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Article writing
Dr. Fatemeh Hemmati
English Language Department
University of Payame Noor
Features of the courseName: Article Writing
Number of modules: 2
An obligatory course for the BA students of English
The course is usually taken in the fifth or sixth semester.
Features of the coursePrerequisites: Grammar and Writing 1 and 2
Advanced Writing
The assigned bookThe assigned book for the course is:
Academic Writing Course
New edition, by R.R. Jordan
Collins study skills in English
The aims of the course To enable English language students to
express themselves coherently in writing.
To provide samples of academic writing and appropriate practice material for such students.
The aims of the course To act as a revision course for students who
have previously learned English with the sentence as the grammatical unit.
These students now need to write in English for academic purposes.
The design of the courseThe book is divided into two parts:
1. Functions of written English
2. Appendices
There is also a key at the end of the book which provides additional comments on the exercises and answers to most of them.
The design of the course
The grammatical features of English have been organized into language functions that are used to express a particular notion or idea.
The design of the course
Appendices act as a bank of reference material which contains information and examples generally useful to the students when they are writing.
The design of the course
Each of the units of the book has two or three stages which are graded in the amount of help and guidance they give.
The design of the course
All the units except the last one conclude with a structure and vocabulary aid to provide assistance with the words and the grammatical constructions needed in the unit.
Structure and cohesionUnit 1
Functions of Written English
Structure and Cohesion
Unit 1, structure and cohesion
Structure and cohesion
Structure and cohesion is about the general organization of a piece of academic writing, its structure and particularly the way in which the different parts are linked together.
Unit 1, structure and cohesion
Structure and CohesionA piece of academic writing may be an essay, a
report, an assignment, or a project.
In the following slides the overall structure of an essay is explained.
Unit 1, structure and cohesion
The overall structure of an essay
Generally an essay has three main sections:
1. Introduction
2. Development
3. Conclusion
Most pieces of formal writing are organized in a similar way.
Unit 1, structure and cohesion
Introduction
In the introduction you write about:
The subject or the topic and what aspect of the topic or what question about it is going to be discussed or answered.
In other words, you state the problem. Unit 1, structure and cohesion
Introduction
Another dimension of the introduction is related to the explanation on the way the subject is to be treated.
In other words, you have to state the problem and the way to treat it.
Unit 1, structure and cohesion
Development (body)In the development section, you present,
analyze, discuss and…
For example, if in the introduction you have promised the reader to write about two advantages and two disadvantages of a specific language teaching method,
Development (body)
you will need four paragraphs in the development section to write about those four advantages and disadvantages.
Unit 1, structure and cohesion
Development (body) Remember that each paragraph in the
development section needs its own topic sentence and supporting sentences.
Unit 1, structure and cohesion
Conclusion
The concluding paragraph of an essay acts like the concluding statement of a paragraph. It ties together all of the ideas expressed in the composition.
Unit 1, structure and cohesion
Conclusion
It might give a summary of the main points. Some writers prefer to present their own views/opinions and their decisions based on what they have written in the essay.
Unit 1, structure and cohesion
Conclusion
Remember that if you are writing a six paragraph essay, one paragraph should be devoted to the introduction, one paragraph to the conclusion and four paragraphs to the development.
Unit 1, structure and cohesion
Language functions
Writers use different structures and modes of writing to communicate their ideas to other people. Therefore, in an essay you might find descriptions, definitions, classifications,…
Unit 1, structure and cohesion
Language functions
Language functions consist of sentences and/or paragraphs that are joined together or linked by connectives (words or phrases that indicate a logical relationship).
Unit 1, structure and cohesion
Linking sentences by means of connectivesThere are three basic connectives: And Or But Other connectives can be grouped according
to the similarity of their meaning to these three basic connectives.
Unit 1, structure and cohesion
Linking sentences by means of connectives
If the development of the topic is straightforward, the ideas will be added together one after the other. The basic connective ‘and’ is used here.
