tend to rate past events more
positively with the passage of timeagedepression
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Encoding in Long-Term Encoding in Long-Term MemoryMemory
Emotions, Mood, and MemoryEmotions, Mood, and MemoryMood Congruence
mood congruence—you recall material more accurately if it is congruent with your current mood
Murray and colleagues (1999)—tendency towards depression and recall of positive/negative trait words
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Encoding in Long-Term Encoding in Long-Term MemoryMemory
Individual Differences: Social Goals and Individual Differences: Social Goals and MemoryMemory
social goalsapproach social goalsavoidance social goals
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Encoding in Long-Term Encoding in Long-Term MemoryMemory
Individual Differences: Social Goals and Individual Differences: Social Goals and MemoryMemory
Strachman and Gable (2006)story about interpersonal relationships, recall of
positive/neutral/negative statements from the story
overall number of items recalled
social goal type was related to whether statements were recalled as more positive or more negative than they actually were
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Retrieval in Long-Term Retrieval in Long-Term MemoryMemory
Explicit Versus Implicit Memory TasksExplicit Versus Implicit Memory TasksDefinitions and Examples
Explicit Memory Tasksrecall
recognition
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Retrieval in Long-Term Retrieval in Long-Term MemoryMemory
Explicit Versus Implicit Memory TasksExplicit Versus Implicit Memory TasksDefinitions and Examples
Implicit Memory Tasks—task does not directly ask for either recall or recognition; shows the effects of previous experience when we are not making a conscious effort to remember
word completion
repetition priming—recent exposure to a word increases the likelihood that you'll think of this particular word, when you are given a cue that could evoke many different words
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Retrieval in Long-Term Retrieval in Long-Term MemoryMemory
Explicit Versus Implicit Memory TasksExplicit Versus Implicit Memory TasksResearch with Normal Adults
material not remembered on explicit memory task may be remembered when tested on an implicit memory task
anesthesia studiesdissociation
levels of processing and explicit/implicit memory tasks
proactive interference
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Retrieval in Long-Term Retrieval in Long-Term MemoryMemory
Individuals with AmnesiaIndividuals with Amnesiaamnesiaretrograde amnesia—loss of memory for events
that occurred prior to brain damageanterograde amnesia—loss of memory for
events that have occurred after brain damage
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Retrieval in Long-Term Retrieval in Long-Term MemoryMemory
Individuals with AmnesiaIndividuals with Amnesiahippocampus—H.M.Warrington and Weiskrantz (1970)
presented English words to individuals with anterograde amnesia and controls
tested with explicit and implicit memory tasksdissociation
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Retrieval in Long-Term Retrieval in Long-Term MemoryMemory
ExpertiseExpertiseexpertise—consistently exceptional performance in a
particular areapractice more important than inborn skill
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Retrieval in Long-Term Retrieval in Long-Term MemoryMemory
ExpertiseExpertiseThe Context-Specific Nature of Expertise
• strong positive correlation between knowledge about an area and memory performance in that area
• more accurate than nonexperts in both recognition and recall
• immediate and delayed testing• no difference in general memory skills or
intelligence
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Retrieval in Long-Term Retrieval in Long-Term MemoryMemory
ExpertiseExpertiseHow Do Experts and Novices Differ?
1. Experts possess a well-organized, carefully learned knowledge structure, which assists them during both encoding and retrieval.
2. Experts are more likely to reorganize the new material they must recall, forming meaningful chunks in which related material is grouped together.
3. Experts typically have more vivid visual images for the items they must recall.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Retrieval in Long-Term Retrieval in Long-Term MemoryMemory
ExpertiseExpertiseHow Do Experts and Novices Differ? (continued)
4. Experts work hard to emphasize the distinctiveness of each stimulus during encoding.
5. Experts rehearse in a different fashion.
6. Experts are better at reconstructing missing portions of information from material that they partially remember.
7. Experts are more skilled at predicting the difficulty of a task and at monitoring their progress on this task.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Retrieval in Long-Term Retrieval in Long-Term MemoryMemory
ExpertiseExpertiseOwn-Race Bias
own-race bias—people are generally more accurate in identifying members of their own ethnic group than members of another ethnic groupexpertisedistinctiveness
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Retrieval in Long-Term Retrieval in Long-Term MemoryMemory
ExpertiseExpertiseOwn-Race Bias
Walker and Hewstone (2006)discrimination task—photos differing along a continuum of race; 2 photos judged same or differentBritish high school students, White and South Asianaccuracy of responses
contact hypothesisage group expertise
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Own-Race BiasOwn-Race Bias
Figure 5.2 Percentage of Accurate Responses in a Discrimination Task, as a Function of the Ethnic Group of the Student and the Ethnic Group of the Faces.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Autobiographical Autobiographical MemoryMemory
autobiographical memory—memory for events and issues related to yourself; verbal narrative, imagery, emotional reactions, procedural information; measured in terms of accuracy
ecological validity
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Autobiographical Autobiographical MemoryMemory
Characteristics of our memory for life events1. Although we sometimes make errors, our memory
is often accurate for a variety of information (Theme 2).
2. When people do make mistakes, they generally concern peripheral details and specific information about commonplace events, rather than central information about important events.
