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Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge
Vol. 10 (1), January 2011, pp. 39-56
Biocultural diversity, climate change and livelihood security of the Adi
community: Grassroots conservators of eastern Himalaya Arunachal Pradesh
Ranjay K Singh*1, SN Bhowmik & CB Pandey
1
*College of Horticulture & Forestry, Central Agricultural University, Pasighat 791 102, Arunachal Pradesh;
1Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal 132001, Haryana
E-mail : ranjaysinh_jbp@rediffmail.com
Received 23.12.2010; revised 20.1.2011
The role of Indigenous and tribal peoples and their traditional environmental knowledge (TEK) is now greatly
appreciated and recognized in developing location specific strategies and mitigation plans for coping with climate change.
The goal of this research, based on six years of collaborative work with Adi tribal peoples from 14 villages of East and
Upper Siang districts of Arunachal Pradesh, was to record Adi knowledge and experiences relating to biocultural resources
and their interactions with climate change and livelihood sustainability. Data were collected using conventional interviews
and village workshops. A total of 700 Adi people participated in these workshops, while two elderly Adi women were
observed and interviewed over the course of 7 days, to document their deep knowledge on the subject. Results indicated that
Adi people are rich in knowledge relating to biocultural resources that play a pivotal role in coping with weather anomalies
and any abrupt climatic changes in order to sustain their livelihoods. People are aware about climate change and its potential
to threaten heir biocultural resources and livelihoods. To combat future climate change and ensure sustainable lifeways, they
are interested in establishing ‘community reserve forests’ (CRF) within undisturbed community forest landscapes. These
could be either at an individual or community level or even at both levels, provided that environmental agencies are able to
link these ‘CRFs’ with REDD programs and that rewards and incentives are given to Adi tribe. The future of the Adi tribe’s
biocultural resources and livelihood sustainability depends very much on their TEK and their active role in research,
planning and policy implementation for climate change mitigation and adaptation.
Keywords: Adi tribe, Traditional environmental knowledge, Climate change, Biocultural resources, Livelihood
sustainability, Arunachal Pradesh
IPC Int. Cl.8: A01C5/00, E04H, G01W
The State of Arunachal Pradesh is considered as one of
the megabiodiversity centres as well as a major abode
of cultural diversity1,2
. The people of Arunachal
Pradesh, represented by 26 major tribes and 110 ethnic
groups, have developed unique bonds with nature –
expressed through ‘biocultural diversity’. They depend
largely on its forests and diverse ecosystems for their
subsistence economy. ‘Biocultural diversity’ is
reflected in the interactions of local culture and
languages of a particular community with communities
of floral and faunal species, through biological,
cultural, social and natural processes enacted over
time3. Biocultural processes and dynamics with one
ecosystem vary from those of another according to the
scale and space of the culture, and overall species
diversity2,3
. The biocultural diversity of Arunachal
Pradesh is mediated through five distinct climatic types
(alpine, temperate, sub-temperate, tropical and
subtropical), interwoven with traditional knowledge
systems (TKS) and strategies that provide continuity
and opportunities for subsistence survival of local
communities within these diverse zones4,5
.
Worldwide, concerns have been expressed that
measurable changes in global climate, including
extreme weather events such as floods, elevated
temperatures, major storms and droughts, have
threatened the sustainability of ecosystems, cultures
and livelihoods6-8,
. This is not just an issue for a
particular cultural group, state, region or country, but
a concern for all human societies, specially peoples,
including indigenous communities, who rely directly
on their local environments for sustenance7,9
.
Arunachal Pradesh exemplifies this concern. Studies
show that climate change can affect plant
biodiversity5,8,9
and even microbial biodiversity of
certain food resources of traditional communities in
Arunachal Pradesh10
, thus leading to erosion of the
state’s biocultural diversity, and thereby of the ______________
*Corresponding author
INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL. 10, No. 1, JANUARY 2011
40
livelihood security of grassroots conservators of
biocultural diversity2. The studies with traditional
communities of the state indicated that they are rich in
traditional knowledge (TK) about plants, animals,
water bodies and indicators used in weather
prediction2,4,5
. This knowledge – as biocultural
resources, is part of making local strategy for
sustainable livelihood in harsh ecosystems8,11
. Not only in Arunachal Pradesh or India, but
elsewhere as well, the indigenous peoples hold
important environmental knowledge and conserve
biocultural resources that can be important in studies of
climate change and human adaptation to environmental
disturbance6,7,12
. Despite the fact that indigenous people
are and will be greatly impacted by present and
impending climate changes, these communities are
rarely consulted and their voices are often absent in the
academic, policy and public discourses on climate
change6,13
. Even the IPCC II and III reports did not
consider the role of indigenous people in mitigation of
climate change13,14
. A review of Arunachal Pradesh state
developmental and environmental policies reflects that
this government, too, is remiss in joining hands with the
indigenous communities to gain understandings of their
time-tested traditional environmental knowledge (TEK)
in sustaining the biocultural diversity in the times of
changing climate2,15
.
Recognizing the importance of TEK and the role of
cultural diversity in biodiversity conservation and
sustaining livelihoods, an initiative on consulting the
indigenous people of Arunachal Pradesh was started
in 2005. As part of the work, a few selected elder
women have been studied since 2003 in order to
record their specific knowledge and experiences on
changing pattern of local environment and
biodiversity. Findings from two of these case studies,
of Mrs Basum Moyong (65) and Mrs Otek Moyong
(85), are presented in order to correlate the results
from the series of community workshops and to draw
the inferences on TEK and biocultural diversity
accordingly. The objective of studying the Adi
community through the workshops was to explore
experiences and community knowledge relating to
climate, local practices and biocultural aspects in
respect to livelihoods; and to document perspectives
on the initiative of establishing a community reserve
forest for securing livelihoods and conserving native
biodiversity, as well as fetching benefits through
REDD (reduction in carbon emission through
minimizing deforestation and degradation) in future.