Unit 1, structure and cohesion
Connectives similar in meaning to ‘and’‘And’ and other connectives which are similar in
meaning are used in the following situations:a. Listingb. Summationc. Transitiond. Appositione. Resultf. Inference Unit 1, structure and cohesion
Connectives similar in meaning to ‘and’
Listing has two subcategories which are:
Enumeration and addition.
Enumeration indicates a cataloguing of what is being said.
Most enumeration belongs to clearly defined sets. Unit 1, structure and cohesion
Connectives similar in meaning to ‘and’
There are many words that act as enumeration signals to tell the reader that a list or category of things will be introduced.
Examples:
First,…second,…third,…
One,… two,… three,… Unit 1, structure and
cohesion
Connectives similar in meaning to ‘and’ Addition is the second subcategory of listing
in which the writer adds something else to what has been previously indicated either simply to add to it or to confirm it.
Example:Also, moreover, besides, too,… Unit 1, structure and cohesion
Connectives similar in meaning to ‘and’
In addition to reinforcing and confirming what has been said before, addition may be in the form of equation which focuses on…
Connectives similar in meaning to ‘and’
the similarity between what has been said before and what is being added.
Example:
Equally, similarly, in the same way,… Unit 1, structure and cohesion
Connectives similar in meaning to ‘and’
The second group of connectives that are similar to ‘and’ in meaning are the ones that show transition.
Transition can lead to a new stage in the sequence of thought.
Unit 1, structure and cohesion
Connectives similar in meaning to ‘and’
Examples:
Now, with reference/ respect/ regard to, regarding, let us turn to,…
‘As for’ and ‘as to’ are often used when discussing something briefly.
Unit 1, structure and cohesion
Connectives similar in meaning to ‘and’
The third category which is summation indicates a generalization or summing-up of what has preceded.
Examples:
In conclusion, in brief, overall, to sum up,… Unit 1, structure and cohesion
Connectives similar in meaning to ‘and’
Apposition is the forth category which is used to refer back to previous sentences or to parallel or related references.
Example:That is, for example, in other words, i.e., mainly,
chiefly,… Unit 1, structure and cohesion
Connectives similar in meaning to ‘and’
The fifth category, result, expresses the consequence or result of what was said before.
Examples:
Therefore, as a result, consequently, thus, … are some of the examples of this category.
Unit 1, structure and cohesion
Connectives similar in meaning to ‘and’
The sixth category, inference, indicates a deduction from what is implicit in the preceding sentence(s).
Examples:
Then, in other words, in that case,… Unit 1, structure and
cohesion
Connectives similar in meaning to ‘and’
Attention
Using many of the above mentioned connectives require special punctuation.
Example:
He passed his examination; therefore, he had some good news to tell his parents.
Unit 1, structure and cohesion
Linking sentences by means of connectives
The second basic connective which is ‘or’ is a connective of reformulation.
Sometimes the comments may be expressed in another way, or an alternative proposal may be made. This is represented by ‘or’.
Unit 1, structure and cohesion
Connectives similar in meaning to ‘or’
A number of other connectives have a similar meaning to ‘or’.
These connectives are of two types: Reformulation and Replacement.
Unit 1, structure and cohesion
Connectives similar in meaning to ‘or’
Reformulation expresses something in another way.
Better, rather, in other words, to put it simply,…
Replacement expresses an alternative to what has preceded.
Unit 1, structure and cohesion
Connectives similar in meaning to ‘or’
Alternatively, on the other hand,…
Example:
Helen speaks English like a native speaker. To put it more simply, she speaks it excellently.
Unit 1, structure and cohesion
Linking sentences by means of connectives
The third basic connective which is ‘but’ represents occasions in arguments etc. when the opposite is considered or referred to.
Unit 1, structure and cohesion
Connectives similar in meaning to ‘but’
There are two categories of connectives that have similar meaning to ‘but’:
Contrast and Concession.
Contrast indicates contrast with what has preceded.
Instead, on the contrary, by contrast,… Unit 1, structure and cohesion
Connectives similar in meaning to ‘but’
Concession indicates the unexpected, surprising nature of what is being said in view of what was said before.
