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ARGUMENTSARGUMENTS

Persuasive DiscoursePersuasive Discourse

• Why do they want to persuade?– Authors– Advertisers– Prosecutors– Politicians– Perspective employees

Persuasive DiscoursePersuasive Discourse

• Why do they want to persuade?– Authors: the truth of particular ideas– Advertisers: consumers to buy products– Prosecutors: convince the jury that the

accused is guilty– Politicians: the electorate to vote for them– Perspective employees: employers to hire

them

Persuasive Discourse: ArgumentsPersuasive Discourse: Arguments• Argument: a form of reasoning in which one

draws a conclusion based upon particular pieces of evidence.

• Bierman and Assali (1996), “…a sequence of statements in which statements, called premises, are given as reasons or evidence for the truth of a statement, called the conclusion” (p. 33).

Persuasive Discourse: ArgumentsPersuasive Discourse: Arguments

• In persuasive communications, arguments are very important because a speaker has to convince the listeners.

• The speaker should be able to construct arguments that have good argument structures

• Critical thinking is primarily about the evaluation of arguments.

• Definition of an argument: 1. a set of statements of which it is claimed

that one of those statements (the conclusion) is supported by the others (the premises).

2. a reason or reasons offered for or against something

• ARGUMENT = CONCLUSION (assertion) +

PREMISES

= THESIS STATEMENTS + SUPPORTING DETAILS

Example – A Simple ArgumentExample – A Simple Argument

1.Lawyers earn a lot of money. (Premise)2.I want to earn a lot of money. (Premise)3.I should become a Lawyer. (Conclusion)

• Sometimes some arguments have unstated premise and conclusion.

• In this case, inference indicators signal the occurrence of the premise and conclusion.

• Example:

[Premise] “You can’t check books out of the library without an ID card. So [conclusion] Bill won’t be able to check any books out”

The word ‘so’ is the inference indicator to signal the conclusion.

Identifying the conclusionIdentifying the conclusion• An argument's conclusion is what the person making

the argument is ultimately trying to convince you of, i.e., the person's point.

• To identify the conclusion of an argument 'what does the person making the argument want me to walk away thinking?'

(If the answer is 'nothing', then you're not dealing with an argument.)

Identifying the conclusionIdentifying the conclusion

• Location• Logical Indicator of words• Analysis of the content of the

paragraphs

Identifying the conclusionIdentifying the conclusion

Location1.The thesis of the paragraph, section

or article is often the conclusion.2.Usually at the beginning, at the end

or both

Identifying the conclusionIdentifying the conclusion

LocationWhen the city reconstructs our street next autumn,

it should not widen it. I live on a hill and my current driveway is very steep where it connects with the street. If the city widens the street, my driveway will be so steep that I will scrape my tailpipe and bumper on the asphalt, ruining my car and gouging the new street. Keep the street that same width!

Identifying the conclusionIdentifying the conclusion

Logical Indicator of words– Try putting the word "therefore" before each of

the statements in turn. The statement that fits best will be the conclusion.

1.Lawyers earn a lot of money.

2.I want to earn a lot of money.

3.I should become a Lawyer.

Some Conclusion Indicator Some Conclusion Indicator Words:Words:

• Look for conclusion indicator words, such as:

therefore, consequently, as a result, thus, it follows that, so, which shows that, hence, accordingly

Identifying the PremisesIdentifying the Premises

• Every argument must also consist of at least one premise.

• A premise is a statement that is meant to support the conclusion. Ideally, a premise provides a good reason for believing the conclusion.

• (justification)

Some Premise Indicator Words:Some Premise Indicator Words:

• To identify premises, it often easiest to look for premise indicator words, words that are often used to introduce a claim as a premise such as: because, since, as, for, given that, as, judging from, seeing that

Missing Premises and Missing Premises and Conclusions:Conclusions:

• People don't always come out and say what their point is. Similarly people may not always explicitly mention all the premises they are working with.