Methodology In the study with the Adi tribe,who predominate in
Arunachal Pradesh in terms of population, 12 villages,
namely Sido, Ngopok, Vijari, Yagrung, Sibut, Miram,
Rasam, Siluk Basti, Kebang and Dalung, from the
Pasighat administrative circle (East Siang district)
were selected, while two other villages, Damro and
Adi-Pasi, were sampled from the Maryang circle of
Upper Siang district of Arunachal Pradesh. In each
village, a workshop was organized to consult with
cultural and community leaders and traditional
knowledge holders (TKH), to listen to their past
experiences and present coping strategies relating to
the climate change, and obtain their feedback on
future planning in relation to climate change
adaptation. Study was also conducted with selected
villages of the Adi community to identify un-degraded
community forest and establish community reserve
forests (CRF) (Figs.1 A&B). This aim was motivated
from the global policy on REDD. The concept of the
workshops on REDD was broader than simple carbon
sequestration, also including biocultural diversity
conservation and livelihood aspects - which might be
possible impediments to implementing REDD
policies16
. It was taken as a pilot socio-ecological
study with the Adi community, to learn their
experiences and record feedback and opinions, along
with developing methodological approaches to study
climate change and sustainability in biocultural
diversity (Annexure I).
In each village, a workshop on the issue of REDD
and biocultural diversity was inaugurated and led by
the Chief of the village Kebang (customary
institutions of Adi tribe) – called Gaon Burha, with
the help of members of Village Panchayat (village
level democratic institution). On average, more than
65 people (both male and female) participated in each
village. Before initiating the workshop, rapport
building (a participatory rural appraisal tool) was
undertaken with the key communicators, and
community leaders of each village. The workshops
were organized with the help of an interdisciplinary
team of scientists (ecologist, socio-economist,
biodiversity experts, biochemist, microbiologist and
food and nutrition experts), key communicators and
community leaders. The final regional workshops
were held in Sido and Pasighat villages in East Siang
district to draw consensus on these issues. The
perception of Adi members about climate change
was recorded individually as well as in group using
SINGH et al.: BIOCULTURAL DIVERSITY, CLIMATE CHANGE & LIVELIHOOD SECURITY OF THE ADI COMMUNITY
41
Annexure I
Studying Climate Change, TK and Biodiversity
A. Personal profile
1. Respondent Name:
- language spoken? First Second
a. State: b. District: c. Block: d. Village:
e. Date of survey
f. Name of head of household:
g. Age :
h. Relation to head: i Sex:
j. Marital status: Married/ un-married/ widow/ divorced/children? Grandchildren?
Family background :
k. Physiological status: Non-pregnant. Non-lactating / pregnant / lactating/ breastfed/breast fed+ complementary feed/ weaned/not
applicable
l. Major occupation: Land less agriculture labourer/owner cultivator/landlord/tenant cultivator/artisans/service/business/ others
m. Land holdings: (in ha):
i. Wetland …. ii. Kitchen garden……. iv. Agroforestry……… others
n. Type of activity:
i. Sedentary: Landlord [?] /service/ housewife/ clerk/ teacher etc.
ii. Moderate: (agricultural labour/ other labourer/servant maid/etc)
iii. Heavy: Blacksmith/ worker etc.
o. Household annual income:
other sources of goods/services [i.e. possibly obtain some things by trade or exchange of services?]
B. Socio-economic particulars:
1. Religion: Hindu Muslim Christian Others
2. Community: ST (name of tribe…….) SC Backward [? What does this mean? It sounds quite negative] Others
Notations: __________________________________________________________________
3. Type of House:
a. Mud thatch + wall thatch roof
b. Mud wall +tiled /asbestos/ tin roof
c. Brick / stone wall + thatched roof
d. stone wall + RCC roof
4. Type of family in residence: A. Nuclear B. Extended nuclear C. Joint
Notations: __________________________________________________________________
5. Sources of drinking water: a. Open well b. Stream c. Hand pump d. Tap e. Other
Notations: __________________________________________________________________
6. Separate kitchen: A. Present B. Absent
Notations: __________________________________________________________________
7. Type of cooking fuel:
a. Fire wood b. Kerosene c. Bio-gas d. LPG e. combination of any these two
Notations: __________________________________________________________________
INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL. 10, No. 1, JANUARY 2011
42
C. Details on biocultural resources and climate change
1. To explore the varieties of culturally important traditional foods consumed during the drought/floods
Food items Daily Twice/thrice Weekly Fortnightly Monthly Occasionally
Cereals
Rice
Maize
Millets
1
2
3
Legumes
1
2
3
Vegetables
Green leafy
vegetables from
forest and home
gardens both
1
2
3
Tubers/rhizomes/
Bulbs
1
2
3
Gourds/cucurbits
1
2
Fruits
1
2
3
4
Meat
Fresh
1
2
3
Other forest based
meat
Dried meat
Fish
Chicken
Pork
others
Notations: ______________________________________________________________________
2. Types of food resources consumed in the fermented or the alcoholic forms during the drought?
a
b
c
3. Methods of preparing special liquid and fermented food products during the drought or flood adopted by women is to be known in
(details)?
Foods Method of preparation
SINGH et al.: BIOCULTURAL DIVERSITY, CLIMATE CHANGE & LIVELIHOOD SECURITY OF THE ADI COMMUNITY
43
a
b
c
Notations: _______________________________________________________________________
3. To know the biological indicators in understanding the climate change
Name of plants/insects/animals Season/Months Behaviors of plants/animals/insects/etc Inference
a
b
c
4.After taking the lessons from the biometeorological indicators how you decide or make your yearly strategy of crop (different crops)
management strategies like selection of varieties, water management, stoirge of crops, etc.
a
b
c
Notations:
______________________________________________________________________
5. Name the types of clouds in local parlance and their behaviour in relation to rainfall and drought.
a
b
Notations:
_______________________________________________________________________
6. Name the types of winds in local parlance and their behaviour in relation to rainfall and drought.
a
b
Notations:
_______________________________________________________________________
7. During the drought what types of feeds you select for the feeding to cattlkes and animals?
Name of plants (local plants with botanical names) Season of availability process of use
a
b
Notations: _______________________________________________________________________
8. Could you please indicate that how the rainfall pattern have in last 20 years (this exercise must be made in the group where at least 5
members of community must participate)?
