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JKAU: Mar. Sci., Vol. 19, pp: 95-119 (2008 A.D. / 1429 A.H.)
95
Chemical Characteristics (Nutrients, Fecal Sterols and
Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons) of the Surface Waters for
Sharm Obhur, Jeddah, Eastern Coast of the Red Sea
R. Al-Farawati, A. Al-Maradni and R.G. Niaz
Marine Chemistry Department, Faculty of Marine Sciences,
King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80207 Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
Abstract. Jeddah is the second largest city in Saudi Arabia with a
population of more than 2.5 million. Its coastal area is under stress
resulting from diverse human activities. The levels of some
hydrochemical parameters (salinity , pH and dissolved oxygen (DO),
nutrients (nitrite (NO2
–
), nitrate (NO3
–
), ammonium (NH4
+
) and
reactive phosphate (PO4
–3)), fecal sterols and polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs) were measured in the surface water of Sharm
Obhur, a coastal inlet north of Jeddah, during March and June 2008.
The distribution pattern of NO2
–
, NO3
–
and NH4
+
showed a general
increase of concentration with increasing distance from the entrance of
the Sharm in both sampling periods. In contrast, the hydrographic
parameters and PO4
–3 were decreased in concentrations with
increasing distance from the entrance. In the seawater in the vicinity
of Faculty of Marine Sciences area, relatively high levels of nutrients
were detected indicating a flow of nutrients through local effluent
from an experimental fish farm. The high values of NO2
–, NO3
– and
NH4
+
at the head of Sharm were attributed to restricted water
circulation, shallowness and sediment water interaction. However, the
concentrations of nutrients in Sharm Obhur were in agreement with
the values reported in the literature for the coastal and open Red Sea.
Concentrations of fecal sterols (coprostanol) and PAHs in Sharm
Obhur were very low during both sampling periods indicating that the
area is still far from being polluted when compared to other coastal
lagoons such as Al-Arbaeen and Reayat Al-Shabab Lagoons.
R. Al-Farawati, et al. 96
Introduction
The Red Sea is a semi-enclosed sea which covers an area of about
438,000 km2, a volume of 200-250 km
3 and a coastline 1932 km long
(Couper, 1983; and Edwards and Head, 1987). The coastal areas of the
Red Sea support mangroves, coral reefs, sea grass beds and diverse fish
stocks (UNEP, 1985). It is relatively young in age if compared with other
seas and oceans. The prevailing wind tends to be determined by the
north-east monsoon in winter and south-west monsoon in summer. The
rainfall throughout the Red sea is very low (Morcos, 1970). The
maximum quantity of rainfall is attained in the central part of the Red
Sea, due to collision of air masses of the northern and southern Red Sea.
The evaporation rate is high, especially during winter, due to the
presence of the Red Sea being in arid region. In addition, there is no
rivers flow in the Red Sea. This situation leads to increasing of salinity
that approaches value as high as 41% in the surface water of the northern
Red Sea. However, the salinity values reach 36% in the southern part due
to the flow of seawater from the Indian Ocean through Straight of Bab
El-Mandab (Morcos, 1970). The exchange of water through Bab El-
Mandab is the most significant factor that determines the oceanographic
properties of the Red Sea. The connection with the Mediterranean in the
north via Suez Canal can be ignored.
Major pollution sources in the coastal areas principally come from
either land-based or sea-based activities such as industrial wastes, oil
spill incidents, and domestic sewage; all can affect coastal water quality,
marine sediment conditions, and particular organisms, as well as natural
habitats like mangrove, sea grass and coral reefs. In Jeddah City, almost
at the central area of the eastern coast of Red Sea, the rapid economic,
social, and industrial development that has taken place during the past
three decades in conjunction with an inadequacy of suitable management
provoked a great ecological stress on the coastal aquatic environment due
to the presence of high level of contaminants. The most conspicuous
pollution impact on the marine environment is nutrient enrichment,
which has become apparent in many areas of Jeddah coast such as the
South Corniche, Al-Arabeen and Reayat Al-Shabab Lagoons (Hariri, et
al., 1998; El Sayed, 2002; and El Sayed et al., 2004).
The main organic wastes of residential origin along the Sharm are
composed essentially of food wastes. These wastes are sources of
Chemical Characteristics (Nutrients, Fecal Sterols and Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons) of… 97
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, sterols etc. that increase the nutritive
value of the receiving water resulting in massive development of algae,
plankton and bacteria (eutrophication) that is the increase in the
concentration of chemical elements required for life. The products of the
mineralization of the organic wastes such as nitrogen and phosphorus
species and simple organic molecules are essential nutrients for the algal
production. These cause the organism to overpopulate to the point where
they use up most of the dissolved oxygen that is naturally found in water,
making it difficult for other organisms in the marine environment to
grow; the bacteria and algae are basically strangling other living
organisms. In addition sea water contamination may also result from the
presence of pathogenic microorganisms that can be toxic to marine
organisms and may threaten the human life.
One can easily visualize the severity of the problem if one examined
the global picture. It is estimated that 0.7 billion tons of sewage waste
sludge is annually disposed into the sea (Takada and Eagenhouse, 1977);
this figure is increasing paralleling the world population increase. In the
United States, it is estimated that about 8 billion gallons of sewage water
are dumped into the sea (treated and untreated) in the Columbus River,
Ohio State during the year 2004-2005 (Gomberg, 2005). Canada is
dumping 200 million liters of raw sewage into the sea every year
(McQueen, 2005). Mediterranean Sea is also being polluted both by the
Israelis and the Palestinians, about 500 million tons of municipal sewage
waste is dumped into the sea by Israel during the year 2008 (Liebermenn,
2008). Gaza authorities accept the fact that they are dumping 60 million
gallons of partially treated or treated sewage water into the
Mediterranean.
