Biodiversity and Evolution Chapter 4. 4-1 What Is Biodiversity and Why Is It Important? Concept 4-1...

Biodiversity and Evolution

Chapter 4

4-1 What Is Biodiversity and Why Is It Important?

Concept 4-1 The biodiversity found in genes, species, ecosystems, and ecosystem processes is vital to sustaining life on earth.

Natural Capital: Major Components of the Earth’s Biodiversity

Fig 4.2

Why Should We Care About Biodiversity?

• Aesthetic pleasure• Ecological: (environmental monitor, ecological

balance – keystone species)• Educational• Historical or cultural • Natural Services: (air and water purification, soil

fertility, waste disposal,)• Recreational• Medicine• Agriculture: (biological pest control, food

source, commercial product – wood)• Moral or ethics

4-2 Where Do Species Come From?

Concept 4-2A The scientific theory of evolution explains how life on earth changes over time through changes in the genes of populations.

Concept 4-2B Populations evolve when genes mutate and give some individuals genetic traits that enhance their abilities to survive and to produce offspring with these traits (natural selection).

ORIGINS OF LIFE

1 billion years of chemical change to form the first cells, followed by about 3.7 billion years of biological change.

Biological Evolution

This has led to the variety of species we find on the earth today.

Figure 4-2Figure 4-2

Animation: Evolutionary Tree of Life

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Six Major Kingdoms of Species as a Result of Natural Selection

Fig 4.3

How Do We Know Which Organisms Lived in the Past?

Our knowledge about past life comes from fossils, chemical analysis, cores drilled out of buried ice, and DNA analysis.

Figure 4-4Figure 4-4

The Genetic Makeup of a Population Can Change

Populations evolve by becoming genetically different

Genetic variations• First step in biological evolution• Occurs through mutations in reproductive cells• Mutations: random changes in the structure or

number of DNA molecules in a cell that can be inherited by offspring.

Individuals in Populations with Beneficial Genetic Traits Can Leave More Offspring

Natural selection: acts on individuals• Second step in biological evolution• Adaptation may lead to differential reproduction• Genetic resistance

When environmental conditions change, populations• Adapt• Migrate• Become extinct

Natural Selection and Adaptation: Leaving More Offspring With Beneficial Traits

Three conditions are necessary for biological evolution:• Genetic variability, traits must be heritable, trait

must lead to differential reproduction. An adaptive trait is any heritable trait that

enables an organism to survive through natural selection and reproduce better under prevailing environmental conditions.

Evolution by Natural Selection

Fig 4.5

Three Common Myths about Evolution through Natural Selection

“Survival of the fittest” is not “survival of the strongest”

Organisms do not develop traits out of need or want

No grand plan of nature for perfect adaptation

Animation: Disruptive Selection

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Animation: Stabilizing Selection

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Animation: Evolutionary Tree Diagrams

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Coevolution: A Biological Arms Race

Interacting species can engage in a back and forth genetic contest in which each gains a temporary genetic advantage over the other.• This often happens between predators and prey

species.

4-3 How Do Geological Processes and Climate Change Affect Evolution?

Concept 4-3 Tectonic plate movements, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and climate change have shifted wildlife habitats, wiped out large numbers of species, and created opportunities for the evolution of new species.

Movement of the Earth’s Continents over Millions of Years

Fig 4.6

Changes in Ice Coverage in the Northern Hemisphere During the last 18,000 Years

Fig 4.7

4-4 How Do Speciation, Extinction, and Human Activities Affect Biodiversity?

Concept 4-4A As environmental conditions change, the balance between formation of new species and extinction of existing species determines the earth’s biodiversity.

Concept 4-4B Human activities can decrease biodiversity by causing the premature extinction of species and by destroying or degrading habitats needed for the development of new species.

Tertiary

Bar width represents relative number of living speciesEra Period

Species and families experiencing

mass extinction

Millions ofyears ago

Ordovician: 50% of animal families, including many trilobites.

Devonian: 30% of animal families, including agnathan and placoderm fishes and many trilobites.

500

345

Cambrian

Ordovician

Silurian

Devonian

Extinction

Extinction

Pal

eozo

icM

eso

zoic

Cen

ozo

ic

Triassic: 35% of animal families, including many reptiles and marine mollusks.