Examples:
In spite of, although, even if, however,… Unit 1, structure and cohesion
Connectives similar in meaning to ‘but’The time for discussion was limited. However, Nevertheless, In spite of that, Yet,
it was still possible to produce some interesting
arguments. Unit 1, structure and cohesion
Description: process and procedureUnit 2
Description:
Process and Procedure
General description, specific procedure, advice
Unit 2, description: process and procedure
Description: process and procedureIn describing a process or reporting a procedure,
sequence or order is important.
The present passive tense (is/are + pp form of the verb) is used to give a general description.
Unit 2, description: process and procedure
Description: process and procedure Paper is made from wood. First, the trees are cut down. After the branches and leaves are removed,
the trees are transported to the sawmill… Pay attention both to the tense and the
sequence. Unit 2, description: process and procedure
Description: process and procedureThe past passive tense (was/were + pp of the
verb) is used when we report a particular procedure in the past.
Consider the following example:
Description: process and procedure
A survey was conducted among 50 students at Manchester University. The purpose of the survey was to discover…the type of writing that was expected of the students…
Unit 2, description: process and procedure
Description: process and procedure
A description that does not involve a process or procedure is often written in the present simple active tense.
Unit 2, description: process and procedure
Description: process and procedure
Some descriptions of procedure give advice in the form of what you should do. In other words, they give direct instructions by using the imperative form of the verb.
Unit 2, description: process and procedure
Description: process and procedureThink carefully about the topic.
Understand what is required in the essay.
Make a note of your ideas…
The above imperative sentences are the first stages of the procedure for writing an essay.
Description: process and procedure
Apart from working as an example, the complete procedure can help students write a good essay.
Unit 2, description: process and procedure
Description: process and procedure
The advice on the stages of writing an essay is followed by some more advices to improve your academic writing. There is no specific order:
Description: process and procedure
Write precisely, accurately and explicitly. Carefully paragraph the writing. Acknowledge the source of quotations. Include variety in the writing. … Unit 2, description: process and procedure
Description: process and procedureRemember that all the direct imperative advices
can be written in passive voice and indirectly:
The writing should be paragraphed carefully.
The source of quotations has to be acknowledged…
Unit 2, description: process and procedure
Physical descriptionUnit 3
Description:
Physical
Physical description may occur in a number of subjects and disciplines.
Unit 3, description:
physical
Physical descriptionFor most descriptions the present simple active
and the present simple passive are used.
Great Britain is an island that lies off the north-west coast of Europe. The island is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean …
Unit 3, description: physical
Physical description
To write the physical description of a country, location, size, physical background, climate, population, language and religion are considered.
Unit 3, description: physical
Physical descriptionSome useful vocabulary to write about: The climate of a country:
Desert, tropical, Mediterranean, polar,…
The weather conditions:
Nouns; flood, mist, typhoon, sunshine,…
Adjectives: stormy, cloudy, mild, icy,…
Unit 3, description: physical
Physical description Administrative areas:
provinces, states, territories, districts,…
Terrain:
Nouns: forests, mountains, hills, plains,…
Adjectives: flat, wooded, grassy, sandy, dusty,… Unit 3, description: physical
Physical description Compass points:Nouns: North, South, South-West,…Adjectives: northern, north-western, …
Location: Iran is situated/located in (to, on)…The south of Iran is on the coast. Unit 3, description: physical
NarrativeUnit 4, Narrative
Narrative is an account or description of events in the past which entails following a time sequence or chronological order.
Unit 4, narrative
Narrative
The introduction to many pieces of academic writing contains some kind of historical background or development which is usually in the form of narrative.
Unit 4, narrative
NarrativeVerb forms commonly used in narratives:
The simple past active, Simple past passive Past perfect active (had + pp of the verb).
Unit 4, narrative
NarrativeRemember that time sequence or chronological
order is very important in narrative. The earliest event is usually written first.