Fecal sterols are important biomarkers for determining the intensity
of marine pollution by municipal wastewater. Coprostanol (5β-Cholestan
3 β-ol), the principal human fecal sterols has been used as a sensitive
indicator for sewage pollution for the last several decades (Vanketsan &
Santiego, 1989). In humans, cholesterol is converted into coprostanol by
bacteria in the intestine. It is a reduction reaction, i.e. the 5.6 double bond
in cholesterol is reduced to saturated bond. It is then excreted as a fecal
sterol; about 60% cholesterol is converted into coprostanol. Since it is a
fairly stable compound and remains unchanged even after six months
despite anoxic condition, temperature and salinity variations; therefore it
has proved to be a good biomarker of fecal pollution, whereas coliform
R. Al-Farawati, et al. 98
bacteria may be destroyed by heat, oxidation or other processes
(Goodfellow et al., 1979). It was reported that the human excretion
ranges from 82 to 1272 mg of coprostanol per day (Mitchell and Diver,
1967).
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are chemical compounds
that consist of 3-4 aromatic rings fused together; very few are 5-6 rings.
They are lipophilic i.e. they mix more easily with oil than water. The
larger compounds are less water soluble and less volatile. These PAHs
are one of the most widespread pollutants, and in this respect they are of
concern as carcinogenic, mutagenic or teratogenic (producing birth
defects); their toxicity is very structurally dependant with isomeric
structures varying from non toxic to being extremely toxic. Some of
these are established carcinogenic as declared by the EPA of United
States. They possess a very characteristic UV spectrum and are also
fluorescent emitting characteristic wavelength. This property is utilized
in quantifying the PAHs by measuring the emission (310 nm) and
excitation (360 nm) spectra with respect to chrysene.
The inner shelf of the Red Sea is characterized by the presence of
numerous natural creeks (sea inlets); Sharm Obhur is one of them. It is an
attractive recreational area excessively urbanized and supporting dense
maritime activities. The aim of the present study was to measure and
quantify the levels of some hydrochemical parameters, nutrients, fecal
sterols and PAHs in the surface water of Sharm Obhur, to provide deep
insight on the impact of human activities on the water quality of the
Creek.
Materials and Methods
Twenty-four (24) samples were collected from the surface water
(30 under the surface) by using 5L Niskin bottle. Water samples were
dispatched in preconditioned appropriate sampling bottles that were kept
in plastic bags until returned to the laboratory for subsequent treatment
and analysis. Sampling locations were selected to assure a uniform
geographic coverage of the area, however, a particular interest was given
to areas suffering dense human activities, such as marinas and residential
areas. The sampling was carried out twice; in March and June 2008 to
cover two seasons: early spring and early summer. Samples for dissolved
O2 analysis were collected in ~ 250 ml BOD bottles and chemicals were
Chemical Characteristics (Nutrients, Fecal Sterols and Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons) of… 99
added in the field to fix the O2. Samples were then analyzed upon using
the classical Winkler method (Carpenter, 1965). The pH was measured in
the field using portable pH meter (Orion). The salinity samples were
collected in 300 ml glass bottles. Salinity was measured by titration of
seawater with silver nitrate in order to precipitate chloride ions as silver
chloride (Strickland and Parsons, 1972). The samples of nutrients, TDN
and TDP were taken into a preconditioned 1L Low density polyethylene
bottles (LDPE). Nutrients were analyzed according to colorimetric
methods as described by Grasshoff et al., (1983).
For fecal sterol and PAHs analysis, the water samples were treated
with 100 ml of hexane and 100 ml chloroform then shaken for 1 hour.
The organic layer was separated and dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate
and evaporated under vacuum; the final evaporation (~ 1 ml) was
completed under a stream of nitrogen. The dry extract was then dissolved
in a minimum quantity of chloroform and elemental sulfur was removed
by treating it with activated copper. The extract was saponified with 0.5
N methanolic KOH and the non-saponifiable fraction was isolated by
extraction with hexane four times. The hexane extract was dried (Jeng
and Haun, 1994) then subjected to column chromatography on silica
(top) and alumina (bottom). The column was eluted with (i) hexane (ii)
10% hexane –90% chloroform (iii) 50% hexane –50% chloroform and
(iv) 10% methanol –90% chloroform. The first fraction contained
aliphatic hydrocarbons, the second fraction contained PAH, the third
fraction contained some of the derivatives of PAH while the last fraction
contained the sterols (coprostanol is one of the sterols in the last
fraction). All the fractions were evaporated on a rotary evaporator and
finally in a stream of nitrogen. After reconstitution of the second fraction
in 50 ml of hexane the PAHs were determined measuring their
fluorescence intensity (excitation 310 nm and emission at 360 nm) (Law
and Whinnet, 1992) using a UV-spectrofluorometer (Shimadzu, RF-
5000). Standardization and quantification was done with respect to
chrysene.
The last fractions from the chromatography column containing the
sterols were also evaporated to dryness and converted into their
corresponding trimethyl silyl ethers by treatment with bis-trimethyl silyl
trifluoroacetamide (BSTFA ) at 80°C for one hour (Green and Nichols,
1995). The trimethyl silyl derivatives were repeatedly evaporated with
dichloromethane until free of BSTFA. Samples were analyzed with
R. Al-Farawati, et al. 100
internal standards, octadecanol, to aid quantification. The sterol
derivatives were analyzed by gas chromatography using GC-Shimadzu
17-A, using a capillary column 25 m long and 0.3 mm i.d. (Chromatopak
CRA-7). The temperature program was designed in two steps; initially 40
to 250°C at 25°C min–
¹ and then 250 to 300°C.