• As a result, we must be prepared to identify both missing premises and missing conclusions (i.e., conclusions or premises that are not explicitly stated by the arguer, but that are implicit in what the arguer does say).

Missing Premises and Missing Premises and Conclusions:Conclusions:

• Apply all our background knowledge about the probable intentions of the author.

• Use an important principle of interpretation called the Principle of Charity tells you always to interpret an argument so as to make its reasoning the best possible.

Missing Premises and Missing Premises and Conclusions:Conclusions:

• "8:30 is too early to go to bed. All my friends are allowed to stay up till 9:30.“

• If we were to put an inference indicator into this argument, which indicator would we choose and where would we put it? There are two main choices:

Missing Premises and Conclusions:Missing Premises and Conclusions:

• "8:30 is too early to go to bed. All my friends are allowed to stay up till 9:30.“

• A:   "8:30 is too early to go to bed, therefore all my friends are allowed to stay up till 9:30.“

• B:   "8:30 is too early to go to bed, because all my friends are allowed to stay up till 9:30."

Which is the better reading: A or B?

Exercise 1Exercise 1

Make a will. Make a will. Otherwise, the state Otherwise, the state will determine who will determine who

gets your stuff.gets your stuff. (Andrew Tobias, "Isn't It Time You Faced (Andrew Tobias, "Isn't It Time You Faced

the Future?" 2001)the Future?" 2001)

Identify the premise(s)

and conclusion

of this argument.

Exercise 2Exercise 2

Because she could not see so far, the

children were able to play in safety.

Identify the premise(s)

and conclusion

of this argument.

Exercise 3Exercise 3The main reason I believe

Australia should have nothing to do with SDI (Star Wars) research is that the whole plan is discredited.

Hardly any scientists of note support it …

Find the first

word of the

conclusion

Identify the inference indicator:Identify the inference indicator:

• Indian Classical music is very difficult to play because it requires you to improvise in a very sophisticated fashion.

• While many people realise that global warming will change the nature of our agricultural practices, very few people realise the extent of the changes that are coming. Thus most people in agriculture are quite complacent about their current ways of doing things.

Identify the inference indicator:Identify the inference indicator:

• Indian Classical music is very difficult to play because it requires you to improvise in a very sophisticated fashion.

• While many people realise that global warming will change the nature of our agricultural practices, very few people realise the extent of the changes that are coming. Thus most people in agriculture are quite complacent about their current ways of doing things.

Identify the inference indicator:Identify the inference indicator:• Australia has only sufficient water resources to

permanently sustain a population of 15 million. This means that the current Australian population is much too large.

• Suppose I agree with you that economic prosperity is not fairly distributed among all the world's people. It doesn't follow that I have a moral duty to do something about it. I am not personally responsible for the plight of the world's poor. I didn't impoverish them, so I am not morally bound to help them.

Identify the inference indicator:Identify the inference indicator:• Australia has only sufficient water resources to

permanently sustain a population of 15 million. This means that the current Australian population is much too large.

• Suppose I agree with you that economic prosperity is not fairly distributed among all the world's people. It doesn't follow that I have a moral duty to do something about it. I am not personally responsible for the plight of the world's poor. I didn't impoverish them, so I am not morally bound to help them.

Argument StructuresArgument Structures

Types of Argument StructuresTypes of Argument Structures

• 4 major argument types1. Simple Arguments2. Convergent Support Arguments3. Linked Support Arguments4. Complex/Extended Arguments

Simple argumentsSimple arguments• Simple arguments have one "layer" of premise.

That is, no premise also functions as a conclusion.1. Single Support ArgumentsExample:I think I should buy this used Toyota Corolla. Why?

They're practically giving it away.• P1: They're practically giving it away.• MC: I think I should buy this used Toyota Corolla.

Convergent ArgumentsConvergent Arguments• If a premise can stand on its own, i.e. if it adds to the

likelihood of the conclusion being true on its own, and there is more than one premise like this, we have a convergent argument.