The beginning of E.E.C. date from May 9th 1950…
Unit 4, narrative
Narrative Writing about the origin and development of
organizations such as universities, the United Nations, … in narrative is very popular.
Imitate the passages of the book to write about some Iranian organizations.
Unit 4, narrative
Narrative The chronological order of narratives is also
manifested in writing a curriculum vitae.
c.v. is a brief account of your career. Apart from your name, date of birth and address, there has to be a summary of your education.
Unit 4, narrative
Narrative
The summary of education is followed by an account of your employment or career. The information is normally given in chronological order.
Unit 4, narrative
NarrativeUseful vocabulary for describing:
Post-school education:
Institutes of higher education, further education, adult education, art and design, technology,…
Unit 4, narrative
Narrative Academic year:
Terms, semester, Summer trinity,… Staff:
Research assistant, lecturer, director,… Students:
Undergraduate, postgraduate, part-time,… Unit 4, narrative
Narrative University officers:
Librarian, Chancellor, registrar,… Finance:
Sponsorship, scholarship, fee, loan,… Assessment:
Dissertation, tests, essays, examinations,… Unit 4, narrative
Narrative Facilities:
Library, sports, health and welfare,… Research:
Surveys, experiments, computers,… Qualifications:
Diploma, first-degree (B.A., B.Sc.),… Unit 4, narrative
Narrative Teaching:
Seminars, lectures, tutorials,…
Academic writing:
Essay, report, exam answers, paper,…
Unit 4, narrative
DefinitionsUnit 5, Definitions
Simple definitions Academic definitions Extended definitions
Unit 5, definitions
Definitions
When we describe things we sometimes need to define them as well, especially in academic writing, so that it is perfectly clear what we mean.
Unit 5, definitions
DefinitionsThe language construction for definition:
Thing to be defined + verb + general class word + ‘wh’-word + particular characteristics.
DefinitionsExample:A botanist is a person who studies plants. 1 2 3 4 51 = thing to be defined2 = verb3 = general class word4 = ‘wh’-word5 = particular characteristics Unit 5, definitions
DefinitionsFrequently used verb tenses for definitions are
present simple (active and passive). Verbs that are often used for definition: Is Is concerned with Deal with Relates to Involves Unit 5, definitions
DefinitionsThree types of mistakes may occur when a short
definition is being written.
1. An example may be given rather than a definition.
A dictionary is a book like ‘Collins Cobuild English dictionary’.
Unit 5, definitions
Definitions2. The general class, or the particular
characteristics, may be omitted from the definition. It will then be incomplete.
An ammeter is used to measure electric current.
Unit 5, definitions
Definitions3. The word to be defined, or another form of it,
may be used in the definition itself. If the reader does not understand the word, he/she will not understand the repeated form of it either.
A lecturer is a person who lectures.
Unit 5, definitions
DefinitionsSome definitions use a reduced relative clause.
Plastics are compounds which are made with long chains of carbon atoms.
Plastics are compounds made with log chains of carbon atoms.
The reduced relative clause
Definitions Academic subjects can be defined more
specifically. This can be done if more information is given.
In other words, a definition may be extended in order to be more precise and/or to give more information.
Unit 5, definitions
ExemplificationUnit 6
Exemplification
Exemplification (or exemplifying) is the action of giving examples.
Unit 6, exemplification
Exemplification
Exemplification is commonly used throughout academic writing and plays an important role in definitions (to make them more clear).
Unit 6, exemplification
Exemplification There are different ways of exemplifying. Illustration For example A case in point An example For instance Such as Unit 6, exemplification
Exemplification Remember that each of the above words or
phrases is used in its own structure.
At the approach of danger many birds utter warning calls; this is an example of animals communicating with each other.
Unit 6, exemplification
Exemplification Cries, such as those of anger, fear and pleasure,
are uttered by apes.
There are important differences between human language and animal communication: for example, animal’s cries are not articulate.
Unit 6, exemplification
Exemplification Animals’ cries lack, for instance, the kind of
structure that enables us to divide a human utterance into words.
