Chapter 3 Views of Nature Humboldt - suzannelalonde.us 3 Views of Nature... · Views of Nature Or...

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ViewsofNatureOrContemplationsontheSublimePhenomenaofCreation(1850)

ByAlexandervonHumboldt

(UniversityofChicagoPress.KindleEdition(2014)).

Chapter3:TheNocturnalWildlifeofthePrimevalForest(excerpt)

OnemayassertthatthemanyformsofactiveappreciationofNatureamongdifferentpeoples,andthecharacteristicsofthecountriesthesepeopleshaveinhabitedortransmigrated,havetovaryingdegreesenrichedlanguage.Theyhaveenricheditwithsharplyindicativewordsfortheshapesofmountains,thepropertiesofvegetation,aspectsofatmosphericmotion,andtheformandgroupingofclouds.Itisalsotrue,however,thatmanyofthesedescriptiveterms,throughlonguseandthevagariesofliterature,haveabandonedtheiroriginalmeaning.Thingsthatshouldremaindistinctaregraduallyconsideredsynonymous,andlanguagelosessomeofthegraceandpowerwithwhichitwasabletodepict,initsdescriptionsofNature,thephysiognomiccharacterofthelandscape.ToshowthelinguisticrichnessthatintimacywithNatureandtheprivationsofthestrenuousnomadiclifestylecanbringforth,Icitetheinnumerablecharacteristictermsbywhichplains,steppes,anddesertsaredifferentiatedinArabicandPersian,1accordingtowhethertheyarecompletelybare,orcoveredwithsand,orinterruptedbycliffs,whethertheyhaveisolatedpastureareasorfeaturelongstretchesofsociallygrowingplants.AlmostequallyremarkablearethemanyexpressionsinOld

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Castiliandialects2forthephysiognomyofthosemountainousmasseswhoseformationsappeareverywhereunderthesunandindicate,evenatgreatdistances,thenatureofthestoneofwhichtheyarecomposed.SincepeoplesofSpanishextractioninhabittheslopesoftheAndeschain,themountainousportionoftheCanaryIslands,theAntilles,andthePhilippines,andbecausethecontoursofthegroundintheseplacesinfluencethelivesoftheinhabitantstoagreaterdegreethananywhereelseonEarth(withthepossibleexceptionoftheHimalayasandtheTibetanPlateau),thedifferenttermsformountainsinthetrachyte,basalt,andporphyryregions,aswellasintheslate,limestone,andsandstonemountains,havefortunatelyremainedindailyuse.Newforms,too,enterthecommontreasuryoflanguage.Thespeechofhumansisenlivenedbyeverythingindicativeofnaturaltruth,beitintherepresentationofsensoryimpressionsreceivedfromtheouterworldorofprofoundlystirredthoughtandinnerfeelings. ThegoalofalldescriptionsofNatureistheceaselessstrivingafterthistruth,bothinunderstandingphenomenaandinchoosingthedescriptiveexpression.Itismosteasilyachievedbysimplenarrationofwhathasbeenobservedandexperienceddirectly,throughthelimitingindividualizationofthesituationonwhichthenarrativehangs.GeneralizationofphysicalappearancesandenumerationofresultsbelongtothestudyoftheCosmos,whichadmittedlyremainsforusaninductivescience.Butthelivingdescriptionoforganisms,ofanimalsandofplants,withinthecontextoftheirnaturallocalrelationshiptothemany-facetedsurfaceoftheEarth(asasmallpartoftheEarth’scollectivelife)presentsthematerialofthatstudy.Whereverthisdescriptioncanexaminegreatnaturalphenomenainanaestheticmanner,itexcitesthemind. IncludedamongthesegreatnaturalphenomenaissurelytheimmeasurableforestregioninthetropicalzoneofSouthAmericathatfillstheconjoinedriversystemsoftheOrinocoandtheAmazon.Inthestrictestsenseoftheword,thisregionearnsthenameof“primeval”forest,atermthathasoflatesufferedconsiderablemisuse.Phrasesusingprimeval,whetherdescribingaforest,aperiod,orapeople,areinexactandforthemostpartsubjective.Ifeverywildforestofdenselygrowingtreesuponwhichmanhasnotyetlaidhisdestructivehandiscalledaprimevalforest,thenthephenomenonisnativetomanypartsofthetemperateandfrigidzones.Butifthecharacterliesinimpenetrability,intheimpossibility,overlongstretches,ofcuttingapathwithanaxthroughtreeswithadiameterof8to12feet,thentheprimevalforestbelongsexclusivelytothetropics.Anditisbynomeansonlytheropelike,tendrillarclimbingvinesorlianasthatare,asinthetalestoldinEurope,thecauseofthisimpenetrability.Thelianasmakeuponlyasmallpartofthetotalmassoftheundergrowth.Theprimaryhindranceiscreatedbythebushygrowththatfillseveryopenspace—inazonewhereeverythingthatcoversthegroundbecomeswoody.Whentravelerswhohavejustlandedinatropicalregion,evenperhapsonanisland,alreadythink(whilestillnearthecoast)thattheyhavepushedtheirwayintoaprimevalforest,thismisconceptionprobablyliesintheirlongingforthefulfillmentofalong-cherishedwish.Noteverytropicalforestisaprimevalforest.Ihavealmostneverusedthislatterterminmytravelworks—yetIbelievemyselftobeamongthoselivingexplorersofNature,likeBonpland,Martius,Pöppig,andRobertandRichard