Study Area
Figure 1 shows sampling locations during March and June 2008 in
Sharm Obhur. Sharm Obhur is located at a distance of 35 km north of
Jeddah city on the eastern coast of the Red Sea. It is an attractive,
relatively narrow creek that extends a few kilometers (~ 10 km) inland. It
is narrow and deep (~ 50 m) at its mouth. The water temperature in the
Sharm varies from 23.45°C in winter to 31.62°C in summer and
generally increases towards its head. The salinity ranges between 39.1%
and 40.1% and also increases towards the head (El-Rayis and Eid, 1997).
The tidal range is very small and variable (around 0.3 m) (Ahmed and
Sultan, 1993)
Fig. 1. Map showing location of stations in Sharm Obhur during March and June 2008.
Longitude
Latitude
39.08
21.70
21.72
21.74
21.76
21.78
39.10 39.12 39.14 39.16
Chemical Characteristics (Nutrients, Fecal Sterols and Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons) of… 101
The water depth decreases gradually landward reaching about 1-2 m
at its head. The fringing reef patterns of the coast continue into the outer
part of the creek. Furthermore, the Sharm forms a perfect natural
harbour. In the southern side, a corniche was built and developed by the
municipality of Jeddah. In few places, some of restaurants and marinas
were constructed. The northern side of Sharm Obhur is fully occupied,
mainly with private and public Chalets and occasionally with marinas.
Recently, more chalets were built in the north eastern side, on an
artificial area shaped by dredging and cutting. Between 1986 and 2000
the area of Sharm has been decreased by about 800,000 m2, which
represented an average annual loss of about 60,000 m2 due to filling
processes. In addition, the physical and chemical characteristics of
sediments appear to be altered as compared with those in the previous
studies (Basaham et al., 2006). The creek is subjected to extensive use by
public through many activities such as yachting sea skating and other
maritime sports.
The hydrographic properties of the area were studied by El-Rayis
and Eid (1997). Based on the vertical distribution of temperature and
salinity of nine stations in 1990, the authors reported that three water
masses could be distinguished: a surface water mass characterized by
high temperature and salinity ; intermediate water mass distinguished by
minimum salinity with core at 10-20 m depth and a bottom water mass
that reaches maximum salinity. This structure yields a two-layer flow at
the entrance; inflow of low salinity water at both surface and
intermediate depths and outflow of a more saline water at the bottom.
Sharm Obhur is the ancient course of Wadi al-Kura to the Red Sea
running NE-SW. Wadi al-Kura the only seasonal stream that once fed the
Sharm has been inactive and closed at the head by a bridge. However, the
Sharm is likely to receive water from the Wadi only during heavy rain
(Najeeb, personal communication).
The sediments of Sharm Obhur are rich in carbonate (~ 50% of the
sediment content) that generally decreases eastward (Basahm and El-
Shater, 1994). On the other hand, the organic carbon in the sediments
averages 1.2% which is relatively higher than those in the sediments of
the northern Red Sea and the coastal sediments of Jeddah (Mohamed,
1949; and Behairy and Al Sayed, 1983.
R. Al-Farawati, et al. 102
Results and Discussion
Hydrographical Parameters and Nutrient Salts
The level of hydrographical parameters and nutrient salts obtained in
the present study are presented in Tables 1 and 2 and their surface
distribution are shown in Fig. 2 and 3. The pH values in March 2008
varied between 8.16 and 8.31 with an average of 8.27. The lowest values
were measured at the head of the Sharm (Table 1 and Fig. 2). The pH
values during June 2008 were slightly lower than those of March 2008. In
June 2008, the average pH values ranged between 8.02 and 8.23 with an
average of 8.15 (Table 2). This makes the difference in the average values
between the two seasons of 0.12. However, the distribution of pH values
during June 2008 was more or less similar to those of March 2008 (i.e. the
lowest values were found at the head of the Sharm) (Fig. 2 and 3).
The average salinity of the Red Sea is 39.2% (Edwards and Head,
1987). The average values of salinity in the present study were 39.28%
and 39.73% during March and June 2008, respectively (Tables 1 and 2).
Fig. 2 and 3 show the distribution pattern of salinity in both seasons. The
salinity increased with increasing distance from the mouth of the Sharm.
This means that salinity increase accompanied water depth decrease from
50 m at the mouth. This underlines the dominant role of the evaporation
process in the distribution of salinity and the control that it represents on
water circulation inside the Sharm. The salinity values obtained during
June 2008 are higher than those of March 2008, reflecting the
predominant weather conditions that support higher evaporation rate in
June 2008. The average values of the present study are in good
agreement with the previous data (El-Rayis and Eid, 1997).
The primary source of dissolved oxygen (DO) in seawater is the
exchange at the air-sea interface which brings DO concentration to near
saturation. However, biological processes may produce deviations from
this ideal situation. The surface water of the Red Sea is in fact quite close
to oxygen saturation; the concentration varied from a little under 4.5 ml/l
in the far north to a little over 4.0 ml/l in the far south (Edward and Head,
1987).
The DO concentration was found low at the head of the Sharm
during March and June 2008 (Fig. 2 and 3). The DO values in March
2008 varied between 5.46 and 6.41 mg l–1
with an average of 6.04,
Chemical Characteristics (Nutrients, Fecal Sterols and Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons) of… 103
whereas in June 2008 the values ranged from 4.94 to 7.50 mg l–1
with an
average of 6.24 (Tables 1 and 2). Although the average values were in
good agreement in both seasons, the variations of DO were slightly
higher in June 2008. Lowest value of 4.94 mg l–1
was measured at the
proximity of St. S23 close to the Faculty of Marine Sciences in June
2008. The DO average value of the present study was in good agreement
with the previous data of Sharm Obhur (El-Rayis and Eid, 1997).
