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Chapter 11
Mediterranean Society: The Roman Phase
From Kingdom to Republic
The Etruscans and Rome
• Legend: City’s existence owed to flight of Aeneas
• Migrated from Troy
• The Aeneid by Virgil
• Indo-Europeans arrive 2000 B.C.E. – blend
• Bronze arrives c. 1800, Iron c. 900
Romulus and Remus
• Twin descendants of Aeneas
• Abandoned by evil uncle along Tiber River
• Nursed by wolf and grow strong
• 753 B.C.E. – Romulus founds Rome – becomes king
The Etruscans
• from Anatolia
• Colonized Roman regions
• Thriving cities, economic alliances (bronze, iron)
• Society declines late 6th c. BCE• Greek maritime attacks• Celtic invasions from
north (Gaul)
The Kingdom of Rome
• Monarchy through 7th-6th c. BCE
• Geographic advantage – along Tiber, not on coast
• Streets, temples, public buildings
• Major center of trade routes
• Benefits from decline of Etruscans
The Roman Republic and Its Constitution
• 509 B.C.E. – Romans overthrow last Etruscan king
• Replaced with Aristocratic republic
Establishment of the Republic
• Roman Forum
• Republican constitution
• Executive: 2 consuls with civil and military powers
• Consuls elected by assembly of aristocrats (hereditary)
• Senate – advised consuls and ratified decisions
Conflicts Between Patricians and Plebeians
• Patricians (aristocrats)
• Plebeians (commoners)
• Plebeians allowed to elect tribunes for representation
• Rights expanded through 3rd c. BCE
• 6-month appointments of dictators in emergencies
Expansion of the Republic
• Dominated Etruscans
• Took over iron industry 5th-4th c. BCE
• Expansion via military threat and incentives• Tax exemptions• Trade privileges• Citizenship• Restricted alliances• Required military
service
Roman Republic 146 B.C.E.
Expansion in the Mediterranean
• Carthage main competitor
• Antigonids, Ptolemies, Seleucids
• Hellenistic prosperity supported growing trade network
The Punic Wars
• Conflict with Carthage, 264-164 BCE
• 3 wars over Sicilian grain supply
• Rome gains control of Carthaginian lands
• Rome dominates Mediterranean by middle of 2nd C. BCE
From Republic to Empire
Imperial Expansion and Domestic Problems
• Land distribution• Perennial
problem• Development of
large latifundia• Unfair
competition for smaller landholders
The Gracchi Brothers
• Tiberius and Gaius
• Attempted to limit land holdings of aristocrats
• Assassinated
• Development of private armies made up of landless peasants• Gaius Marius (with
reformers)• Lucius Cornelius Sulla
(with aristocrats)
Civil War
• 87 BCE Gaius Marius takes Rome
• Lucius Cornelius Sulla drives Marius out 83 BCE
• Reign of terror follows – encourages Romans to kill “enemies” of the state
• Sulla imposed conservative programs – weakened influence of lower classes
The Foundation of Empire
• Rome still plagued with class conflict
• Poor flooded cities, joined private militaries
• Julius Caesar become a popular leader in favor of social reform
• Led the process from republic to imperial rule
Julius Caesar
• Nephew of Marius
• Escapes Sulla’s terror• Relatively young, well-
timed trip abroad
• Attacks Rome 49 BCE
• Names self Dictator for life in 46 BCE
• Centralized rule, confiscated land from conservatives
• Assassinated in 44 B.C.E.
Augustus
• Civil conflict follows death of Caesar
• Nephew Octavian fights Mark Antony & Cleopatra
• Takes title Augustus 27 BCE
• Ruled for 45 years
Augustus’s Administration
• Monarchy disguised as a republic
• Kept republican form of government
• Increasing centralization of political, military power
• Stablilized empire
• Death in 14 CE
Continuing Expansion and Integration of the Empire
• Roman occupation of increasingly remote areas• Gaul, Germany, Britain,
Spain
• Integrate into economy and society
• Coordination of crop production, transport of natural resources
• Allied with local rulers
• Developed infrastructure, cities emerge (Paris, Lyons, London, Cologne, Segovia)
Roman Empire - 117 C.E.