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Schomburgk,whohavelivedthelongestintheprimevalforestsofthedeepestinteriorofagreatcontinent. InspiteoftheconspicuouswealthoftermsdescriptiveofNatureintheSpanishlanguage,whichImentionabove,oneandthesameword,monte,isemployedforbothmountainandforest,forcerro(montaña)andselva.InaworkonthetruebreadthandthelongesteastwardextensionoftheAndeschain,IshowedhowthatdualmeaningofthewordmontewasthereasonbehindabeautifulandwidelydistributedEnglishmapofSouthAmericahavingdisplayedrowsofhighmountains,ratherthanforests,standingontheplains.ForwhereastheSpanishmapofLaCruzOlmedilla,whichhasservedasthebasisforsomanyothers,haddepictedcacaoforest,montesdecacao,3cordillerassprangupontheEnglishmap,eventhoughcacaotreesseekonlythehottestdepressions. IfonelookswithageneraloverviewupontheforestedregionthatconstitutesallofSouthAmericabetweenthegrasssteppesofVenezuela(losLlanosdeCaracas)andthePampasofBuenosAires,i.e.,between8°northand19°southlatitude,onewillrecognizethatthiscontinuoushylaeaforestofthetropicalzoneisequaledinscopebynootheronEarth.Itpossessesasurfaceareaapproximately12timesthatofGermany.Crisscrossedinalldirectionsbyriversandstreams,whosebranchesandtributariesofprimaryandsecondaryorderoccasionallysurpassourDanubeandRhineinwatervolume,thisforestowestheextraordinarilyluxuriantgrowthofitstreestothedualbeneficialeffectsofgreathumidityandheat.Inthetemperatezone,especiallyinEuropeandNorthernAsia,forestscanbenamedafterthespeciesoftreesthatformthembygrowingtogetherassocialplants(plantaesociales).Intheoak,fir,andbirchforestsoftheNorth,inthelindenforestsoftheEast,asinglespeciesofAmentaceae,conifer,orTiliaceaeusuallypredominates;occasionallyoneconiferousspecieswillbemixedtogetherwithahardwood.Suchhomogeneityofspeciesisunknowninthetropicalforests.Theimmensediversityofblossomingforestfloraforbidsthequestion“Whatmakesuptheprimevalforest?”Aninconceivablenumberoffamiliesgrowsidebysidehere;eveninsmallspaces,fewspeciesarefoundexclusivelyamongtheirownkind.Witheachday,witheachchangeofstopping-place,thetravelerismetwithnewforms;oftenheseesblossomsthat,thoughhisattentionisdrawnbytheshapeoftheirleavesandtheirmannerofbranching,aresimplybeyondhisreach. Therivers,withtheirinnumerablesmallerarms,aretheonlypathsthroughthiscountry.Astronomicalobservations,or,lackingthese,compassreadingsoftheriverbends,haveonmanyoccasionsshown,intheregionbetweentheOrinoco,theCassiquiare,andtheRioNegro,howtherecanbetwolonelymissionvillageslyingwithinthespaceofsomefewmileswhosemonks,followingthewindingsofsmallstreamsincanoesfashionedfromhollowed-outtreetrunks,requireoneandahalfdaystogoandvisitoneanother.ButthemostconspicuousevidenceoftheimpenetrabilityofcertainpartsoftheforestisillustratedbythehabitsofthegreatAmericantiger,thepantherlikejaguar.Thesepredators,thankstotheintroductionofEuropeancattle,horses,andmules,havebeenabletofindbountifulnourishmentintheLlanosandPampas,thosevast,treelessgrasslandsofVarinas,oftheMeta,andofBuenosAires,andthankstothisunevenconflictwiththecattleherdstheyhave,sincethediscoveryofAmerica,greatlyincreasedtheirnumbersthere.Butsome