I think I should buy this used Toyota Corolla. It is in good shape, it gets good mileage, and besides, it is within my budget.

• P1: The car is in good shape• P2: It gets good mileage• P3: It is within my budget• MC: I should buy this used Toyota Corolla

Convergent ArgumentsConvergent Arguments• If a premise can stand on its own, i.e. if it adds to the

likelihood of the conclusion being true on its own, and there is more than one premise like this, we have a convergent argument.

I think I should buy this used Toyota Corolla. It is in good shape, it gets good mileage, and besides, it is within my budget.

• P1: The car is in good shape• P2: It gets good mileage• P3: It is within my budget• MC: I should buy this used Toyota Corolla

Convergent ArgumentsConvergent Arguments•In convergent arguments, the

premises provide different and independent reasons for the claim. Each can support the claim by itself.

Convergent ArgumentConvergent ArgumentNuclear power plants should not be built,

because they are dangerous. And, the power from these plants is not essential. Finally,

these plants are not fair to future generations.

•Either premise provides support for the conclusion without the other, although the three together form a stronger argument than either on its own.

Convergent ArgumentConvergent Argument

Nuclear power plants should not be built

they are dangerous

the power from these plants is not essential

these plants are not fair to future generations

Linked ArgumentsLinked Arguments• We link premises when it is clear that a premise

by itself will not lead to the conclusion. Example:

I think I should buy this used Toyota Corolla. I need a car, and I like this one.

• P1: I need a car• P2: I like this car• MC: I should buy this used Toyota Corolla

Linked ArgumentsLinked Arguments• Linked argument - one in which

the reasons are dependent on one another for their strength. They cannot stand alone.

Linked ArgumentsLinked ArgumentsI think I should buy this used Toyota

Corolla.

I need a car I like this one

a linked premise must link with oneor more other premises to form support

Linked ArgumentsLinked Arguments• Note that neither premise can stand by itself. • Could the argument be, "I need a car, therefore I

should buy this used Toyota Corolla."? No, because we might ask, why this car?

• Could it be "I like this car, therefore I should buy this used Toyota Corolla."? No - just because you like a car doesn't mean you should buy it.

• Both premises are needed together.

Linked ArgumentLinked Argument• There is reason to think the

suspect is linked to this crime. The shots were fired from a jaguar; jaguars are not usual to this area; and the suspect owns a white jaguar.

Serial ArgumentSerial Argument• A serial argument is a string of reasons

and conclusions in which every conclusion is supported by one reason. Consider the following argument:

Cheap imitations are unreliable and therefore are likely to cost you a good deal more in the long run. So you should not buy cheap imitations.

Serial ArgumentSerial Argument

In this argument, (1) is offered as a reason for (2) and (2) is offered as a reason for (3). Both the final conclusion (3) and the intermediate conclusion (2) are supported by one reason. It is therefore a serial argument.

(1) Cheap imitations are unreliable and therefore (2) are likely to cost you a good deal more in the long run. So (3) you should not buy cheap imitations.

Serial ArgumentSerial Argument

(1) Cheap imitations are unreliable

We diagram this argument as follows:

(2) [They] are likely to cost you a good deal more in the long run.

(3) you should not buy cheap imitations.

Serial ArgumentSerial Argument• Each intermediate conclusion is a premise for the

next step in the argument” • One premise leads to another in a chain until it

leads to the conclusion. • Before coming to a main conclusion of the whole

argument, there may be a series of sub-conclusion that follows from the previous premises and then function as yet another premise for the next conclusion, either sub or main.

Argument DiagrammingArgument Diagramming•Identify each claim and number them.

•Provide missing parts if needed.

•Determine relation of claims and diagram.

What Is Not an Argument?What Is Not an Argument?