Year Rainfall in (mm) approx Positive or Negative effects
- In 1980-85
-In 1986-1990
- In 1991-1995
- In 1996-2000
- In 2000-2205
- In 2006-2010
- In future
Notations: Describe the types of effects on water, indigenous plants resources, animals, humans, etc.
INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL. 10, No. 1, JANUARY 2011
44
_______________________________________________________________________
9. Could you please indicate that how the temperature pattern have in last 20 years (this exercise must be made in the group where at least
5 members of community must participate)?
Year Temperature in (centigrade) approx Positive or Negative effects
- In 1980-85
-In 1986-1990
- In 1991-1995
- In 1996-2000
- In 2000-2205
- In 2006-2010
- In future
Notations: Describe the types of effects of climate temperature on water, indigenous plants resources, animals, humans, etc.
_______________________________________________________________________
10. Please name the typos of local crops species which are lost in last 40 years due to the drought or the flood as you perceive?
Name of the crops species
a
b
c
Notations: _______________________________________________________________________
11. Please name the types of indigenous plants and tree species which are lost in last 40 years due to the drought or the flood or increased
temperature as you perceive?
Name of the crops species
a
b
c
Notations:_______________________________________________________________________
12. Please name the types of local fishes, insects and wild animals species which are lost in last 40 years due to the drought or the flood
or increased temperature as you perceive?
Name of the crops species
a
b
c
Notations: _______________________________________________________________________
13. Please name the types of local birds’ species which are lost in last 40 years due to the drought or the flood or increased temperature as
you perceive?
Name of the crops species
a
b
c
Notations: _______________________________________________________________________
SINGH et al.: BIOCULTURAL DIVERSITY, CLIMATE CHANGE & LIVELIHOOD SECURITY OF THE ADI COMMUNITY
45
14. How the climate change and the deterioration in indigenous crops species, fishes, animals, insects and birds biodiversity have affected
your food security and livelihood systems?
a
b
c
15. What could be the ways of reviving the lost biodiversity in the localities?
Ways of revival
Notations: _______________________________________________________________________
16. Do you think that the local community of your village could be organized to mitigate with the changes in climate and the
conservation of natural resources and indigenous biodiversity? If yes then how?
At individual levels At community levels At both the levels Ways and means
a
b
c
Notations: _______________________________________________________________________
17. Is there any indigenous and informal (other than Village Panchayat) institutions who hold control and able the make decision about
use and conservation of natural resources in your village? If yes then who are them
Name of institutions W & means of working on natural resources Types of resources conserve
a
b
c
Notations: _______________________________________________________________________
18. Do you feel that the changes in temperature, rainfall or other climatic features have affected your food security? If yes then how and
upto what level?
Types of food resources Extent (in percentage) Name the climatic features
a
b
c
Notations:___________________________________________________________________
19. Knowledge about the traditional resources
A. Name the foods that give energy during the drought, loo or floods…………
List: __________________________________________________________________________
B. Name the foods that help in better body growth during drought, loo or floods …………….
List: __________________________________________________________________________
C. Name the foods which are good for the eyes drought, loo or floods …………………
List: __________________________________________________________________________
D. Name the foods that enrich or strengthen the blood drought, loo or floods …………
List: __________________________________________________________________________
E. Name the foods that improve the digestive system drought, loo or floods …………….
List: __________________________________________________________________________
F. Name the foods that act as laxatives drought, loo or floods ………………….
INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL. 10, No. 1, JANUARY 2011
46
interview schedule. Similarly, the consensus
percentage of participants about criterions for
establishing community reserve forest was recorded
individually and as well as in group using open-ended
questions.
Results
In each village workshop (Fig.2), the idea of
reduction in carbon emission through REDD was first
introduced to participants. Apart from the future
economic and ecological scope of REDD, the
conservation and livelihood dynamics with REDD
were focused on with the participants. A great majority
(83.6%) of the community members were enthusiastic
in assigning certain areas of community virgin forest as
CRF (Fig.3) and linking these with the REDD scheme.
However, despite the assurance that CRF property is
and will be exclusively under the control and
ownership of community members (clan/individuals),
some participants (15.4%) were concerned about the
ownership of CRF property. Many (65.9%) perceived
that, at some point after CRF establishment, it might
become the property of the Government. Ultimately,
however, after the complete concept and philosophy of
List: __________________________________________________________________________
G. Name the foods that balance blood pressure drought, loo or floods ………………..
List: __________________________________________________________________________
H. Name the foods that help alleviate diabetes drought, loo or floods …………………
List: __________________________________________________________________________
Are there any other foods that help particular health conditions?
List: __________________________________________________________________________
20. Does the village have traditional social foresty/agorforestry? If yes then name the species planted in it with size of lands
Name of tree species Approximate areas under the tree species
a
b
c
21 What do you feel that the planted tree species in above listed tree under village social forestry/agorforoestry has been decreased in last
30-40 years? If yes then with what rate and how did it affect the village livelihoods and climate
Size of land reduced in a year Effect on the livelihood General effect on the climate
a
b
c
22. Please suggest the ways and means by which the participation of village community could be enhanced in minimizing the community
forest cutting or degrading the village community forest resources
Ways and means
A
B
C
23. What types of formal training you need to fight with the climate change so that you and your animals could be saved from food,
nutritional and medicinal security?