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individualsofthissamebreedleadademandinglifewithinthethicketoftheforests,neartothesourcesoftheOrinoco.ThepainfullossofalargedogoftheGermanmastiffvariety(ourmostfaithfulandfriendlytravelcompanion)atabivouacnearwheretheCassiquiareflowsintotheOrinocowouldlatercompelus,aswewerereturningfromtheinsectswarmstotheEsmeraldaMission,tospendasecondnightthere,searchingforthedoginvainanduncertainastowhetherhehadbeensavagedbyatiger.Quitenearby,weheardagainthecryofthejaguar,probablytheveryonetowhichwecouldattributethedreadfuldeed.Sincethecloudyskieshinderedastronomicalobservation,wehadtheinterpreter(lenguaraz)repeattouswhatthenatives,ouroarsmen,toldaboutthetigersofthearea. Notuncommonamongtheseistheso-calledblackjaguar,thelargestandmostbloodthirstyvariation,withblack,barelyvisiblespotsonadarkbrowncoat.ItlivesatthefootofthemountainsMaraguacaandUnturan.“Thejaguars,”anIndianoftheDurimundtriberelated,“throughtheirdesiretowanderandhunt,losethemselvesinsuchimpenetrablepartsoftheforestthattheycannothuntontheground,andsolivelonginthetrees,aterrortothemonkeyfamiliesandtheKinkajouwiththecurlingtail[Cercoleptes].” MyGermanjournals,fromwhichItakethisinformation,werenotcompletelyexhaustedintheFrenchtraveloguethatIpublished.Theyalsocontainadetaileddepictionofthenocturnalwildlife—Icouldsaythenocturnalanimalvoices—ofthetropicalforests.IconsiderthisdepictionespeciallywellsuitedforabookthatwillhavethetitleViewsofNature.Wordsthatarewrittendowninthepresenceofthephenomenon,orshortlyafterward,canlayclaimtomorefreshnessoflifethantheechoesoflaterremembrance. TravelingfromwesttoeastbywayoftheRioApure,whosefloodingIdiscussedintheessayconcerningsteppesanddeserts,wewereabletoreachthebedoftheOrinoco.Itwasatthetimeoflowwater.TheApure’saveragewidthwasbarely1,200feet,whileIfoundthatoftheOrinocoatitsconfluencewiththeApure(notfarfromthegraniteCuriquimacliff,whereIwasabletotakealineofbearing)tostillbeover11,430feet.ButtheCuriquimacliffisstill,ifmeasuredinastraightline,ahundredgeographicalmilesfromtheseaandfromthedeltaoftheOrinoco.Onepartoftheplains,throughwhichtheApureandthePayaraflow,isinhabitedbytribesofYarurosandAchaguas.Inthemissiontownsofthemonkstheyarecalledsavagesbecausetheydesiretoliveindependently.Asforthedegreetowhichtheirmoralityisprimitive,theyarequiteonthesamelevelasthosewho,whilebaptizedandliving“underthebell(baxolacampana),”neverthelessremainstrangerstoallinstructionandtoanydoctrine. OnwardfromtheisledelDiamante,uponwhichtheSpanish-speakingZamboscultivatesugarcane,oneentersagreatandwildNature.Theairwasfilledwithcountlessflamingos(Phoenicopterus)andotherwaterfowlthat,likeadarkcloudwithanever-changingoutline,liftedthemselvesintothebluevaultoftheheavens.Theriverbednarrowstoawidthof900feetandformsaperfectlystraightcanalthatishemmedinonbothsidesbythickforestation.Theedgeoftheforestpresentsanunusualsight:beforethenearlyimpenetrablewallofthegigantictrunksofCaesalpinia,Cedrela,andDesmanthus,thereariseswithgreatregularityfromthesandybankoftheriveralowsausohedge.Itstandsonly4feethighandconsistsofa