A good illustration of changing an utterance by substituting one word for another is a ….
Unit 6, exemplification
Exemplification
The number of signals that an animal can make is very limited: the great tit is a case in point.
Unit 6, exemplification
Exemplification Some common verbs in exemplification:
Passive voice:
the point is shown by…
The point is illustrated by…
The point is exemplified by… Unit 6, exemplification
Exemplification
Active voice:
The human language shows this…
The human language illustrates this…
The human language exemplifies this…
Unit 6, exemplification
Exemplification
Using such as is another method of expressing examples:
Writers such as Dickens and Hardy are…
Such writers as Dickens and Hardy are…
Unit 6, exemplification
Classification
Unit 7
Classification
When we divide something into groups, classes, categories, etc. we are classifying those items.
Unit 7, classification
Classification
Classification is normally made according to a criterion or several criteria.
For example, the students of a class can be classified according to their age, height, weight, intelligence, …
Unit 7, classification
Classification
Another example is the classification of drinks. The first criterion is if they are alcoholic or non-alcoholic. Then, the non-alcoholic ones can be divided according to the criterion of being hot or cold and…
Unit 7, classification
Classification
Some of the most common verbs of classification are:
To classify, to sub-classify To categorize, to sub-categorize To group, to sub-group To divide into, to sub-divide To arrange into Unit 7, classification
Classification
Some of the most common nouns of classification are:
Categories, sub-category Classes, sub-class Groups, sub-group Types, sub-order Kinds, sub-division Unit 7, classification
Comparison and Contrast
Unit 8, Comparison and Contrast
Unit 8, comparison and contrast
Comparison and Contrast In most academic subjects we often need to
compare and contrast things.
The language of comparison and contrast is frequently needed when studying tables and other statistical information.
Unit 8, comparison and contrast
Comparison and ContrastThe comparative and superlative of adjectives
and adverbs are very common in comparison and contrast.
There is more rain in May than in March.
The most convenient way of doing it is…
Unit 8, comparison and contrast
Comparison and ContrastThere are a number of constructions using
comparisons. Some of the most common ones are:
a. Showing equivalence as … as the same as as many as as much as Unit 8, comparison and contrast
Comparison and Contrastb. Showing non-equivalence
not as … as
not so …. as
-er than
more than
not as many not as much Unit 8, comparison and contrast
Comparison and Contrastc. Showing one item compared with a number
(i.e. the superlative)
the -est
the most …
d. Showing parallel increase
the -er ….the -er
Look at the following examples:
Comparison and Contrast
The higher you climb a mountain, the less oxygen you will get.
The more you study, the better your mark will be.
The smaller the problem, the less interesting he found it. Unit 8, comparison and contrast
Comparison and ContrastA number of other constructions that express
similarity are: both … and be similar (alike) in be similar in that be similar (alike) in that like and … both Unit 8, comparison and contrast
Comparison and ContrastContrast is shown by the following structures: Instead Conversely Then Be not the same as
Unit 8, comparison and contrast
Comparison and Contrast
On the contrary By contrast In comparison On the one hand … on the other hand
Unit 8, comparison and contrast
Comparison and Contrast Be dissimilar in that Norway and Sweden are dissimilar in that
Norway has a much smaller population than Sweden.
Be different from Whereas (while) The main difference is/one of the differences
is… Unit 8, comparison and contrast
Cause and Effect
Unit 9, Cause and effect
Event
Situation
Action
Idea
Problem
Back in time
or sequence
Cause
Reason
Forward in time
or sequence
Effect
Consequence
Cause and Effect
In academic writing, events are frequently linked with their cause and effect.
There are several ways to express the relationship between cause and effect.
Unit 9, cause and effect
Cause and Effect
The result or consequence of what was said before is expressed by:
So Therefore As a result Accordingly Thus
Cause and Effect
Hence For this reason Because of this/that Now As a consequence Unit 9, cause and effect
Cause and Effect
All the above mentioned connectives or markers of cause-effect relationship can be used to connect the following sentences:
Unit 9, cause and effect
Cause and Effect
The demand has increased.
