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8/12/2019 Biodiveristy and Ecosystem Loss in Jamaica's Environment
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Dale F. Webber
The James Moss-Solomon Professor
of
Environmental Management
UWI Mona
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Lecture outline
24 Global Environmental Issues
Definitions of Biodiversity & Ecosystem
Caribbean Biodiversity
Jamaica
State of the Environment Report 2011
Biodiversity
Climate change and Jamaicas biodiversity
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24 Global Environmental issues
3
1. Climate change
Global warming Global dimming Fossil fuels Sea level
rise Greenhouse gas Ocean acidification Shutdown of
thermohaline circulation Environmental impact of the
coal industry Urban Heat Islands
2. Conservation
Species extinction Pollinator decline Coral bleaching
Holocene extinction Invasive species Poaching
Endangered species
3. Energy
Energy conservation Renewable energy Efficientenergy use Renewable energy commercialization
4. Environmental degradation
Eutrophication Habitat destruction Invasive species
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Global Environmental issues continued
4
5. Environmental health Air quality Asthma Electromagnetic fields
Electromagnetic radiation and health Indoor air quality Lead poisoning Sick Building Syndrome
6. Genetic engineering
Genetic pollution Genetically modified foodcontroversies
7. Intensive farming
Overgrazing Irrigation Monoculture Environmentaleffects of meat production Slash and burn Pesticidedrift Plasticulture
8. Land degradation Land pollution Desertification
9. Soil
Soil conservation & erosion Soil contamination Soilsalinization
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Global Environmental issues continued
5
10. Land use
Urban sprawl Habitat fragmentation Habitatdestruction
11. Nanotechnology
Nanotoxicology Nanopollution
12. Nuclear issues
Nuclear fallout Nuclear meltdown Nuclear power Nuclear weapons Nuclear and radiation accidents Nuclear safety High- level radioactive wastemanagement
13. Overpopulation
Burial Water crisis Overpopulation in companionanimals Tragedy of the commons GenderImbalance in Developing Countries Sub-
replacement fertility levels in developed countries
14. Ozone depletion
CFC Biological effects of UV exposure
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Global Environmental issues continued
6
15. Pollution
Nonpoint source pollution Point source pollution Light pollution Noise pollution Visual pollution
16. Water pollution
Environmental impact of the coal industry Acidrain Eutrophication Marine pollution Ocean
dumping Oil spills Thermal pollution Urbanrunoff Water crisis Marine debris Microplastics Ocean acidification Ship pollution Wastewater Fish kill Algal bloom Mercury in fish
17. Air pollution
Environmental impact of the coal industry Smog Tropospheric ozone Indoor air quality Volatileorganic compound Atmospheric particulate matter
18. Resource depletion
Exploitation of natural resources Overdrafting
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Global Environmental issues continued
7
19. Consumerism
Consumer capitalism Over-consumption20. Fishing
Blast fishing Bottom trawling Cyanide fishing Ghost nets Illegal,unreported and unregulated fishing Overfishing Shark finning Whaling
21. Logging
Clearcutting Deforestation Illegal logging
22. Mining
Acid mine drainage Mountaintop removal mining Slurryimpoundments
23. Toxins
Chlorofluorocarbons DDT Endocrine disruptors Dioxin Toxicheavy metals Environmental impact of the coal industry
Herbicides Pesticides Toxic waste PCB Bioaccumulation Biomagnification
24. Waste
Electronic waste Litter Waste disposal incidents Marine debrisMedical waste Landfill Leachate Incineration Great PacificGarbage Patch Exporting of hazardous waste
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WHAT IS BIODIVERSITY?
Coined from the phrase Biological Diversity
Defined by UNEP as:
the variability among living organisms from all sources including,terrestrial, marine and aquatic systems and the ecologicalcomplexities of which they are a part.
The variety of life on earth,
expressed through ecosystems,
goods and services that sustain
our lives (CBD).
3 components of Biodiversity
Genetic or hereditary diversity
Taxonomic or species diversity
Ecosystem or habitat diversity Photo: Ramsar Convention Secretariat
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BIODIVERSITY DEFINITIONBiodiversity has a variety of meanings:
1) The number of different native speciesandindividuals in a habitat or geographical area;
2) the variety of different habitatswithin an area;
3) The variety of interactions that occurbetween
different species in a habitat; and
4) The range of genetic variationamong individualswithin a species.