Areas of training you need In what forms
a
b
c
Notations: ________________________________________________________________
SINGH et al.: BIOCULTURAL DIVERSITY, CLIMATE CHANGE & LIVELIHOOD SECURITY OF THE ADI COMMUNITY
47
CRF (that it is community property) and its linkages
with REDD were reiterated, members of Adi
community were convinced about the advantages of
the CRF. Consequently, they conceived the idea that
ownership would remain with the person concerned,
either a forest conservator or the clan willing to
establish the CRF.
From 700 members participating from 14 villages,
the majority (76.25%) of them expressed positive
opinions about establishing and reserving a certain
size of virgin community forest (VCF) in every
village, as a CRF under the REDD program. The most
important issue emerging from the workshops was
regarding what indicators would be required for
selection of a particular virgin community forest as
the CRF. In discussions held during with the majority
of Adi participants suggested 17 criterions with
different level of respective consensus scores to be
taken into account for the selection of CRF (Table 1).
The composition of these ecological, socioeconomic
and cultural criterions were a further point of
discussions among the scientific members as a test of
rationality and usefulness, while selecting private or
clan lands under CRF and REDD. After knowing the
willingness of individual forest owners and clans to
secure their forests as CRF, along with the TKH and
community members, the team of scientists measured
out areas of community forest. In the end, a total of 14
forest areas from 14 villages were delineated by the
participatory team, to be classed as ‘CRF’ under the
REDD program, with incentives/rewards to be given
to the respective owners.
The majority of scientists (85.5%) emphasized that
selection of a particular forest under the REDD
scheme, should be a collaborative process between
concerned partners, and the forest must be intelligently
managed, carefully monitored. Any benefits arising
from CRF should be equitably shared among
community members. Both the community people
(51.4%) and scientists (82.3%) were of the opinion that
those CRFs that are clan lands may be managed with
the help of village level committee (VLC) and with
participation of customary institutions (CI). In the case
a CRF being established on private lands, a network of
all the privately managed CRF owners might be
developed to discuss issues arising and to pursue the
REDD designation. Ultimately, an association of all
private and clan-based CRF’s can be developed for the
purpose of negotiating with government and concerned
environmental agencies. The village Panchayat may be
one of the institutions to make the link between CRF
holding individuals and/or clans and outside agencies
dealing with the REDD scheme. Most scientists
(66.5%) were of the opinion that, apart from REDD
benefits, the CRF’s could provide great opportunities
for networking with government-run protected areas
and national parks. Significantly, these CRF’s can
provide an array of information on climate change and
genetic resources to subsidize the biodiversity of
genetically poor parks and protected areas.
Environmental anomalies, biocultural resources
and livelihoods
Perceptions of TKHs regarding climate change and
their biocultural resources based livelihoods indicate
that they are facing different levels and scales of
difficulty in use and management of their biocultural
resources because of weather anomalies and climatic
problems (Table 2). Due to this phenomenon, some
Table 1Criteria to be taken into account for the selection of
community reserve forest+
Criterion
Nos
Criterions Consensus
percentage*
1 Size of forest (minimum 10-12 hectares) 65.68
2 Species richness 87.32
3 Diversity of specific plants and animals
4 Degree of degradation and deforestation
(the forest should be fully virgin, with no
record or history of jhum cultivation)
85.67
5 Environmental services 71.24
6 Presence of endemic species 79.84
7 Fragility of landscape 65.72
8 Rate of loss of biodiversity 65.24
9 Research value (environmental
monitoring)
68.97
10 Presence of NGOs in locality 70.29
11 Community based organizations and
institutions
80.24
12 Presence of gender groups 89.68
13 Importance of human communities 91.24
14 Socioeconomic importance of use 93.24
15 Existence of market network for forest
based minor products
85.67
16 Community attitude for preservation and
ensuring the sustainability of community
reserve forest (a considerable amount of
people displacement will be made from
the forest, thus agriculture and
livelihoods activities would be affected);
62.37
17 Presence of land tenureship
* Multiple responses
+ The criterions were explore using focus group discussion (a
PRA tool) from the participating Adi members
INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL. 10, No. 1, JANUARY 2011
48
plant species are changing their phenological patterns.
For example, Mr Tamur Jamoh, a veteran hunter
(Figs. 4 A&B), reported that now, due to a shift in the
flowering and fruiting of the dekang tree
(Gymnocladus burmanicus C.E. Parkinson) (Fig.5),
Adi tribal members are facing the problem of hunting
deer and other wild animals during the period of the
Solung festival, since these wild animals are attracted
by ripe dekang pods. Mr G Lego, a forest conservator,
explained (Fig.6) that although the Adi community
has evolved a particular kind of agriculture system,
namely jhum (slash and burn) agriculture which has
been an example of a location specific strategy to
cope with environmental variation and to mitigate
uncertainties, the productivity and management
practices of jhum agriculture have decreased over the
last 40 yrs, at least in part due to weather anomalies.
In another example, 12.5% of the elder hunters of
Damro and Maryang areas (Upper Siang district)
explained that now they need more time to search for
the emo plant (Aconitum spiketum, used as an arrow
poison in hunting), because this species is as common
or predictable in its range as it was 30 yrs ago. This
makes hunting animals more difficult. Some of the
participants of this region (35.7%) mentioned that
now, due to the erratic rainfall, unpleasant weather
and other uncertain climatic factors, some of the local
inhabitants are migrating from one mountain to
another in search of sites for jhum cultivation and
better livelihood options. A few of the cultural leaders
of the Pasighat circle, such as Mr Kaling Borang, Mr
Tate Jamoh (Fig.7), Mrs G Lego, Mrs Orik Ralen
(Fig.8), Shri Litin Jamoh and Mrs Omang Tamuk (a
conservator of Gymnocladus burmanicus, Fig.9),
believed that CRF could provide added value, not
only in terms of benefits under REDD, but also in
providing habitats to minimize overexploitation of
certain animal and plant species of great cultural
importance to the Adi. For example, the reduction in
populations of mithun (wild cattle, Bos frontalis,
given as dowry item to brides), kebungs (a type of
squirrel, Ratufa sp, as also a dowry item; Fig.12),
dekang (the tree, Gymnocladus burmanicus, whose
fruits (Fig.10) are used for shampoo and soap and
bartered with other sub-tribes of Adi community and
ekkam (Phyrinum pubinerve Fig.13), used as
wrapping material for foods and wedding gifts and for
other cultural occasions), etc. In each village, a team
of scientists and community members conducted a
transect walk and a forest trek to assess the extent of
degradation and deforestation of a community forest
to be declared as the CRF. During the assessment, the
TEK of community members was used to help
identify any changes in the nature of the community
forest, in animal behavior or plant features known to
TKHs.