The prices are higher.
The demand has increased; as a result, the prices are higher.
Pay attention to the punctuation. Unit 9, cause and effect
Cause and Effect
Remember that you can reverse the order of the cause and effect sentences. However, the structure of the sentence will be slightly different.
Unit 9, cause and effect
Cause and Effect
The following sentences can be connected either as one sentence or as two separate ones.
Prices rose.
Fewer goods were sold.
Unit 9, cause and effect
Cause and Effect
Prices rose; as a result, fewer goods were sold.
Fewer goods were sold, because prices rose.
Prices rose. As a result, fewer goods were sold.
Unit 9, cause and effect
Cause and Effect
Some of the other connectives and markers of cause-effect structures are:
Be due to Because/as/for As a result of The result/consequence is Result in Unit 9, cause and effect
Generalization, Qualification and CertaintyUnit 10
Generalization, Qualification and Certainty
Generalization, Qualification and Certainty
In some academic writing it is necessary to give a straightforward factual information as it is. Often, however, it is necessary to make general comments or generalize about the information.
Unit 10, Generalization, Qualification and Certainty
Generalization, Qualification and CertaintyExample: A straightforward description of factual
information: Out of the one million registered as
unemployed, one in five were women. %60 of the unemployed men were to be found in services and engineering.
Unit 10, Generalization, Qualification and Certainty
Generalization, Qualification and Certainty
Now compare them to the generalized sentences. Notice the change of figures:
Out of all those registered as unemployed a minority were women. The majority of unemployed men were to be found in services and engineering.
Unit 10, Generalization, Qualification and Certainty
Generalization, Qualification and Certainty
The generalization can be made more precise by qualifying them. When we make a qualification we may be giving our own opinion or interpreting the information.
Unit 10, Generalization, Qualification and Certainty
Generalization, Qualification and Certainty
To qualify involves using a scale of qualification.
On the one end of the scale we have 100% of something which will need quantity words such as all/every/each. The frequency adverb will be ‘always’ and the adjectives will be ‘certain(ly)’, ‘definite(ly)’.
Unit 10, Generalization, Qualification and Certainty
Generalization, Qualification and Certainty
On the other end of the scale there is 0% which necessitates quantity words such as no/none/not any. The frequency adverb will be ‘never’ and the verb will be:
will not is/are not can/could not Unit 10, Generalization, Qualification and Certainty
Generalization, Qualification and Certainty
In between these two scales there are percentages from 1 to 99. Each of them will need proper quantity words, frequency adverbs, adjectives and verbs.
Unit 10, Generalization, Qualification and Certainty
Generalization, Qualification and Certainty
Certainty has direct relationship with the scale of quality.
Different degrees of certainty can be expressed by verbs and phrases such as:
It appears that… It seems that… Unit 10, Generalization, Qualification and Certainty
Generalization, Qualification and Certainty It tends to be… There is a tendency to… It is said that… It is apparently… It is seemingly… It has been suggested that… It is very probable that… Unit 10, Generalization, Qualification and Certainty
Generalization, Qualification and Certainty
Some impersonal verb phrases imply stronger evidence:
It is generally agreed that… It is widely accepted that… It is generally recognized that…
Unit 10, Generalization, Qualification and Certainty
Data InterpretationUnit 11, Interpretation of data
Charts, graphs, diagrams and tables
The unit looks at ways in which we can comment on significant features in diagrammatic information.
Data InterpretationAlthough the information contained in diagrams
etc. is normally clear, it requires some written comments.
Remember that not all the information should be described.
Unit 11, Interpretation of data
Data Interpretation
It is usual to introduce the information with a general comment and then describe or comment on the most significant or important information.
Unit 11, Interpretation of data
Data Interpretation To interpret diagrams and graphs, you need to
understand the relationship between the vertical and the horizontal axes.
At the beginning you can describe the graph as factual information (numbers and statistics).