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What is an Ecosystem?
A functional, interacting entity including
all the living organisms (a community)
and the abiotic environment of a
particular area.
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Caribbean Biodiversity (UNEP 2002).
11
The region contains a wide variety of ecosystem types.
Tropical moist and dry broadleaf forests - 43% of the territory; Grasslands and savannas- 40.5%;
Deserts and scrub 11%;
Temperate forests and tropical and sub-tropical coniferous
forests 5%;
Mangroves 0.5% The Caribbean contains 7% of the world's coral reefs (about 20
000 km2) which contain a great array of marine biodiversity
(UNEP 2002).
Seven of the world's 25 biologically richest terrestrial eco-regions
are found in the region, containing more than
46 000 vascular plant,
1 597 amphibian,
1 208 reptile,
1 267 bird and 575 mammal s eciesProfessor Dale Webber UWI
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Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund Country/ territoryKey Biodiversity Areas
Netherlands Antilles 7
Puerto Rico (to USA) 28
St. Barthlemy (to France) 4
St. Kitts and Nevis 1
St. Lucia 6St. Martin (to France) 1
St. Vincent & the Grenadines 7
Turks & Caicos Islands
(to U.K.) 11
Virgin Islands (to U.K.) 7Virgin Islands (to USA) 13
TOTAL Key Biodiversity Areas290
Anguilla (to U.K.) 6
Antigua and Barbuda 10
Aruba (to Netherlands) 1
Bahamas 26
Barbados 4
Cayman Islands (to U.K.) 8Cuba 28
Dominica 4
Dominican Republic 35
Grenada 9
Guadeloupe (to France) 8
Haiti 17
Jamaica 38Martinique (to France) 8
Montserrat (to U.K.) 3
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Map of Key Biodiversity Areasand Corridors
Bird Life International et al.
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THREATS : CEPFAverage prioritization score
(on a scale from 14)Invasive Species 3.7
Residential, Commercial Development 3.5
Severe Weather, Climate Change 3.3
Human Disturbance 2.8
Agricultural Expansion, Intensification 2.7
Over-exploitation 2.7
Mining, Energy Production 2.6
Pollution 2.4Transportation 2.3
Geological Events 1.2
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Change in coastal land use
Demographic Urbanization
Climate variability and
damage
Economic trade
Technology adaptation
Species introductions and
pollution
Economic/ Trade
Pollution (Land based) Sociopolitical (Regional
Coordination & governance)
Pollution (Marine)
Species introduction
Rank =1 (Urban sprawl & habitat
loss) Rank = 1 (Coastal development)
Rank = 2 (Hurricanes & sea temp)
Rank = 2 (Tourism development)
Rank = 2 (Fish Harvest)
Rank = 3 (River discharge, ballast)
Rank = 3 (International shipping)
Rank = 3 (Untreated Sewage) Rank = 3 (large # ind. Jurisdictions)
Rank5 (Oil and sewage)
Rank = 5 (Aquaculture/Mariculture)
Drivers affecting Caribbean Sea (Agard et al 2007)
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0
100
200300
400
500
600
700
Barb
ados
A
ruba
Martin
ique
Ha
iti
Gre
na
da
Puerto
Rico
Netherlands
St.
Luc
ia
St.Vincent
&the
Gua
deloupe
Trin
ida
d&To
bago
Jam
aica
Repu
blica
An
tigua
&Barbu
da
St.Kitts/Nev
is
Bri
tis
hVir
ginIs
Caym
an
Is
An
gu
illa
Cu
ba
Dom
inica
USVirg
inIs
.
Montserra
t
Bahamas
Turks
&Caic
os
Is.
Population Density
per sq. km
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JAMAICAthe Island
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ST.ANN
CLARENDON
WESTMORELAND
HANOVER
TRELAWNY
ST.ELIZABETHMANCHESTER
ST.JAMES
ST.THOMAS
ST.MARY
ST.CATHERINE
ST.ANDREW
KINGSTON
PORTLAND
Marine territory isnow approximately
161,000 Km2i.e. 24 times the land
area of mainland
Jamaica
JAMAICAan Island?