During the workshop, the about half (48.9%) of the elder women recalled their past history and presented a picture of weather anomalies they had experienced. They mentioned that 30 yrs ago, they never observed
Table 2Perception of traditional knowledge holders about
climate change and their livelihood security based on biocultural
resources
Indicators on climate change Perception % of
TKH (n=700)*
Ethnobotanical from community forest is
deceasing gradually
48.97
Indigenous fishes from forest stream and other
water bodies need now more time to harvest
for the desired level of amount
56.49
Surplus food resources need more care for
preservation
62.34
Fermentation period of alcoholic beverages
and foods are reduced
42.31
Need of more time and distance for collecting
ethnobotanicals needed for food and
medicines
65.74
Population of wild animals are reducing 72.19
Insect and pest problems are increasing in
local crops and other indigenous biodiversity
39.17
Jhum land is rapidly loosing either moisture
or prone to soil erosion due to heavy rain
68.94
Species diversity of aquatic biodiversity
(forest stream and community river) and
terrestrial biodiversity is reducing due to high
silting and temperature fluctuations
57.89
Food chain is affected due to heavy rain and
or drought
51.29
People need now more frequent contingency
planning for reducing risk associated to crop
and farming system as a whole
42.98
Water supply (harvested from mountain top
chanalized through bamboo pipe) is disturbed,
and some times dried and some times carry
more silt or broken particles
61.27
Labour intensity and cost is increased for
maintaining jhum land from moisture
conservation to soil erosion control point of
view
51.28
If weather anomalies and climate change trend
remains same, then biocultural diversity and
sustainability of subsistence livelihood would
be threatened
95.64
* Multiple responses
SINGH et al.: BIOCULTURAL DIVERSITY, CLIMATE CHANGE & LIVELIHOOD SECURITY OF THE ADI COMMUNITY
49
such unpleasant and uncommon weather during the summer and rainy season. They stated that till 1970s, during the floods they were in a position to access the wild food plants in abundant quantities from the community forest, but at present extent of it are very
small even in the undisturbed and un-degraded forest. Why it is so? Is it the signal of change in behaviors of food resources or in human behavior? There were abundant quantities of aquatic biodiversity in the forest river and seasonal water bodies, but we don’t get it now. Why? Is it the signal of climate change or
overexploitation of resources? The question is complex. If it is due to overexploitation of resources with increasing population, then why do the problems remain same in the undisturbed and un-degraded community forest resources, which you scientists are interested in making into a CRF and linking it with
REDD. It was a challenging question for scientists. Now, Adi people don’t get a sufficient quantity of anke (wild chestnuts Figs.11 A,B,C), belang (wild jackfruit seeds, Fig.19), tasat (Arenga obtusifolia Mart., Fig.14), taste [(Cyathea andersonn Linn.), the fruits are used for eating during drought)], taje
[Amomum sp] and kebung (a squirrel) during the drought, and other species of forest for Adi festivals, as perceived by locally community members. Why did it happened? Adi hoped that in the future, the CRF could provide some solutions to Adi foods, medicinal and cultural problems caused by weather anomalies
and human disturbances. On the issue of climate change and problems of
availability of culturally rich bioresources, one of the
cultural leaders, Mr Kaling Bornag (Pasighat village),
and Mr Tate Jamoh (a veteran hunter of Sibut
village), expressed that they are now facing
frequently erratic rainfall, unpredictable floods (as in
the year 2003) and increasing temperatures, so
different from the past. If the trends of variability in
climatic features remain the same then what will be
the future of ethnicity, food habits and culture of the
Adi community? Shall they be able to conserve their
food habits, agricultural, hunting and food gathering
practices, their knowledge nurturing institutions and
close proximity with the native forests?... Probably
not…. The threat of climate change to their culture
and biodiversity is further aggravated by the alarming
rate of erosion in knowledge about biodiversity and
culture among their younger generation and people
living in transitional social systems”. In further
discussions, the majority of scientists present at the
workshop agreed (79.8%) that although the biological
values of a particular site of CRF play an important
role, the community interest, culture and other socio-
economic concerns are equally important to ensure
the CRF’s sustainability under the REDD program
with reference to use of private and clan lands of
tribal people.
Case study 1- Mrs Basum Moyong: A veteran
traditional knowledge holder of indigenous
biodiversity, culture and environment Mrs Basom Moyong (65) belongs to Minyong
ethnic group of the Adi tribe and lives in Pasighat,
Arunachal Pradesh. She is known for her knowledge
on local biodiversity, history and environment. Her
activities and comments were monitored for a week
and she was able to share her knowledge of changes
in local biodiversity over time. She recalled that in the
earlier days, there were many monkeys in our
community forest…many of them were so big in size
that their visit in our village was enjoyable. With the
passage of time and destruction of the forest,
populations of these monkeys are no more. Is it
caused by weather anomalies or human aggravation?
It could be both! On special cultural occasions, they
even ate roasted meat of a hunted monkey, although,
Miyong believed that a person eating monkey’s meat
is likely to inculcate monkey-like behavior in his/her
children. That’s why the majority of people don’t eat
monkey’s meat. Nowadays, due to the dirty water
available in the town area, a number of diseases and
ailments are increasing among humans. Earlier, they
used to use drinking water straight from a river or
streams which were passing through networks of roots
of certain medicinal plants that could purify the water.