The Pax Romana
• Roman Peace
• 27-250 CE
• Facilitated trade, communication
Roman Roads
• Roads linked the territories, supported trade and communication
• Curbs, drainage, milestones
• Postal service
Roman Law
• Twelve Tables, c. 450 BCE
• Adapted to diverse populations under Roman Rule
• Laws integrated larger society
• Innocent until proven guilty
• Right to challenge accusers in court
Economy and Society in the Roman Mediterranean
Trade and Urbanization
• Focus on Mediterranean
• Growing economy brings social change
• State brings more regions into control
• Agriculture – foundation of economy
Commercial Agriculture
• Latifundia: production for export
• Regional specialization increases – better use of land
• Integration of Empire-wide economy• Spain- olive oil, wine, horses,
metals
• Palestine and Syria – fruits, nuts, wool
• Italy – pottery, glassware, bronze
• Greece – olives, vines
• Gaul – grain, copper
Mediterranean Trade
• Vigorous trade
• Sea lanes linked ports from Syria and Palestine to Spain and North Africa
• Roman navy kept sea free of pirates – cargo safer and larger
• “mare nostrum” – our sea
The City of Rome
• Cities promoted economic and social change
• Cash flowed to Rome• Taxes, tribute, spoils,
commerce
• Massive construction projects• Statuary, monumental
architecture, aqueducts
• Technology: concrete
Roman Cities
• Cities built at strategic points
• Imported goods, luxury items
• Underground sewage
• Circus Maximus• 250,000 spectators
• Colosseum
• Gladitorial Games
Family and Society
• Roman family consisted of entire household• Slaves• Free
Servants• Close
relatives
The Pater Familias
• Pater Familias: “father of the family”• Right to arrange
marriages, sell children into slavery, determine work, punish as see fit
• Women not allowed to inherit property• Rarely enforced• Supervised household
Wealth and Social Change
• Newly rich challenge aristocracy
• Poor class increased in size
• Often rioted to improve conditions
• Distraction: “Bread and Circuses”
Slavery
• 2nd c. CE: estimated at 1/3 of Empire population• Customary manumission at
age 30
• Agricultural work, quarries, mines
• Chain labor
• Revolt under Spartacus, 73 BCE – 70,000 slaves
• Educated slaves - Epictetus
The Cosmopolitan Mediterranean
Greek Philosophy and Religions of Salvation
• As people moved throughout the Mediterranean world, they carried their religious beliefs
• Roads and communications spread popular religions
Roman Deities
• Polytheistic
• Major gods – Jupiter, Mars, Ceres (grain)
• Tutelary deities
• Absorption of gods from other cultures
Greek Influence
• Influenced Roman philosophy and use of reasonable thought
• Stoics – sought universal moral standards
Cicero and Stoicism
• Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-46 BCE)
• Major orator, writer
• Influenced by Greek thought
• Proponent of Stoicism
• Emphasized duty to live in accordance with nature and reason
• Pursuit of justice as highest duty
Religions of Salvation
• Masses found comfort in religions of salvation
• Provided a sense of purpose
• Spread during Hellenistic times
• Brought to Rome by migrants
• Roads served as highways for religions of salvation
Mithraism
• From Zoroastrian myth: god of Sun, light
• Roman version emphasizes strength, courage, discipline
• Women not admitted into cult
• Appealed to military
Cult of Isis
• Open to men and women
• Most popular religions of salvation before Christianity
• Used to cope with stresses of cosmopolitan life
Judaism and Early Christianity
• 10th century BCE – Jewish Kingdoms of David and Solomon dissolve
• Jewish faith maintained by followers under foreign rulers
• Jews did not want to participate in worshipping of deities
The Jews and the Empire
• Jewish monotheism at odds with most ancient cultures
• Refusal to recognize state gods
• Tension grows as Rome expands into Southwest Asia
• Repeated Jewish rebellions in Palestine
• Romans finally crush Jewish self-governance in Jewish Wars (66-70 CE)
The Essenes
• Messianic Jewish Cult
• 1st century BCE
• Strict moral codes
• Baptism – ritual
• look for savior to free from Roman rule
• Ascetic lifestyle
• Dead Sea Scrolls
Jesus of Nazareth
• Jewish teacher
• Born about 4 BCE
• Moral code, reputation for miracle-working
• “kingdom of God is at hand”
• Romans fear instigation of rebellion, crucify Jesus in early 30s CE
• Iesus Nazarenus Rex Iudaeorum
Jesus’ Early Followers
• Belief in Jesus’ resurrection, divine nature (later)
• Title Christ: “Anointed One”
• Teachings recorded in New Testament
• Over time, teach he is son of God
Paul of Tarsus
• Jewish followers – some want to gain converts
• Extends teachings far beyond Jewish circles
• Jew from Anatolia
• Intensive travel, missionary activity
Early Christian Communities
• Local leaders: Bishops
• Regional variation in doctrine and ritual• Nature of
resurrection• Role of women
• Gradual acceptance of core texts
The Growth of Early Christianity
Summary
• Under Romans, Mediterranean peoples become tightly integrated
• Roman Empire – Administration over vast lands
• Specialized agriculture and industrial production
• Spread of popular religions, Philosophy
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