Table 1. The concentrations of hydrographical parameters (salinity, pH and dissolved
oxygen (mg l–1)) and nutrient salts (µM) in Sharm Obhur coastal waters during
March 2008.
Station no. Ph Salinity DO NO2
─ NO3
─ NH4
+ PO4
3─
S1 8.25 39.09 6.22 0.036 0.35 1.77 0.27
S2 8.28 39.36 6.22 0.032 0.29 0.46 0.19
S3 8.29 39.09 6.22 0.011 0.15 0.57 0.19
S4 8.29 38.95 6.22 0.024 0.25 0.37 0.18
S5 8.30 39.22 6.22 0.028 0.32 0.46 0.17
S6 8.29 39.22 6.03 0.056 0.38 0.57 0.19
S7 8.28 38.82 5.84 0.120 0.92 1.51 0.21
S8 8.27 39.09 5.84 0.036 0.15 0.26 0.13
S9 8.30 38.95 6.03 0.011 0.08 0.57 0.14
S10 8.31 39.09 6.22 0.032 0.33 0.44 0.18
S11 8.28 38.82 6.03 0.051 0.58 0.94 0.16
S12 8.26 39.36 6.03 0.060 0.50 0.88 0.12
S13 8.28 39.22 5.84 0.047 0.54 0.66 0.15
S14 8.27 38.82 6.03 0.045 0.28 0.48 0.12
S15 8.28 39.49 6.22 0.047 0.30 0.46 0.17
S16 8.24 39.49 5.52 0.060 0.34 0.98 0.12
S17 8.20 40.03 5.65 0.120 0.80 0.87 0.06
S18 8.16 40.03 5.46 0.184 1.61 1.25 0.13
S19 8.28 40.03 6.22 0.049 0.52 2.06 0.14
S20 8.29 39.49 6.22 0.054 0.14 0.85 0.13
S21 8.31 39.49 6.03 0.036 0.43 0.46 0.16
S22 8.30 39.09 6.41 0.017 0.03 0.57 0.18
S23 8.28 39.09 6.31 0.049 0.71 0.42 0.26
Min. 8.16 38.82 5.46 0.011 0.03 0.26 0.06
Max. 8.31 40.03 6.41 0.184 1.61 2.06 0.27
Mean 8.27 39.28 6.04 0.051 0.43 0.78 0.16
Std. Dev. 0.03 0.36 0.25 0.040 0.34 0.47 0.05
R. Al-Farawati, et al. 104
Table 2. The concentrations of hydrographical parameters (salinity, pH and dissolved
oxygen (mg l–1)) and nutrient salts (µM) in Sharm Obhur coastal waters during
June 2008.
Station no. pH Salinity DO NO2
– NO3
– NH4
+ PO4
3–
S1 8.23 39.16 7.50 0.045 0.11 0.61 0.08
S2 8.22 39.16 6.77 0.087 0.11 0.54 0.11
S3 8.21 39.16 7.14 0.043 0.06 0.46 0.11
S4 8.21 39.32 6.41 0.049 0.16 0.45 0.13
S5 8.20 39.32 6.59 0.011 0.03 0.30 0.08
S6 8.15 39.04 6.22 0.022 0.06 0.20 0.08
S7 8.15 39.32 6.95 0.065 0.13 0.60 0.06
S8 8.20 39.46 6.22 0.027 0.09 0.23 0.11
S9 8.16 39.46 6.04 0.011 0.05 0.24 0.07
S10 8.13 39.46 6.04 0.020 0.08 0.23 0.06
S11 8.13 39.46 5.86 0.065 0.31 0.46 0.06
S12 8.11 39.46 6.04 0.034 0.22 0.26 0.05
S13 8.15 39.46 6.40 0.027 0.15 0.22 0.06
S14 8.11 39.60 6.22 0.038 0.21 0.30 0.04
S15 8.14 39.60 6.22 0.031 0.19 0.49 0.08
S16 8.14 40.00 6.41 0.067 0.29 0.32 0.04
S17 8.05 41.43 5.86 0.128 0.93 0.34 0.03
S18 8.03 41.29 5.86 0.141 1.81 0.43 0.06
S19 8.15 40.28 6.22 0.065 0.32 0.59 0.07
S20 8.12 40.00 6.40 0.099 1.07 0.65 0.08
S21 8.09 39.86 5.67 0.038 0.45 0.54 0.08
S22 8.19 39.71 6.22 0.047 0.19 0.33 0.11
S23 8.20 39.71 4.94 0.110 0.78 1.07 0.25
S24 8.02 40.71 5.67 0.186 1.30 0.78 0.05
Min. 8.02 39.04 4.94 0.011 0.03 0.20 0.03
Max. 8.23 41.43 7.50 0.186 1.81 1.07 0.25
Mean 8.15 39.73 6.24 0.061 0.38 0.44 0.08
Std. Dev. 0.06 0.63 0.52 0.044 0.46 0.21 0.04
Chemical Characteristics (Nutrients, Fecal Sterols and Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons) of… 105
NH4
pH Salinity (psu)Latitude
NO2
(μM) NO3 (μΜ)
NH4 (μΜ)
Longitude
O2 (mg.l
-1)
PO4
(μM)
0.3
0.6
0.9
1.2
1.5
8.16
8.19
8.22
8.25
8.28
39.0
39.2
39.4
39.6
39.8
40.0
5.55
5.70
5.85
6.00
6.15
0.00
0.04
0.08
0.12
0.16
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
0.09
0.12
0.15
0.18
0.21
0.24
Fig. 2. The distribution of some hydrographical parameters (salinity, pH and dissolved
oxygen) and nutrient salts in Sharm Obhur coastal waters during March 2008.