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Small Island s): Big Issues Freshwater resources (overexploited/Polluted) Natural disasters (Hurricanes, earthquakes etc)
Waste management (solid, sewage & indust.)
Overexploitation (forest, fisheries, mines)
Global Climate Change & Sea Level Rise
Invasive species (goats, mongoose, Cherax,lionfish)
Soil Erosion Pollution
PADH(Physical alteration and destruction of Habitats)
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NEED FOR MEDICAL WASTE DISPOSAL SYSTEM
GOVERNMENT LAND SETTLEMENTS SPRAWLING INTOSETTLEMENTS INSTEAD OF BEING USED FORFARMLAND PURPOSES AS HAD BEEN DESIGNATED
NEED FOR PROMOTING/INCREASING AWARENESSOF JAMAICAS FLORA AND FAUNA
DOWNTOWN KINGSTON - NEED FOR REDEVELOPMENT
SAND MINING AND QUARRYING
IMPROPER DISPOSAL OF SOLIDWASTE
SQUATTINGON HILLSIDES, RIVER BANKS, GULLY BANKS
INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL COMPANIESSTACK EMMISSIONS, INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENT
NEGRILLOSS OF WETLANDS DOLPHIN HEADENDEMIC PLANTS THREATENED
FALMOUTHTHREAT TO HISTORICAL VALUE(GEORGIAN ARCHITECTURE) FROM DEVELOPMENT TRENDS
NEED FOR REGULATION OF THEHARVESTING OFSOME WILD LIFE IN PARTICULAR, MARINELIFE
ERADICATION OF SOME INVASIVE SPECIES
DEER, MANGOOSE AND RED CLAWED LOBSTERS ETC.
NEED FOR CONSERVATION OFAGRICULTURAL AREAS
DEFORESTATION
IMPROPER DISPOSAL OF WASTEBY LARGE AGRICULTURAL ESTATES
POOR OR IMPROPER AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES
INADEQUATE / LACK OFLAND USE PLANNING
FONT HILL AND PARROTTEECROCODILES,WETLANDS LOSS, POLLUTION, DEVELOPMENT
These are urgent environmental issues in Jamaica currently
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SOE Report 2010SynopsisWatersheds
Pressures:
- Poor agricultural practices
- Improper Land Use
- Illegal logging
- Development activities
- Extreme climatic events
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Dea
nsValle
yRiv
er
Oracabe
ssa-P
ageeRiver
Pencar-BuffBay
River
Sp
anishRiver
Swift
Riv
er Drivers
Riv
PlantainGardenRiver
Black RiverRio Cobre
Rio Minho
Rio Bueno - White River
Milk River
Martha Brae
MorantRiver
Gut-Allig
atorH
ole
RioG
rande
Monteg
oRiver
GreatR
iver
HopeRiver
Lucea River
Wag
water
River
Cabarit
aRive
r
Yalla
hsR
iver
RioNuev
o
0 10 20 30 405
KilometersLegend
Rivers
Jamaicas Watersheds
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State:
SOE Report 2010SynopsisWatersheds
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Pressures:
- Land based sources of pollution
- Development activities
- Over fishing
- Hurricanes/Storms
- Climate Change
SOE Report 2010SynopsisCoastal resources
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Ocean and Coastal Resources
Current levels of coral cover contrast with thesituation in the 1970s.
In the late 1970s, 9 reefs on the north coast hadlive coral cover averaging 52% at 10m depth, butthis declined to 3% in the 1990s.
Percentage of live coral cover in 2008-13.7%.
While the situation has improved since the 1990s,the islands reefs still remain under threat.
No. of fish kills: Fairly constant with
4 - 5 fish kills reported per yearin Kingston Harbour.
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Pressures:
-Sewage effluent
- Industrial effluent
- Urban run-off
- Agricultural run-off
SOE Report 2010SynopsisWater Quality
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SOE Report 2010Synopsis Water Quality- Riverine
State:
Source: NEPA
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Sewage pollution
Coliform levels at many of the operating treatmentplants have often exceeded NRCAs (now NEPAs)sewage effluent standards (ECD 1997)
Widespread discharge of high volumes of untreated
sewage from on-shore, and visiting marine vessels haslead to abnormal growth of algae on coral reefs
This has assisted in diminishing their productivity andintroduced human health risks
Studies of Kingston Harbour have revealed that themajor sources of pollution are sewage and industrialeffluent discharged directly into the Harbour, or intothe gullies and rivers that enter it.