That made them healthy. Further, it was learned that
human health’s problems are further aggravated due
to adulterated foods of the market consumed by our
people, changing food habits of local tribes without
knowing their positive and negative effects, etc. To
cure such health problems, Adi women-like Mrs
Basom Moyung, modify the microecosystem ([small
patches of community forest) through burning, which
helps not only to generate many new herbs and shrubs
used in food and medicine, but also such practices are
integral part of Adi jhum cultivation (slash and burn
agriculture).
In response to a question asked on how burning
and cutting of the forest vegetation for shifting
cultivation is affecting local environment, it was
recorded that about 30 yrs ago the system of burning
small patches of community forest for jhuming was
INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL. 10, No. 1, JANUARY 2011
50
sustainable, given the total period over which a single
space was cultivated. At present, however, it is not
like that. These days, this burning cycle of jhum land
is reduced up to 8-10 yrs. Moreover, due to scarcity of
forest land, farmers are now selecting steep slopes for
the shifting agriculture lands, which is against the
convention of using only mild slopes for this system.
This problem is further aggravated by population
growth and demands of more frequent shifting lands.
Due to these factors, the rate of growth of flora and
fauna has now decreased and whole ecosystem is
deteriorating, while earlier it was more sustainable.
These disturbances may contribute to an imbalance in
local environment. After burning, Adis were able to
plant fruit plants, betelnut, jackfruit, etc. around the
kitchen garden as reported by Basum. In the main
land, women grew local ginger, turmeric, brinjal,
local paddy, okjok (Bauhinia variegata), finger millet,
foxtail millet, jowar, bajra, cucurbit crops, local
species, etc. were all grown according to different
slopes and depth of soils. Most of the beans and cover
crops were planted at the highest slope of shifting
land to stop soil erosion and use deficit moisture
during shortage of rainfall. Similarly, the banana and
okjok trees were planted around the fields to act as a
living fence (for the animals as well as to protect
against high wind velocity during winter). In the
shifting land, ethnobotanicals such as gam-oying, alap
(black tiny seeds like the seeds of black cumin used to
control blood sugar) and loram (leaves and stem used
in gastric trouble) were reared and used in earlier
times. Unfortunately, these species are now decreased
in numbers and their use is mostly restricted to the
elders as perceived by Mrs Basum Moyong.
During the time of British occupation (late 1949-
50’s), the whole area was under dense forest, with
thousands of wild animals. Adi male folk use to hunt
wild animals with the help of a paste made of emo
(Aconite ferox) root and caught fish in the community
river using foam made from green leaves of onger
(Zanthoxylum rhesta DC., Fig.15) that make the fish
unconscious for about half an hour, without
contaminating the water. Other species were rugzi,
tulphi and dhikotamoh, which were popular and
frequently used for catching fish in ponds and rivers.
But now these indigenous practices that were bonded
with Adi culture, traditions, and survival skills are
threatened at alarming rate. The reasons could be
changing socio-cultural and political contexts and
anomalous climate. About the weather and its
connectivity with biocultural resources, Mrs Basum
Moyong stated that now the weather is different than
what they experienced 40 yrs back. It has changed. If
it is continued then it will become a serious matter for
conservation of biocultural resources and securing
livelihoods of Adi tribe.
Case study 2- Mrs. Otek Moyong: A veteran
traditional knowledge holder of culture, environment
and indigenous biodiversity In the series of learning with elderly women, Mrs
Otek Moyong (80) who lives in Pasighat, was
contacted about exploring her knowledge and
indigenous survival strategy under the current harsh
ecosystem. It was learned that Mrs Otek Moyong was
always intent on diversifying her local enterprises to
reducing the risks associated with either heavy rain or
drought. She reared pigs, local chickens and ducks,
while her husband reared mithun- a semi-wild animal,
in the forest. In response to a question about changes in
weather, local natural resource use and conservation,
she shared her knowledge and experiences. It was
learned with her that about 50 yrs ago when there were
a lot of sawmills established in nearby areas of
Pasighat, then lot of trees were cut from the community
forest for timber, etc. It has resulted in changing the
landscape as well as local traditions of survival with
nature. Consequently, village of Otek Moyong changed
looked like a bald man without hair since the mountain
lost its huge vegetation. It has resulted in losses of
many of ethnomedicinal plants through heavy soil
erosion caused by sever rains and silting or destroyed
by contractors carrying harvested trees and boulders
from the foothills for construction purposes. The
nearby mountain, many a time she use to go to the
slopes and plant local crops and ethnobotanicals which
were and can be used as both food and medicine. She
shared that there were a number of wild plants and
animals in those days like trees, ficus, anke (wild
chestnut), teak, wild bamboos, belang (wild jackfruits),
etc. Many species of insects were found inside the
tree’s wood and their availability was known by the
cries or the sounds they make at night or at noontime.
There were many birds of varied colours and sizes,
some of them as large as a goat and with wings as
broad as 2-3 m. But nowadays, there are only 20-25%
of former numbers in the community forest. Why has it
happened? They all vanished due to overexploitation.
Could it be caused by changes in the local environment
or as a direct impact of weather anomalies? It could be
both.