NH4
39.0
39.5
40.5
41.0
40.0
8.00
8.05
8.10
8.15
8.20
8.25
pH Salinity (psu)
Latitude
NO2
(μM) NO3 (μΜ)
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
NH4 (μΜ)
Longitude
O2 (mg.l
-1)
PO4
(μM)
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
0.03
0.06
0.09
0.12
0.15
0.3
0.6
0.9
1.2
1.5
0.06
0.09
0.12
0.15
0.18
0.21
Fig. 3. The distribution of some hydrographical parameters (salinity, pH and dissolved
oxygen) and nutrient salts in Sharm Obhur coastal waters during June 2008.
R. Al-Farawati, et al. 106
Nitrate is the dominant form of inorganic nitrogen in seawater
(Chester, 2003). Therefore, it is the major nitrogen source for the marine
phytoplankton. However, in the presence of sufficient concentration of
ammonium ion, the marine phytoplankton would prefer to utilize
ammonium during the process of photosynthesis. It was proposed that the
new production of marine phytoplankton is mainly associated with nitrate
and the production through regeneration process (break down of organic
matter and consequently production of inorganic nitrogen species) is
associated with ammonium (Dugdale and Goering, 1967). The
concentrations of nitrate ranged between 0.03 and 1.61 μM with an
average value of 0.43μM in March 2008, while values ranged between
0.03 and 1.81 μM, with an average of 0.38 μM in June (Table 1 and 2).
During the two seasons, the concentrations of nitrate were high at St. S18
and St. S24 located at the head of Sharm which could be attributed to the
relatively calm conditions; shallowness and the isolated nature of the
head of the area (Fig. 2 and 3). These conditions suggest that, in addition
to the limited circulation of the water at the head of the Sharm, the area is
at early stage of stagnant environment. This hypothesis is supported by
the data of the other variables as will be shown below.
Nitrite is an intermediate state in the oxidation-reduction reactions
between ammonium and nitrate. The main metabolism processes of the
marine organisms which determine its concentration and distribution in
the marine environment consist of; 1) production during the oxidation of
ammonium by bacteria and the reduction of nitrate by phytoplankton and
bacteria, 2) consumption by phytoplankton and bacteria (Wada and
Hattori, 1991). The distribution of nitrite exhibited similar distribution
pattern as nitrate (Fig. 2 and 3). Concentrations of nitrite were high at the
head of the Sharm reaching 0.120 and 0.184 μM at Sts. S17 and S18
respectively during March 2008 (Table 1). The value at Sts. S17, S18 and
S24 were 0.128, 0.141 and 0.186 μM, respectively during June 2008
(Table 2).
There are several biological processes which control the
concentration of ammonium in seawater (Wada and Hattori, 1991). Its
importance is evident in oligotrophic surface waters of the open oceans
as it becomes the limiting element for the primary production (Thomas,
1969). The distribution of ammonium showed relatively some differences
with the distribution of nitrate and nitrite (Fig. 2 and 3). In March 2008,
high concentrations were recorded at stations S1, S7, S18 and S19 (1.25
Chemical Characteristics (Nutrients, Fecal Sterols and Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons) of… 107
and 2.06 μM) as illustrated in Table 1. However, high values were
observed also at Stations S1 and S7. Meanwhile the distribution pattern
of ammonium in June 2008 was not consistent with the distribution
pattern in March 2008, since the highest value was observed at St. S23
(1.07 μM). A peak of both nitrite and ammonium were encountered at the
vicinity of St. S7 during March 2008 accompanied with a peak of
dissolved oxygen. This behavior could not be explained by reduction
process of nitrate. The photosynthesis process is known to produce
dissolved oxygen and organic matter by marine phytoplankton. The peak
of nitrite and ammonium suggests excretion of the two nitrogen species
by marine organisms (i.e. zooplankton) (Wada and Hattori, 1991).
Relatively high values of nitrite and ammonium at the head of the
Sharm, particularly in March 2008, were accompanied with lower
concentrations of dissolved oxygen and pH. The oxidation of organic
matter could be responsible for the production of nitrate and ammonium
and consumption of dissolved oxygen. Another important factor which is
being involved in the oxidation process is carbon dioxide. During organic
matter mineralization carbon dioxide is produced and results in the
lowering of pH. Therefore, the lowest pH values may be referred to this
process. However, salinity may also have an important impact on pH
distribution in the study area. High salinity will reduce the activity of
hydrogen ion due to its impact on the ionic strength of seawater. The
relationship between salinity and pH is shown in Fig. 4 and 5 indicating
the reverse relationship between the two parameters during both seasons.
At St. S23, close to the Faculty of Marine Science, relatively high
values of phosphate, nitrate and nitrite were detected during March 2008
(Table 1). It is evident that there is a source of nutrients to the area at this
point. An effluent draining an experimental fish farm may be the source
of the excess nitrogen and phosphorus measured in this area. The high
levels of nutrients should induce the production of organic matter.