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Marine Water Quality
SOE Report 2010SynopsisWater Quality- Marine
State:
Source: NEPA
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Aerial View of Portmore Sewage Treatment
Ponds
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KSA - Sewage & Wastewater Treatment32
H.G.M.
Population served: 768,000
Design flow: 225,000m3
/day
Stage-3
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Jamaicas Biodiversity at a glance.Over 8,000 species recorded
Ranked 5thamong worlds islands in endemic species
Group No. of Species Endemics
Plants (Flowering
/ferns/lichens)
>6000 28%
Butterflies >120 15?
Frogs 19 17
Breeding birds
Migrant birds
113
100
28
Mammals 22 (21 bats) 4?
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Diverse Jamaican community types
1. Wet Limestone Forest
2. Dry Limestone Forest
3. Thorn Scrub
4. Cactus Thorn Scrub
5. Strand Woodland
6. Lower Montane Rain Forest
7. Montane Mist Forest
8. Elfin Woodland
9. Montane Sclerophyll
10. Herbaceous Swamp
11. Mangrove Woodland
12. Marsh Forest
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Port Royal and environs
P t R l d i
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Port Royal and environsover 1000 species recorded
Taxon Number of Species
Macroalgae 98+
Porifera 54+
Cnidaria 156+Ctenophora 4
Platyhelminthes 3+Annelida 26+
Crustacea 158+
Mollusca 295Bryozoa 18+
Chaetognatha 3Echinodermata 81
Hemichordata 2
Chordata 228-278+ Goodbody, 2004
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Value of Mangrove Biodiversity
Ecological value Sediment trap
Purification (sewage,fertilizers)
Shoreline and infrastructureprotection
Nutrient release
Nursery ground
Habitat for other species
Refuge during hurricanesand severe storms
Exploitable resources
Medicinal
Food
Timber cutting
Tannins
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Mangrove Prop roots
Prop roots hang into the water and provide firm substrate for the
attachment of sessile organisms
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Prop root habitat- Large # of species (high
biodiversity)
A mangrove Root
with high diversity
marine animals.
Water cleaning filter
feeders
Number of species
~ 50 with a wet
biomass of ~2 kg.
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Sessile Organisms
Sponges
Bryozoans
Bivalves
Algae Echinoderms
Ascidians
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OPPORTUNITIES
Ecteinascidia turbinata
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NEW SPECIES
Haliclona portroyalensis n.sp Jackson, C.P.J., De Weerdt, W. and Webber, M.K. 2006.
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Threats to Mangrove Biodiversity
Pollution from spills
Solid waste disposal
Cutting for timber and
charcoal Reclamation for
development, informalhousing
Drainage alteration Invasive species
Lack of enforcement
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What can be done to preserve
mangrove biodiversity?
Education and Public Awareness
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Outreach- Workshops for users & stakeholders
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UWI/EFJ PRML Biodiversity Centre
Biodiversity Centre Launch- Jan 26 2010
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Biodiversity Centre Launch- Jan. 26, 2010
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Enforcement
Existing laws and regulations
Strengthen existing regulatory andenforcement agencies
Encourage voluntary compliance
Environmental assessment
Ecosystem restoration and
rehabilitation Compensatory restitution
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FORESTS AND CLIMATEVulnerability 30% of Jamaicas land area
is forest
Provide a wide variety of
goods and services
Home of several endemicplants and animals
Small changes intemperature andprecipitation havesignificant effects on forestgrowth
Jamaican Tody (Todus todus)
One of the many endemic birdsfound in Jamaican forests
Photo: Wingsbirds.com
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Forests The actual rate of deforestation is 0.1 per
cent per annum.
The extent and rate to which forest cover
and biodiversity is being degraded as a
result of disturbance is unknown. Since 2007 the Forestry Department has
been producing an average of 250,000
seedlings per year.
The Forestry Department planted 102.7 ha
and 69.7 ha on public lands during the
financial years 2007/2008 and 2008/2009,
respectively.
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Blue & John Crow Mountains
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Blue & John Crow Mountainsover 1000 species recorded
Group No. of Species Endemics
Plants (Flowering
/ferns/lichens)>500 240
Orchids >200 65
Snails 100 ?