Permian: 90% of animal families, including over 95% of marine species; many trees, amphibians, most bryozoans and brachiopods, all trilobites.Carboniferous

Permian

Current extinction crisis causedby human activities. Many speciesare expected to become extinctwithin the next 50–100 years.Cretaceous: up to 80% of ruling reptiles (dinosaurs); many marine species including manyforaminiferans and mollusks.

Extinction

Extinction

Triassic

Jurassic

Cretaceous

250

180

65Extinction

ExtinctionQuaternary Today

Geographic Isolation Can Lead to Reproductive Isolation

Fig 4.8

GENETIC ENGINEERING AND THE FUTURE OF EVOLUTION

We have used artificial selection to change the genetic characteristics of populations with similar genes through selective breeding.

We have used genetic engineering to transfer genes from one species to another.

Figure 4-AFigure 4-A

Genetic Engineering: Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO)

GMOs use recombinant DNA • genes or portions

of genes from different organisms.

4-5 What Is Species Diversity and Why Is It Important?

Concept 4-5 Species diversity is a major component of biodiversity and tends to increase the sustainability of ecosystems.

Why Should We Care About Biodiversity?

• Aesthetic pleasure• Ecological: (environmental monitor, ecological

balance – keystone species)• Educational• Historical or cultural • Natural Services: (air and water purification, soil

fertility, waste disposal,)• Recreational• Medicine• Agriculture: (biological pest control, food

source, commercial product – wood)• Moral or ethics

Variations in Species Richness and Species Evenness

Species-Rich Ecosystems Tend to Be Productive and Sustainable

Species richness seems to increase productivity and stability or sustainability

How much species richness is needed is debatable

Animation: Speciation on an Archipelago

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Evolutionary Divergence

Each species has a beak specialized to take advantage of certain types of food resource.

4-6 What Roles Do Species Play in Ecosystems?

Concept 4-6A Each species plays a specific ecological role called its niche.

Concept 4-6B Any given species may play one or more of five important roles—native, nonnative, indicator, keystone, or foundation roles—in a particular ecosystem.

Each Species Plays a Unique Role in Its Ecosystem

Ecological niche, niche• Pattern of living

Generalist species• Broad niche

Specialist species • Narrow niche

ECOLOGICAL NICHES AND ADAPTATION

Each species in an ecosystem has a specific role or way of life.• Fundamental niche: the full potential range of

physical, chemical, and biological conditions and resources a species could theoretically use.

• Realized niche: to survive and avoid competition, a species usually occupies only part of its fundamental niche.

Specialist Species and Generalist Species Niches

Fig 4.11

Specialized Feeding Niches

Resource partitioning reduces competition and allows sharing of limited resources.

Figure 4-13Figure 4-13

Niches Can Be Occupied by Native and Nonnative Species

Native species

Nonnative species; invasive, alien, or exotic species• May spread rapidly• Not all are villains

Indicator Species Serve as Biological Smoke Alarms

Indicator species• Can monitor environmental quality • Trout• Birds• Butterflies• Frogs

Case Study: Why Are Amphibians Vanishing? (1)

Habitat loss and fragmentation

Prolonged drought

Pollution

Increase in UV radiation

Parasites

Viral and fungal diseases

Climate change

Overhunting

Nonnative predators and competitors

Case Study: Why Are Amphibians Vanishing? (2)

Importance of amphibians• Sensitive biological indicators of environmental

changes• Adult amphibians• Important ecological roles in biological

communities

• Genetic storehouse of pharmaceutical products waiting to be discovered

Life Cycle of a Frog

Fig 4.14

Keystone, Foundation Species Determine Structure, Function of Their Ecosystems

Keystone species • Pollinators• Top predator

Foundation species• Create or enhance their habitats, which benefit

others • Elephants• Beavers

Why Should We Care About Biodiversity?

• Aesthetic pleasure• Ecological: (environmental monitor, ecological

balance – keystone species)• Educational• Historical or cultural • Natural Services: (air and water purification, soil

fertility, waste disposal,)• Recreational• Medicine• Agriculture: (biological pest control, food

source, commercial product – wood)• Moral or ethics