More precisely, a passage is an argument if and only if:

• It is a group of two or more statements.• One of those statements (the conclusion) is claimed

or intended to be supported by the other(s) (the premises).

AnAn argument argument is a claim defended with reasonsis a claim defended with reasons..

What Is Not an Argument?What Is Not an Argument?

• Arguments consist entirely of statements (sentences that it makes sense to regard as either true or false).

Examples:

Red is a colour. (physical statement) Abortion is morally wrong. (moral statement) The Matrix is a better movie than Titanic. (evaluative statement)

What Is Not an Argument?What Is Not an Argument?

• Arguments consist entirely of statements (sentences that it makes sense to regard as either true or false). – Questions, commands, and other kinds of non-

statements cannot be parts of arguments (Keep in mind, however, that rhetorical questions should be treated as statements.)

– What time is it? (question) Close the window! (command) Oh my goodness! (exclamation)

What Is Not an Argument?What Is Not an Argument?

• Statement test: Does it make sense to put “it is true that” or “it is false that” in front of it?

• If so, it is a statement. If not, it’s not.

– What time is it? (question) Close the window! (command) Oh my goodness! (exclamation)

– Red is a colour. (physical statement) Abortion is morally wrong. (moral statement) The Matrix is a better movie than Titanic. (evaluative statement)

What Is Not an Argument?What Is Not an Argument?• TRICKY STATEMENTS

• Rhetorical question: a sentence that has the grammatical form of a question but is meant to be understood as a statement.

Don’t you know smoking will kill you? (means: Smoking will kill you.)

How am I supposed to do that? (means: I can’t do that.)

What Is Not an Argument?What Is Not an Argument?• No single statement is an argument. • Arguments always consist of at least two statements.

• Nothing counts as an argument unless it is claimed or intended that one statement follows from one or more other statements in the passage.

• In other words, a passage is an argument only if the speaker or writer intends to offer evidence or reasons why another statement should be accepted as true.

What Is Not an Argument?What Is Not an Argument?

Reports A statement or group of statements intended simply to convey information about a subject.

Unsupported statements of belief or opinions

Is a statement or set of statements in which the speaker or writer expresses his or her personal opinion, but offers no reasons or evidence to back up that opinion.

What Is Not an Argument?What Is Not an Argument?

Illustrations Is a passage intended to provide examples that illustrate or support a claim, not to provide convincing evidence that the claim is true.

Conditional Statements

Is an if-then statement. It is an assertion that such-and-such is true if something else is true.

Explanations Is a statement or set of statements that seeks to provide an account of why something has occurred or why something is the case.

Example: ReportExample: ReportPlanet Earth was much drier in the Triassic than it is now, and there were large deserts in inland areas. There were no flowering plants or grasses--they evolved much later. The most common trees were conifers, similar to today's pines. Other large plants included yews, ginkgos, and the palmlike cycads. Moisture-loving ferns and horsetails thrived by lakes and rivers.

(Philip Whitfield, Simon & Schuster's Children's Guide to Dinosaurs and Other Prehistoric Animals, 1992)

Example: ReportExample: Report“More people moved to the south this year.”

“Oil prices dropped today, thus so did gas prices.”

• Statements made to convey information.• Notice that, even though there is a

conclusion indicator, this is still a report.

Example: Unsupported statements of belief or Example: Unsupported statements of belief or opinionopinion

For the person who called and said Larry Bird was better than Michael Jordan, wake up. No one was ever better than Michael Jordan, not even Kareem in his glory and not even Dr. J.

(From a newspaper call-in column)

Example: IllustrationExample: Illustration

Many wildflowers are edible. For example, daises and day lilies are delicious in salads.

Example: Conditional StatementExample: Conditional Statement

If Aida comes to the wedding then I will come to the wedding.

Example: ExplanationExample: Explanation

I speak good English because my parents encouraged me to practice it everyday.

Titanic sank because it struck an iceberg.

Tries to show why something is the case (not argue that it is the case).

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