Breeding birds 50 22
Invertebrates >200 ?
Blue mountain guide, 1993
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Forest conservation
3 D organization important (timber 25%less volume than natural)
Conserved forests must be large,undisturbed and numerous for effectiveconservation. (low density, low fertilization, high endemism)
Fauna & humidity loss = lowerregeneration
Research, seed banks, institutionalapproach needed
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Importance
High biodiversity-Over 271 plant specieshave been reported from the HellshireHills, including 53 species endemic toJamaica (Espeut 1999).
Multiplicity in habitat
Rare endemic and endangered species
Water and nutrient budget management
Inland protection from coastal storms
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Threatened species
Portland Ridge Frog
Logger head turtle
Hawksbill turtle
Green turtle
Jamaican slider turtle
Cricket lizard
Jamaican Iguana
Blue-tailed Galliwasp
Jamaican Boa
Jamaican Thundersnake
White Ibis
Glossy Ibis
WI Whistling Duck
Masked Duck
Black Rail
Clapper Rail
Caribbean Coot
Bridled Tern
Fish-eating Bat
Jamaican Hutia(Coney)
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The Pedro Cays and Bank
Major Issues on the Pedro Cays
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Major Issues on the Pedro Cays
and Bank1. Heavy population density and poor living conditions
2. Limited fisheries management & enforcement, heavyfishing pressure & unsustainable practices
3. Fishers not organized and have limited skills (limitededucation & job opportunities)
4. No formal biodiversity protection & increasing threats(e.g. habitat loss, poaching)
5. Poorly-defined institutional framework & limitedcapacity to effectively address issues
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CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT ON JAMAICAS BIODIVERSITY Ecosystems most vulnerable to climate change impacts
include coral reefs, highland forests, and coastalwetlands (mangroves).
Jamaicas biodiversity already under stress from:
human impacts including land use change, pollution,
invasive species, and
over-harvesting of commercially valuable species.
Climate change is an additional stress with expectedprofound impacts on the islands natural ecosystems andtheir species.
G l j t d i t f li t h
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General projected impacts of climate change
on Jamaicas biodiversity
General impacts could be as a result of:
Increases in temperature on land.
Altered rainfall and runoff patterns.
Sea level rise.
Increase in sea surface temperature.
Altered intensity of hurricanes.
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Climate Change: A Threat to BiodiversityHigher Temperatures Change in species abundance &
distribution
Migration to higher altitudes
Genetic changes in species to new
climatic conditions Change in reproduction timings
(life cycle)
Increased sand temperatures, canlead to changes in sex ratios(reducing male turtle production).
Change in length of growingseasons for plants
Increase in extinction rate
Citrus Swallowtail (Papilio andraemon)Island Hop in Wind Currents
Photo: Catherine Levy
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Climate Change: A Threat to BiodiversityAltered rainfall runoff patterns
Drying of ecosystems leading to loss of species andchanges in community composition.
Changes in species distribution and ecosystem
composition.
Changes in the geographical extent of habitatsand ecosystems.
Flooding of nests of various species and death ofyoung individuals.
Climate Change: A Threat to Biodiversity
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Higher Sea Surface Temperatures Mild warming (+2oC), tropical near-shore communities will
change from coral-dominance to algal-dominance. Creates conditions that may be suitable for some invasive
species to become established in new areas
High temperatures lead to coral bleaching and even coraldeath
The elimination of coral reefs would have direconsequences. Coral reefs provide habitats and nurseryareas for numerous commercially important species
Healthy (Left) and Bleached (Right) Coral
Jamaicas coral reefs experience massive bleaching due to
high sea temperatures in years 1987, 1989, 1990 and 1998.
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Climate Change: A Threat to BiodiversityAltered hurricane intensity
Loss of vulnerable island species.
Changes in species competitive interactionsand species and community composition.
Changes in range of invasive species.
Increased damage to nests & nesting sites.
Increased destruction of sensitive habitats:
Coral reefs, Mangrove ecosystems
Terrestrial (esp. forest) ecosystems.
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Lecture recap
24 Global Environmental Issues
Definitions of Biodiversity & Ecosystem
Caribbean Biodiversity
Jamaica
State of the Environment Report 2011
Biodiversity
Climate change and Jamaicas biodiversity
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