3. Our memories often blend together information; we actively construct a memory at the time of retrieval.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Autobiographical Autobiographical MemoryMemory
Schemas and Autobiographical MemorySchemas and Autobiographical Memoryschema—your general knowledge or expectation
distilled from past experiences with an event or a person
consistency bias—we tend to exaggerate the consistency between our past feelings and beliefs and our current viewpoint
Honig (1997)—Chicana garment workers strike
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Autobiographical Autobiographical MemoryMemory
Source MonitoringSource Monitoringsource monitoring—the process of trying to
identify the origin of memories and beliefs
Marsh and colleagues (1997)—recognition for own ideas and someone else's ideas; recognition vs. generation test
"wishful thinking bias"
source monitoring at a societal level
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Autobiographical Autobiographical MemoryMemory
In Depth: Flashbulb MemoriesIn Depth: Flashbulb Memoriesflashbulb memory—memory for the
circumstances in which you first learned about a very surprising and emotionally arousing event
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Autobiographical Autobiographical MemoryMemory
In Depth: Flashbulb MemoriesIn Depth: Flashbulb MemoriesThe Classic Study
Brown and Kulik (1977)—memories triggered by important political events; details of location and people
later studies suggested that people made numerous errors in recalling details of national events, even though they claimed that their memories for these events were very vivid
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Autobiographical Autobiographical MemoryMemory
In Depth: Flashbulb MemoriesIn Depth: Flashbulb MemoriesMemories about September 11, 2001
Talarica and Rubin (2003)memories of ordinary event vs. "flashbulb memory"delay before recallconsistent and inconsistent detailsconfidence
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Flashbulb MemoriesFlashbulb Memories
Figure 5.3 Average Number of Consistent and Inconsistent Details Reported for a Flashbulb Event (9/11/2001) and an Ordinary Event, as a Function of the Passage of Time
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Autobiographical Autobiographical MemoryMemory
In Depth: Flashbulb MemoriesIn Depth: Flashbulb MemoriesMemories about September 11, 2001
Pezdek (2003)—proximity to New York City; factual details vs. autobiographical
rehearsal frequency, distinctiveness, elaborationaccuracy over time
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Autobiographical Autobiographical MemoryMemory
Eyewitness TestimonyEyewitness Testimonyquestioning the validity of eyewitness testimony
DNA vs. eyewitness testimony
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Autobiographical Autobiographical MemoryMemory
Eyewitness TestimonyEyewitness TestimonyThe Post-Event Misinformation Effect
post-event misinformation effect—people view an event, are given misleading information about the event, mistakenly recall the misleading information rather than the event itself
retroactive interference
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Autobiographical Autobiographical MemoryMemory
Eyewitness TestimonyEyewitness TestimonyThe Post-Event Misinformation Effect
Loftus and coauthors (1978)—stop/yield sign experiment; consistent vs. inconsistent information
faulty source monitoringconstructivist approach to memoryconsistency bias
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Post-Event Post-Event Misinformation EffectMisinformation Effect
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Autobiographical Autobiographical MemoryMemory
Eyewitness TestimonyEyewitness TestimonyFactors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony
• People may create memories that are consistent with their schemas
• People may make errors in source monitoring• Post-event misinformation may distort people's
recall
plus
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Autobiographical Autobiographical MemoryMemory
Eyewitness TestimonyEyewitness TestimonyFactors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony (continued)
• Errors are more likely when there is a long delay between the original event and the time of the testimony.
• Errors are more likely if the misinformation is plausible • Errors are more likely if there is social pressure • Errors are more likely if eyewitnesses have been given
positive feedback.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Autobiographical Autobiographical MemoryMemory
Eyewitness TestimonyEyewitness TestimonyThe Relationship Between Memory Confidence and Memory Accuracy
in many situations, participants are almost as confident about their misinformation-based memories as they are about their genuinely correct memories
confidence not strongly correlated with accuracy
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Autobiographical Autobiographical MemoryMemory
Eyewitness TestimonyEyewitness TestimonyThe Recovered Memory/False Memory Controversy
1. The two contrasting positions in the controversy
recovered-memory perspectivefalse-memory perspective
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Autobiographical Autobiographical MemoryMemory
Eyewitness TestimonyEyewitness TestimonyThe Recovered Memory/False Memory Controversy
2. The potential for memory errorsautobiographical memory is less than perfectsource monitoring and difficulty recalling whether or not we
actually did somethingtherapist suggestionsoften can't determine accuracy
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Autobiographical Autobiographical MemoryMemory
Eyewitness TestimonyEyewitness TestimonyThe Recovered Memory/False Memory Controversy
3. Laboratory evidence of false memoryRoediger and McDermott (1995)—misremembering words
on lists; false-recall, intrusion errorsrole of associationsconstructing false memories for childhood events
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Autobiographical Autobiographical MemoryMemory
Eyewitness TestimonyEyewitness TestimonyThe Recovered Memory/False Memory Controversy
4. Arguments for recovered memorylab studies lack ecological validitycan't create false memories for very embarrassing eventsER/legal system studiesFreyd and DePrince—betrayal trauma
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 5
Autobiographical Autobiographical MemoryMemory
Eyewitness TestimonyEyewitness TestimonyThe Recovered Memory/False Memory Controversy
5. Both perspectives are partially correctsome people have truly experienced childhood sexual abuse
and may forget about the abuse for many decades until a critical event triggers recall;
other people may never have experienced childhood sexual abuse, but a suggestion about abuse creates a false memory of experiences that never really occurred;
in other cases, memory for abuse is accurate for years afterwards
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