El-Rayis and Eid, (1997) calculated the flushing time for the waters
of Sharm Obhur, they found it in the range of 1-4 days. This indicates the
importance of water masses exchange between the Sharm water and the
Red Sea water in controlling the distribution and behaviour of
hydrochemical characteristics inside the Sharm. In general, in most parts
of the Sharm, the present data suggest eutrophication due to human
activities is still limited. The saturation percentage of dissolved oxygen
R. Al-Farawati, et al. 108
can be used to trace such phenomena. The saturation of dissolved oxygen
is equal to the concentration value measured in the field divided by the
theoretical value that is based on the solubility of the oxygen at given
temperature, pressure and salinity multiple by 100. Using hydrographic
data during March 2008, the temperature 28.09°C (data of temperature
not shown but were measured by temperature sensor), salinity 39.28 and
pressure of 1 atmosphere, the theoretical values of dissolved oxygen were
calculated which approached 6.28 mg l–1
. Therefore, the saturation
percentage of oxygen is 96%. The outcome of this calculation showed
that Sharm Obhur is almost saturated with dissolved oxygen. In another
word, the concentration of dissolved oxygen is mainly controlled by the
physical factor rather than the chemical and biological activities. If the
eutrophication impact is obvious in Sharm Obhur, it should result in
either oversaturation during the early stages of eutrophication or
undersaturation during the late stages of eutrophication. The overall
results of nitrogenous species in Sharm Obhur were found in the range of
those mentioned in the literature (Table 3).
The high phosphate concentrations are traditionally associated with
the discharge of different types of human wastes, domestic, agricultural
and industrial (Saad, 1978). The average concentration of phosphate in
March 2008 was 0.16 µM. The lowest value was 0.06 µM at St. S17 and
the highest one was (0.27 μM ) at St. S1 at the entrance of the Sharm
(Table 1). In June 2008, the average value was 0.08 µM, with a minima
of 0.03 μM at St. S17 and maxima of 0.25 μM at St 23 (Table 2). Our
results are in a good agreement with those recorded in the Gulf of Aqaba
and the Red Sea (Okbah et al., 1999 ),and in the South Corniche of
Jeddah (El-Sayed et al., 2004) (Table 3). The distribution of phosphate
contrasted with that of nitrogen species in the sense that it did not show
aregular concentration increase from its mouth to its head. As mentioned,
the head of Sharm is under the influence of intermittent flow during rainy
season due to the discharge of water from Wadi Al-Kura (Najeeb,
personal communication). We suggest that Wadi Al-Kura supplies
significant quantities of nutrients depending on the rainy season. The
quantities of nutrients from Wadi Al-Kura and the in-situ dissolved
nutrients are being consumed by the marine phytoplankton, and
subsequently deposited incorporated in the dead organic matter.
Subsequent mineralization of the organic matter will liberate inorganic
nutrients that will influx to overlying water. Accordingly sediments play
Chemical Characteristics (Nutrients, Fecal Sterols and Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons) of… 109
an important role in overall phosphorus cycling in shallow ecosystem,
acting both as a sink or a source of phosphorus due to the continuous
transport of chemical species across the sediment-water interface
(Adriana and Marcos, 2005). Therefore, phosphorus concentrations of the
water column in shallow waters can be buffered by sediments
(Martinova, 1993). It is concluded that the low concentration of
phosphate ion at the head of the Sharm is attributed to precipitation of
phosphorus to the sediment since the flushing time of the water at the
head of the Sharm is assumed to be long, as compared to rest of the study
area due to the limitation of water circulation. The fluxes rate, uptake and
release from the water column as well as their circulation are considered
as the main factors which control the levels of different nutrients in the
area.
Table 3. Comparison between the concentration of nutrients that were estimated in the
present study for Sharm Obhur and neighbouring regions.
References NO3
(µM)
NO2
(µM)
NH4
(µM)
PO4
(µM) Site
Edward and Head,
1987 0.03-0.20 – – 0.05-0.10 Open waters
Okbah et al., 1999 0.5-2.62 0.03-0.15 – 0-0.24 Gulf of Aqaba
Okbah et al., 1999 0.07-0.63 0.01-0.08 – 0-0.34 Northern Red Sea
El Sayed,
Unpublished 0.08-5.1 0.05-0.3 1.0-3.7 0.0-0.08 Al-Kharrar (Rabigh)
El Sayed, 2002 0.54-12.85 0.09-4.21 1.9-368 0.21-74 Al-Arbaeen Lagoon and
Al-Shabab Lagoon
El-Sayed et al., 2004 1.58 0.09 1.12 0.26 South Corniche, Jeddah
(April 2003)
El-Sayed et al., 2004 1.33 0.12 3.14 0.96 South Corniche, Jeddah
(January 2004)
Al-Harbi and
Khomayis, 2005 0.0-1.88 0.0-0.15 0.06-1.96 0.0-0.94 Sharm Obhur
El-Rayis, unpublished 0.70 – – 0.20 Sharm Obhur
0.5-2.7 0.5-3.0 466-1140 44-95 Al-Arbaeen Lagoon El-Rayis, 1998
0.1-1.8 0.1-1.0 33-869 20-43 Al-Shabab Lagoon
Present study, March
2008 0.03-1.61 0.01-0.18 0.26-2.06 0.06-0.27
Present study, June
2008 0.03-1.81 0.01-0.19 0.20-1.07 0.03-0.25
Sharm Obhur
R. Al-Farawati, et al. 110
Figures 4 and 5 show the correlations between the studied
hydrochemical parameters in Sharm Obhur. Salinity is commonly used
by chemical oceanographers to correlate it with various parameters in the
marine environments, especially at the land-sea interface. This idea was
used successfully by El-Sayed (2002) and El-Rayis (1998) at two heavily
polluted lagoons along Jeddah coast. The authors demonstrated that the
sewage effluent was the primary responsible for the pollution in the
lagoons. However, in their studies, the variation of salinity was high
enough to be used successfully as a conservative reference. Although the
variations of salinity in Sharm Obhur were very small in both seasons, it
is interesting to notice that the salinity correlated positively with nitrate
and nitrite in June 2008 (r2 = 0.56 for nitrite and 0.71 for nitrate),
indicating possible discharge of nitrate and nitrite from land activities
(Fig. 5). The obtained correlations during March 2008 were not clear
having r2 values of 0.26 and 0.19 for nitrite and nitrate, respectively
(Fig. 4). June is at the onset month of summer season at which the human
activities in the Sharm are expected to be high as compared with that in
March. The correlation of salinity with ammonium was found to be less
pronounced at both months (r2
= 0.13 in March 2008 and r2
= 0.03 in June
2008) (Fig. 4 and 5). Surprisingly, the phosphate correlated negatively
with salinity in both seasons (r2
= 0.25 in March 2008 and 0.09 in June
2008) (Fig. 4 and 5). Strong correlation was observed between nitrate and
nitrite during March 2008 (r2
= 0.84) and June 2008 (r2
= 0.75) (Fig. 4
and 5). This implies that they have the same source.