SINGH et al.: BIOCULTURAL DIVERSITY, CLIMATE CHANGE & LIVELIHOOD SECURITY OF THE ADI COMMUNITY
51
It has been learned with Otek Moyong that if ancestors of Adi were also hunters and were using wild animals as food stuff then why is only the newer generation blamed for the overexploitation? Then it has been noted from her that during the olden days,
there were some norms of the village Kebang (the Adi’s Indigenous Institution) that on particular days, festivals, or special occasions, common hunting would take place. Hunting was undertaken with traditional weapons and practices (using emo). The place, time, types of wild animals to be hunted, and
total period required for hunting were decided by elders of village before any hunting proceeded. A fine was imposed on violators of this norm and they were even punished. At present, on the other hand, it is going on blindly every day and 24 hrs, using guns and pistols (mostly by youngsters), which go against the
rules of Adi’s ancestors. Certain vegetables and plants used for treatment were naturally grown in the community forest and individual kitchen gardens. Adi women used to share their ethnobotanicals and local products harvested from these two micro-ecosystems both individually and collectively. In the case of a
food crisis or drought or flood, these local bioresources were shared with each member of the village community in order to cope with the risk of food security. The Adi women grow multiple crops (with local varieties and land races) in particular lands so that even if a single crop/variety is deficient in its
yield, other crop/varieties will compensate for it for foods, fodder and medicinal security. This local strategy was developed (and is still used in traditional villages) to minimize the risk of crop failure and to enable Adi to make stock for off-season use of food products.
Adis were able to use varieties of local wild plants
as food and ethnomedicines, though these have been
reduced over the time, as reported by Otek Moyong.
They include black turmeric (used as a medicine for
gastric), ada (ginger-two types), onger, marshang
oying, bamboo shoots, Adi dhania, oji-onu, bayum,
etc. These ethnobotanicals provide insurance for
survival during extreme weather drought or floods,
though the productivity of each varies according to
weather conditions. But, if the pattern of weather
change remains the same Adi can use anke (wild
chestnut) and belang (wild jackfruit) or not? This is
matter of thinking. These two species are most
compatible for the Adi tribe for use as food during
droughts. On local biological indicator relating to
environment, Mrs Otek Moyong stated that they still
predict weather through local bio-meteorological
indicators such as the bamboo flowering (Fig.16
indication of drought and rapid increase of rat
population which destroy paddy crop, and thus make
situation epidemic) and insect tari (Aspongopus najus,
Fig.17). If this insect flies during sunset then a good
rainfall is predicted, and they adopt tall varieties of
paddy for cultivation. This insect is used in making
chutney also and its habitat – the rocks and moist sands
around the riverbank–is disturbed by the contractors
who carry away the boulders. These days they do not
see much to ruk-kung (Oecophylla smaragdina) insect
(Fig.18). It has been noted that eggs of this insect are
very nutritious during a food crisis. It is boiled and
consumed for weakness, while the adults of the same
insect can be used to cure malaria, by allowing them to
bite the back. This insect is found more on citrus
species or wild mango. Why they are disappearing? Is
it because of weather change? It could be!
The flora and fauna of community forests are always
given prior importance by Adi tribal members and the
medicinal practitioners of the area. One of the plants,
katbuk (a local herb) is a medicinal species occurring on
mountain slopes. Earlier, this plant was found in
abundance but it has now become a rare one. Another
local plant, pemilagin (a vine) is found in and around the
mountains of the River Siang. Inside its stems, a large
quantity of fluid can be found, which is used for treating
redness of the eyes and which can be stored for a week
in the shade. It is also diminishing across its range.
Similarly, a climbing plant called nilokontho, the roots
of which can be used to treat gastric problems, was
found formerly in large quantities in and around the
villages, but nowadays it is very rare and the cause of its
decline is unknown. Mrs Moyong added that earlier
there were a number of wild fruits in the community
forest used to dye clothes, but these have been also
reduced. The major concern is whether the
disappearance or reduction of wild flora and fauna are
due to weather anomalies or climate change or to
disturbance both by humans and climate change? The
effect of low temperature (by refrigeration) on the yeast
load in some fermented foods and beverages of the Adi
tribal community of East Siang district of Arunachal
Pradesh was studied10
.
Discussion and conclusion
Adi people hold rich knowledge on plant and
animal resources they use as food and medicine.
The Adis are aware of weather anomalies and related
INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL. 10, No. 1, JANUARY 2011
52
Figs. 1-10 A & B TKHs & Scientists measuring forest area and species richness for CRF, 2 A village workshop on biocultural resources
sustainability & CRF, 3 Community Forest of Siido village declared as CRF, 4a Mr Tamur Jamoh explaining story about dekang use and its
relation to hunting and food gathering, 4b Mr Tamur Jamoh with other TKHs and author RKS in community forest showing to tree of dekang, 5
Dekang tree, 6 Mr G Lego- a forest conservator explaining to group of scientists and TKHs, 7 Mr Tate Jamoh with local fern, explaining history
of community forest and types of changes took place in it, 8 Mrs Orik Ralen- a veteran biodiversity conservator and community leader (Sibut
village), 9 Mrs Omang Tamuk- a conservator of dekang tree (Yagrung village), 10 Dekang (Gymnocladus burmanicus) fruits
SINGH et al.: BIOCULTURAL DIVERSITY, CLIMATE CHANGE & LIVELIHOOD SECURITY OF THE ADI COMMUNITY
53
Figs. 11-19 a Anke (wild chestnut) tree, 11 b Anke (wild chestnut) fruit bunch, c Anke (wild chestnut) seed, 12 Kebung (Ratufa sp.), 13
Ekkam plant, 14 Tasat tree, 15 Onger plant, 16 Bamboo flowering in Sido village, 17 Tari insect (stink bug/ Shield bug) used in weather
prediction as well as food in making chutney, 18 Ruk-kung insect (Oecophylla smaragdina, 19 Belang (wild jackfruit)
INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL. 10, No. 1, JANUARY 2011
54
phenomena - so-called climate change. They worry
about the sustainability of their biocultural resources
and their livelihood security. Certainly, erratic
temperature and rainfall may threaten the livelihoods
of Adi community members who depend on
biocultural diversity. The hypothesis of climate
change and viability of the microbial populations
existing in fermented foods and traditional alcoholic
beverages (made of indigenous flora and fauna) of
Adi tribe was tested in different temperature regimes.