Unit 11, Interpretation of data
Data Interpretation
Remember that pie charts do not have axes; therefore, your comments have to be based on the amount of each piece of the graph compared to the other pieces.
Unit 11, Interpretation of data
Data InterpretationSome useful sentences to start your
interpretation of a graph, chart, table,…
As can be seen from the diagram… According to the chart… As is shown in the graph… It can be seen from the table that… Unit 11, Interpretation of data
Data Interpretation
The idea of certainty of language and the scale of qualification are very important in your data interpretation.
Unit 11, Interpretation of data
Data Interpretation
For example, if your graph shows only a slight rise, there are a number of words like ‘minimal’, ‘small’ and ‘slow’ that can be used in your interpretation and not others such as ‘large’, ‘sharp’ and ‘rapid’.
Unit 11, Interpretation of data
Discussion Unit 12, Discussion
In developing an argument or discussion we need to express our opinion or views.
DiscussionA discussion or argument in academic writing
has to present a balanced view.
What other people have already said about the same subject has to be looked at.
Unit 12, Discussion
DiscussionA discussion may consist of looking at he
advantages and the disadvantages of a particular idea or proposal or action.
Also, arguments for (or in favor) or against need to be presented equally.
Unit 12, Discussion
Discussion
After presenting all sides of an argument, different opinions may be evaluated, compared and contrasted. Eventually, the writer’s own views or opinions may be presented.
Unit 12, Discussion
Discussion One important step in the process of
discussion is the introduction.
A good introduction should not be too long or too short (the length depends on how long the body of the essay is).
Unit 12, Discussion
DiscussionThe introduction is important for a number of
reasons:
1. If it is clearly constructed, it will create a good impression on the reader.
2. It will indicate the structure of the essay by giving an overview of the content in sequence. Unit 12, Discussion
Discussion3. It introduces the subject of the essay and the
questions to be answered.
4. It may provide the reader with a definition or some historical background of the subject.
Unit 12, Discussion
DiscussionBefore starting to write a discussion essay, take
note of the points for and against the subject.
Discuss both sides of the argument, comparing and contrasting them.
Unit 12, Discussion
DiscussionWhere necessary, make qualified generalizations
and give reasons for your own view at the end.
Agreement and disagreement with what you have written may be total or partial.
Unit 12, Discussion
DiscussionAgreement:
I agree with X when he writes that…
Partial agreement:
I agree with what he says, but …
Unit 12, Discussion
DiscussionEmphatic agreement:X is certainly correct when he says that….
Another way of placing emphasis on what is written is using ‘negative inversion’.
Unit 12, Discussion
DiscussionIn negative inversion the word order after some
introductory words should be inverted.
Rarely had such a noise been heard.
Never …
Seldom…
On no account… Unit 12, Discussion
DiscussionCautious agreement:
X may be correct when he says that…
Disagreement:
I disagree with X when he says that…
Unit 12, Discussion
DiscussionA point of view may be expressed cautiously or
tentatively or strongly and emphatically.
Some ways to express your views:
The first thing we have to consider…
One of the main arguments in favor of… Unit 12, Discussion
Drawing ConclusionsUnit 13
Drawing Conclusions
Drawing Conclusions
Drawing a conclusion often involves making a summary of the main points already made. Therefore, tying the topic sentences of the paragraphs of the main body together can make part of your conclusion.
Unit 13, Drawing
Conclusions
Drawing ConclusionsIn addition, one’s own opinion or viewpoint may
be added, if it is appropriate.
In conclusion we can say that…
Finally, we can/may say that….
Unit 13, Drawing Conclusions
Drawing ConclusionsA mistake that is sometimes made in conclusions
is to add a conclusion that does not follow logically from what has been written before.
This is called a non-sequitur.
Avoid doing it!