Fecal Sterols and PAHs
The levels of the different species of fecal sterols were estimated in
duplicate samples at each of the eleven stations from Sharm Obhur
coastal waters during March and June 2008, their averages were
calculated (Tables 4 and 5). During March 2008, the levels fluctuated
between 0.20-2.77 µg l–1
at station 23 and station 5 respectively with an
average of 0.88 ug l–1
for coprostanol. Epicoprostanol was not detected at
stations 1, 3, 5, 7, 11 and 23. There was an average of 0.04 µg l–1
for
epicoprostanol. An average of 1.10 µg l–1
was observed for cholesterol;
0.20-4.44 µg l–1
at station 20 and 5 respectively. For cholestanol the
concentration ranged between 0.02-3.11 µg l–1
at station 20 and 1
respectively. For total fecal sterols the concentration range was found to
Chemical Characteristics (Nutrients, Fecal Sterols and Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons) of… 111
be from 0.30 to 9.04 μg l–1
for station 23 and 5 respectively giving an
average of 2.93 μg l–1
for the total fecal sterols (Table 4).
Fig. 4. Correlations matrices between the studied parameters in Sharm Obhur coastal
waters during March 2008.
Salinity
38.4 39.0 39.6 40.2
pH
8.10
8.16
8.22
8.28
8.34
r2
= 0.33
Salinity
38.4 39.0 39.6 40.2
O2
(m
g.l
-1)
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
r2
= 0.12
Salinity
38.4 39.0 39.6 40.2
NO
2 (µ
M)
0.00
0.06
0.12
0.18
0.24
r2
= 0.26
Salinity
38.4 39.0 39.6 40.2
NO
3 (µ
M)
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
r2
= 0.19
Salinity
38.4 39.0 39.6 40.2
NH
4 (µ
M)
0.0
0.6
1.2
1.8
2.4
r2
= 0.13
Salinity
38.4 39.0 39.6 40.2
PO
4 (µ
M)
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
r2
= 0.25
NO3 (µM)
0.0 0.6 1.2 1.8
NO
2 (µ
M)
0.00
0.08
0.16
0.24
r2
= 0.84
NO3 (µM)
0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0
NH
4 (µ
M)
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
r2
= 0.19
NO2 (µM)
0.00 0.08 0.16 0.24
NH
4 (µ
M)
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
r2
= 0.19
NO3 (µM)
0.0 0.6 1.2 1.8
PO
4 (µ
M)
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
R. Al-Farawati, et al. 112
Fig. 5. Correlations matrices between studied parameters in Sharm Obhur coastal waters
during June 2008.
Salinity
38 39 40 41 42
pH
8.0
8.1
8.2
8.3
r2
= 0.61
Salinity
38 39 40 41 42
O2
(m
g.l
-1)
4
5
6
7
8
r2
= 0.22
Salinity
38 39 40 41 42
NO
2 (µ
M)
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
r2
= 0.56
Salinity
38 39 40 41 42
NO
3 (µ
M)
-0.7
0.0
0.7
1.4
2.1
r2
= 0.71
Salinity
38 39 40 41 42
NH
4 (µ
M)
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
r2
= 0.03
Salinity
38 39 40 41 42
PO
4 (µ
M)
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
r2
= 0.09
NO3 (µM)
0.0 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4
NO
2 (µ
M)
0.00
0.06
0.12
0.18
0.24
r2
= 0.75
NO3 (µM)
0.0 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4
NH
4 (µ
M)
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
r2
= 0.19
NO2 (µM)
0.00 0.08 0.16 0.24
NH
4 (µ
M)
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
r2
= 0.37
NO3 (µM)
0.0 0.8 1.6 2.4
PO
4 (µ
M)
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
Chemical Characteristics (Nutrients, Fecal Sterols and Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons) of… 113
Table 5. The levels of fecal sterols in (µg l–1) in Sharm Obhur coastal waters during June,
2008.
Sta-
tion
PAHs
μg l–1
Coprostanol
(5β Cholestan
3 β ol) μg l–1
Epicoprostanol
(5 β -Cholestan
3α.ol) μg l–1
Cholesterol
(Cholest 5-en
3 β -ol) μg –1
Cholestanol (5
α -cholestan 3
β -ol) μg l–1
Total
fecal
sterols
μg l–1
1 0.91 ND ND 0.09 0.04 0.13
3 1.23 0.30 0.04 0.67 0.01 1.02
5 1.22 0.33 ND ND 0.14 0.47
7 1.92 0.30 ND ND 0.25 0.55
11 0.56 1.10 0.07 0.36 0.15 1.68
14 1.42 0.55 0.08 1.4 0.09 1.83
16 1.38 0.22 ND 0.21 0.02 0.45
19 1.27 0.26 ND 0.08 0.03 0.37
20 1.32 0.39 ND 0.59 0.05 1.03
21 .28 ND ND 0.40 ND 0.40
23 1.68 0.09 ND 0.09 0.01 0.19
Avg. 1.29 0.32 0.02 0.35 0.07 0.74
ND : Not Detected.