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smallshrub,Hermesiacastaneifolia,whichconstitutesanewspecies4ofthefamilyofEuphorbiaceae.Nexttothehedgestandafewslender,thornypalms(varieties,perhaps,oftheMartinezeiaorBactris),calledPirituandCorozobytheSpaniards.Thewholeresemblesatrimmedgardenhedgewithgatelikeopeningsatgreatdistancesfromoneanother.Thelargequadrupedsoftheforestundoubtedlycreatedtheseopeningsforeasyaccesstothestream.Onemayobserveemergingfromthem,especiallyintheearlymorningandatsundown,theAmericantiger,thetapir,andthepeccary(Pecari,Dicotyles)takingtheiryoungtowater.Shouldtheywish,uponbeingdisturbedbythepassingcanoeofanIndian,towithdrawagaintotheforest,theydonotattempttopenetratethehedgebymereforce;instead,oneistreatedtothesightofthewildanimalrunningsomefourtofivehundredpacesbetweentheriverbankandthehedgebeforedisappearingintothenextopening.Whilemakingour74-dayvoyage,duringwhichwewereconfined,withbutfewinterruptions,toanarrowcanoefor380geographicalmilesupontheOrinoco,theCasiquiare,andtheRioNegro,thesamespectaclerepeateditselfforusatmanypoints,eachtime,Idaresay,renewingourdelight.Thereappearedingroups,whethertodrink,bathe,orfish,creaturesofthemostdisparateclasses:alongwiththelargemammalsweremulticoloredherons,Palamedeae,andtheproudlystruttingCracidae(Craxalector,C.pauxi).Ourpilot,anIndianwhohadbeenraisedinthehomeofaclergyman,utteredwithapiousexpression,“ItislikebeinginParadisehere[escomoenelparaiso].”ButthesweetpeaceoftheprimevalgoldenagedoesnotreignintheParadiseoftheAmericananimalworld.Instead,thecreatureswatchforandavoidoneanother.Thecapybara,the3-to4-foot“waterswine”—acolossalversionofthecommonBrazilianguineapig(Caviaaguti)—iseateninthewaterbythecrocodileandonlandbythetiger.Andyetitrunssopoorlythatwewereableseveraltimestoovertakeandcaptureindividualsfromthenumerousherds. WecampedonenightbelowtheMissionofSantaBarbaradeArichuna,undertheopenskyasusual,lyingonastretchofsandonthebankoftheApure.Theareawascloselysurroundedbytheimpenetrableforest.Wehaddifficultyfindingdrywoodforthefireswithwhich,accordingtolocalcustom,everybivouacissurroundedtodiscouragejaguarattacks.Thenightwasmildlyhumidwithabrightmoon.Severalcrocodilesapproachedthebank.WhatIobserved,Ibelieve,isthatthesightofthefireactuallyattractsthem,muchasitdoesourcrabsandotherwatercreatures.Theoarsofoursmallboatswerecarefullyplantedintothegroundsothatwemightattachourhammockstothem.Quietreigned;oneheardonlytheoccasionalsnortingofthefreshwaterdolphins,5whicharenativebothtotheOrinocoriversystemand(accordingtoColebrooke)totheGangesasfarasBenares,followingoneanotherinlongprocessions. After11o’clocktherearoseintheforestnearbysuchaclamorthatwewereforcedtoabandonallhopeofsleepfortherestofthenight.Thecriesofwildbeaststhunderedthroughthewoods.Amongthemanyvoicesthatsimultaneouslygavecry,theIndianscouldidentifyonlythosethatmightbeheardsinglyafterashortpause.Therewerethemonotonous,plaintivehowlsofthealouattae(howlermonkeys),thewhining,finelypipingtoneofthelittlesapajous,thequaveringgrumbleofthestripednightmonkeys6(Nyctipithecustrivirgatus,whichIfirstdescribed),thesporadiccriesofthegreattiger,thecougarormanelessAmerican