The experiment showed that the yeast load in the
fresh fermented products is very high. Refrigeration
together with preservation of yeast cultures can
negatively or even positively affect cultures, while
bringing about cytological modification as evident
from some heat shock sensitive ethnic fermented
foods of Adi tribe. The experiment revealed that such
types of weather changes- if happened in future, then
sustainability of food resources and dependent culture
may become threatened. This experiment revealed
that the knowledge of Adi tribal members relating to
climate change and weather anomalies is
considerable. The elderly women and men are
relatively more experienced in the history and culture
of bioresources of their localities, and they suggest
that changes are occurring due to both climate change
and anthropogenic factors. These elderly people are
depositories of information on biocultural resources
and climate change history; hence they may
contribute to any participatory program focused on
mitigation and adaptation to climate change,
especially in harsh ecosystems. Even though some
erosion in knowledge has been noticed, Indigenous
practices relating to biodiversity as adopted by the Adi
tribe may contribute in local planning of mitigation to
climate change and other disturbance7,17
. Since, until
2005 there had been no substantive efforts or
initiatives by any agency in India to consult with
Indigenous peoples in relation to REDD, the
grassroots feedback and opinions of the Adi people as
recorded through this workshop represent an
important effort, potentially of immense value to
governmental and environmental agencies in more
effective application of policies on REDD,
conservation and livelihood security.
Regarding the diversity of plant and animal species
and cultures of the Eastern Himalaya, world
environmental agencies such as UNEP and the World
Bank may include name of India (specially states rich
in biocultural diversity) under the REDD list and may
ensure that the rewards and benefits accrue to the
Indigenous people who are favoring CRF and REDD.
This can be appropriately pursued by environmental
agencies of India. Many international organizations
and Indigenous Peoples’ groups have raised their
voices, including the climate change conference at
Cancun, Mexico18
. Fortunately, in Asia, both India
and China are rich in biocultural diversity and may
collaborate in developing strategies for coping with
climate change, conserving the forest cover along
with the people and cultures depending on forest
ecosystems19,20
. The Government is aiming to frame
its policy mechanisms to provide economic incentives
to state and local governments to save their forests18
.
Given this policy, if followed, the Himalayan state-
like Arunachal Pradesh will be given greater
importance and special incentives to save its forests.
In such a situation, the groundwork and initiatives
with local communities such as the Adi, will provide a
real picture of the people’s aspirations from the
government for saving forest as CRF.
There is an urgent need, particularly in the
northeastern regions of India, to establish CRF and
promote conservation, along with instituting a reward
mechanism for indigenous peoples, to ensure their
livelihood sustainability. A network of many CRF
under the REDD concept may be created through a
mission mode project sand communities movement in
which governments, NGOs, scientists, private sectors
and policymakers might participate. Lessons can be
taken from the REDD program, initiated elsewhere and
led by the other world agencies21-24
. The representation
of indigenous people must be ensured in any public
debate or the policy matters concerning REDD and
affecting the culture and livelihood aspects of
Indigenous people20-24
. A proper discussion is yet to be
undertaken to determine the consensus and rationale
for establishing incentives and rewards under REDD
for the Indigenous people in recognition of their efforts
in establishing and keeping CRF’5. This must be made
after through discussions with the appropriate body of
indigenous people and communities members. Apart
from climate change and REDD as a source of rewards
and incentives, the conservation of species and forest
dependent livelihoods of iIndigenous people may be
taken into account by the REDD leading agencies and
governments12,17
.
Indigenous and traditional people hold a rich body
of environmental knowledge learnt from nature
SINGH et al.: BIOCULTURAL DIVERSITY, CLIMATE CHANGE & LIVELIHOOD SECURITY OF THE ADI COMMUNITY
55
through trial and incremental application from time
immemorial. They have experienced cause and effect
of particular environmental phenomena, and this rich
knowledge and experience could be an integral part of
REDD and climate change responses. The TKH can
actively participate in the process of monitoring the
network of CRF under REDD or protected areas
initiatives. Their knowledge and wisdom will help
scientists in deliberating present approaches and
reconciling them with past phenomena of a particular
ecosystem. The REDD program may use mechanisms
such as certification and validation to ensure
appropriate benefit sharing for Indigenous people and
local communities. A bond of CRF and conservation
of TKS, and sustainable livelihoods may be possible,
if the concerned communities receive appropriate
training and empowerment. These communities
should be invited not only to discuss effects of and
responses to climate change, but should also be
consulted for learning about the environment and
developing adaptive strategies. Consultation could be
pursued through a set of experiences of local people
(Annexure I). There is a need for special care to
protect TK, especially with reference to climate
change. TK holders who are not yet aware of global
climate change and its negative consequences need to
be further informed. Newer generations of indigenous
people who are departing from their native culture
and environment need specialized education and
training in biodiversity conservation and TK to reduce
the rate of knowledge erosion. In the initiative of CRF
and REDD, the incentives and rewards initiated by the
world agencies must be initiated quickly for tribal
peoples to protect forest biodiversity and TK in their
traditional territories.
Acknowledgement Author is grateful to Dr Igul Padung, Principal,
Doying Gumin College, Pasighat and Central
Agricultural University, Imphal, Manipur for the
financial and logistic supports to organize workshops
in villages. The inputs of all the community and
cultural leaders, and the traditional knowledge holders
are appreciated and acknowledged. RKS is especially
thankful to Mrs Orik Rallen, Mrs Omang Tamuk, Mr
Lithin, Mr Tate Jamoh, Mr Mr Tamur Jamoh and all
who were parts of village workshops and provided
their invaluable inputs. All of the traditional
knowledge described are shared by numerous elders
and plant specialists from across the various sub-
tribes of Adi community of different villages from
East Siang district are gratefully acknowledged. RKS is
grateful to Prof Nancy J, Turner, University of Victoria
for her technical guidance provided to conduct the
study and significant editorial contribution.
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