Table 4. The levels of fecal sterols (µg l–1) in Sharm Obhur coastal waters during March,
2008.
Station PAHs
Coprostanol
(5β Cholestan
3 β ol)
Epicoprostanol
(5 β -Cholestan
3α.ol)
Cholesterol
(Cholest 5-en
3 β -ol)
Cholestanol (5
α –cholestan
3 β -ol)
Total fecal
sterols
1 ND 1.76 ND ND 3.11 4.87
3 ND 1.33 ND 2.15 2.65 6.16
5 1.62 2.77 ND 4.44 1.83 9.04
7 1.27 0.40 ND 0.99 0.52 1.91
11 1.11 0.45 ND 1.71 0.94 3.10
14 ND 0.57 0.23 1.33 0.57 2.70
16 1.10 1.13 0.16 0.88 0.21 2.38
19 1.73 0.47 0.05 0.08 0.06 0.66
20 1.00 0.31 0.01 0.20 0.02 0.55
21 1.17 0.23 0.03 0.24 0.05 0.55
23 0.30 0.20 ND 0.06 0.09 0.30
Avg. 0.85 0.88 0.04 1.10 0.91 2.93
ND : Not Detected.
R. Al-Farawati, et al. 114
During June 2008, the average of each of these constituents
registered 0.32, 0.02, 0.35, 0.07 and 0.74 μg l–1
for coprostanol,
epicoprostanol, cholesterol, cholestanol and total fecal sterols
respectively (Table 5). Based on the data of two months, one can
distinctly feel an overall reduction in the concentrations of the fecal
sterols from March to June. The levels of the present study were found
too less when compared with those obtained from the south coast of
Jeddah which registered an average of 7.70 μg l–1
for coprostanol and
fluctuation between 11.35 and 48.0 μg l–1
for total fecal sterols (El-Sayed
and Niaz, 2000). Literature survey indicated that sterols were in high
concentrations when the sewage was untreated (or partially treated)
dumped into the sea. In Germany, in the city of Bayreth, coprostanol and
cholesterol were found in the range 30-180 μg l–1
near the sewage water
treatment plant (Beck and Radke, 2006). Coprostanol occurred in high
concentration in estuary of southeast coast of Brazil. It ranged from 12.3
μg g–1
and 70.6 μg g–1
in water and sediments respectively ( Livia et al.,
2008). A group of Italian scientists studied fecal sterols and detected an
average of 34.5 μg l–1
of coprostanol in the contaminated samples (Gilli
et al., 2006). When the water samples were analyzed in the South Sea of
China, near the estuary, it was observed a maximum of 53 μg g–1
in the
surface sediments and 26 μg l–1
in the water samples near the estuary.
(Peng et al., 2005). A team of marine scientists studied the marine
pollution in the urban areas of Malaysia and Vietnam. They studied 59
samples from the river waters and a maximum of 13.5 μg l–1
was
observed in these samples. Their conclusions were that proper sanitary
conditions were not maintained in most of the urban areas of the two
countries (Isobe et al., 2002). Domestic sewage contamination in Iguacu
River in Brazil was studied, it was observed that coprostanol was in high
concentrations in 17 stations. It ranged from 12.3 μg l–1
to 70.6 μg l–1
and
they recommended that it needs immediate remedification for the
improvement of the situation ( Livia et al., 2008). It can be summarized
that fecal sterols were obtained in the present study in very low quantity
and consequently the intensity of the sewage pollution was very low; it is
not causing a threat to marine organisms or to the human health via sea
food chain.
PAHs were determined spectroflorometrically and quantified with
chrysene standards. During March 2008, the levels were not detectable in
three out of eleven stations and the rest were in small amounts. It ranged
Chemical Characteristics (Nutrients, Fecal Sterols and Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons) of… 115
from 0.30 μg l–1
to 1.73 μg l–1
(St. S23 and S19, respectively). During
June 2008 they varied between 0.56 μg l–1
to 1.92 μg l–1
S7,
respectively). One can see that these PAHs were not to be worried about.
If one can take an overview of the picture, he can find that the coastal
water of Sharm Obhur was still far away from pollution based on the
small amounts of fecal sterols and the PAHs found in the samples study.
Conclusion
The concentrations of nutrients, coprstanol and PAHs were measured
in the surface water of Sharm Obhur during two seasons; early spring
(March 2008) and early summer (June 2008). The results of the study
were compared to the previous studies on the same and neighboring
regions. It was found that their concentrations are in general, similar to
those reported in the coastal and open waters of the Red Sea. However,
the concentrations of nutrient at the head of the Sharm and close to
Faculty of Marine Sciences were relatively high if compared with the
other parts of the Sharm. The head of the Sharm is artificially constructed
through dredging and cutting to build private Chalets. The depth of the
water at the head is low (~2m). Therefore, this could restrict the water
circulation at this area. Also, wadi Al-Kura may carry some of the
chemical constituents during rainy season at the head. These factors may
lead to the accumulation of organic matter in the sediment that undergoes
oxidation and subsequently the diffusion of nutrients (nitrate, nitrite and
ammonium) to the overlying water. Phosphate at the head of the Sharm
was suggested to be controlled mainly by precipitation to sediment. The
concentrations of coprostanol and PAHs were found in negligible
amounts. Although Sharm Obhur is far away from being polluted, it is
important to implement good management system to protect it from
pollution.
Acknowledgments
The study was financed by KAU grant No. 253/428. We gratefully
acknowledge Al-Zoubidi Musa and Al-Halawani Ibrahim for their
cooperation to carry out fieldwork and analysis. We also acknowledge
the two anonymous referees for their pertinent comments.
R. Al-Farawati, et al. 116
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R. Al-Farawati, et al. 118
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