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lion,thepeccary,thesloth,andahostofparrots,parraquas(Ortelida),andotherpheasantlikebirds.Wheneverthetigerscameneartotheforestedge,thedog(thatwelaterlost),whohadbeenbarkingwithoutinterruption,wouldwhininglyseekrefugeunderourhammocks.Occasionally,thetiger’scrywouldcomedownfromthetopofatree.Intheseinstancesitwouldalwaysbeaccompaniedbythepipingtonesofthemonkeys,whosoughttoescapethisunusualpursuit. ShouldoneasktheIndianswhythisincessantnoiseshouldariseoncertainnights,theywouldanswerwithasmile,“Theanimalsareenjoyingthebeautifulmoonlight;theyarecelebratingthefullmoon.”Tome,thesceneappearedtooriginatemerelybychance,developingintoalong-extendedandever-amplifyingbattleoftheanimals.Thejaguarpursuesthepeccariesandtapirs,who,driventogether,crashthroughthearborescentshrubbery,whichhinderstheirflight.Frightenedbythis,themonkeysinthetreetopsaddtheircriestothoseofthelargerbeastsbelow.Together,theyawakenthevariousbreedsoffowlroostingtogether,andso,gradually,theentireanimalworldjoinsintheuproar.Longexperiencehastaughtusthatinnowayisitalwaysthe“celebratedmoonlight”thatdisturbsthequietoftheforests.Thevoiceswereloudestduringtimesofheavyrainfall,orwhen,withcracksofthunder,thelightningilluminatedtheforestinterior.Good-natureddespiteseveralmonthsoffever-sickness,theFranciscanmonkwhoaccompanieduspastthecataractsofAturesandMaypurestoSanCarlosoftheRioNegroandonwardtotheBrazilianborderusedtosayatnightfall,wheneverhefearedastormwascoming,“MayHeavengrantaquietnighttous,andlikewisetothewildbeastsoftheforest!” InmarvelouscontrasttotheNaturescenesthatIdescribehere,whichwereplayedoutforustimeandagain,standsthemiddaysilencethatreignsonunusuallyhottropicaldays.FromthesamejournalInowborrowamemoryoftheBaraguanstrait.HeretheOrinocomakesitswaythroughtheParimamountaingroup.Thatwhichisreferredtointhispeculiarpassasastrait(AngosturadelBaraguan)isreallyawaterbasin,thewidthofwhichisstill890toises(5,340feet).Asidefromanolddrystemoftheaubletia(Apeibatibourbou)andanewapocyne,Allamandasalicifolia,therewasnothingtobefoundonthebarecliffsbutaveryfewsilverycrotonshrubs.Athermometer,observedintheshadebutwithinafewinchesofthetoweringgranitecliffs,climbedtoover40°Réaumur.Alldistantobjectshadwavelike,shimmeringoutlines,aresultofreflectionoropticaldisplacement(mirage).Notabreathofairmovedthedustysand.Thesunstoodatzenith,andthetremendouslightthatitpoureddownupontheriver,whichtheriverinturnreflectedback,sparklinginthegentlemotionofitswaves,intensifiedthehazyreddishblushthatlayoverthedistance.Alltheblocksofstoneandnakedboulderswerecoveredwithinnumerablelarge,thick-scalediguanas,geckos,andcolorfullyspeckledsalamanders.Immobile,theirheadsliftedandmouthsopenedwide,theyseemtoinhalethehotairwithdelight.Thelargeranimalsarehidingnowinthethicketsoftheforest,thebirdsunderthefoliageofthetreesorwithinthecleftsofthecliffs;ifoneweretolistennow,however,forthequietesttonesthatcometousinthisapparentstillnessofNature,thenoneperceivesclosetothegroundandinthelowerlayersoftheatmosphereamuffledsound,awhirringandbuzzingofinsects.Everythingannouncesaworldofactive,organicpowers.Ineveryshrub,in

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thecrackedbarkofthetrees,inthelooseearthwherelivethehymenoptera,Lifeaudiblystirs.ItisoneofthemanyvoicesofNature,discernibletothesolemn,receptivemindofhumanity.4HypsometricAddenda:IamindebtedtoMr.Pentland,whosescientificeffortshaveshedsomuchlightuponthegeographyandgeognosticcharacteristicsofBolivia,forthefollowingpositionaldeterminations,whichhesharedwithmeinaletterfromParisafterthepublication(October1848)ofmylargemap.(ExcerptfromvonHumboldt,Alexander.ViewsofNature(KindleLocations1036-1182).UniversityofChicagoPress.KindleEdition.)