Unit 13, Drawing Conclusions
Drawing ConclusionsVocabulary and structure to help you summarize:
In short,… In a word,… In brief,… To sum up,…
Unit 13, Drawing Conclusions
Drawing ConclusionsVocabulary and structure to help you write the
concluding remarks:
In conclusion,… On the whole,… Altogether,… In all,… Unit 13, Drawing Conclusions
Reports Unit 14
Reports: Studies and Research
Report on your studies
Research report (thesis or dissertation)
Reports
In writing a report on your studies use simple present and progressive tense to write about what you are doing now and present perfect tense for what you have already done.
Unit 14, reports: studies and research
Reports Organize your report in three sections: Introduction (general information about your
courses, when you started… ), development (what you have done, your progress,… ) and conclusion (what you have completed so far, what you want to do next,…).
Unit 14, reports: studies and research
Research ReportThe structure of a research paper, a thesis or
dissertation, is very different.
The basic framework for a research report has three main sections:
Introduction Main body conclusion Unit 14, reports: studies and research
Research Report
However, there are some preliminaries at the beginning and some extras at the end which are added to the three main sections to make the whole thesis.
Unit 14, reports: studies and research
Research ReportPreliminaries include four parts:
1. The title: the fewest words possible that adequately describe the paper
2. Acknowledgements: thanking colleagues supervisors, sponsors etc. for their assistance
Unit 14, reports: studies and research
Research Report3. List of contents:
the sections of the thesis, in sequence
4. List of figures/tables:
the sequence of charts, or diagrams that appear in the text
Unit 14, reports: studies and research
Research Report
The introduction has two sub-sections:
1. The abstract:
An extremely concise summary of the report, including the conclusions. It provides an overview of the whole report for the reader.
Unit 14, reports: studies and research
Research Report2. Statement of the problem:
A brief discussion of the nature of the research and the reasons for undertaking it. A clear declaration of proposals and hypotheses.
Unit 14, reports: studies and research
Research ReportThe main body consists of four sections
(chapters):1. Review of the literature: A survey of selective, relevant and
appropriate reading. Report of what others have said and done on the subject.
Unit 14, reports: studies and research
Research Report2. Design of the investigation:
A statement and discussion of the hypotheses and the theoretical structure in which they will be tested and examined, together with the methods used.
Unit 14, reports: studies and research
Research Report3. Measurement techniques used:
Detailed description and discussion of testing devices used. Presentation of data supporting validity and reliability. A discussion of the analysis to be applied to the results to test the hypotheses.
Unit 14, reports: studies and research
Research Report4. Results:
The representation in a logical order of information and data upon which a decision can be made to accept or reject the hypotheses.
Unit 14, reports: studies and research
Research ReportThe concluding part consists of two sections:1. Discussion and conclusion: The interpretation of the results and their
relationship with the research problem and hypotheses. The making of implications and recommendations.
Unit 14, reports: studies and research
Research Report2. Summary of conclusions:
A concise account of the main findings, and the inferences drawn from them.
Unit 14, reports: studies and research
Research ReportThe last part of the thesis, extras, has two
sections:
1. Bibliography:
An accurate listing in strict alphabetical order of all the sources cited in the text.
Unit 14, reports: studies and research
Research Report2. Appendices:
A compilation of important data and explanatory and illustrative material, placed outside the main body of the text.
Unit 14, reports: studies and research
Surveys and QuestionnairesUnit 15
Surveys and Questionnaires
Surveys and QuestionnairesBefore writing a research paper, it is necessary
to do the research.
Accordingly, students in humanities and social sciences at times need to undertake surveys as part of their studies.
Unit 15, Surveys and Questionnaires
Surveys and Questionnaires
Survey is an attempt to collect data from members of a population in order to determine the current status of that population with respect to one or two variables.
Unit 15, Surveys and Questionnaires
Surveys and Questionnaires
A questionnaire is a list of planned written questions relating to a particular topic, usually intended to gather descriptive information from a number of selected responses.
Unit 15, Surveys and Questionnaires
Surveys and Questionnaires
Questionnaires may be a part of the surveys and the results may be incorporated in a report. Questionnaires can be structured, semi-structured or unstructured.
Unit 15, Surveys and Questionnaires
Referencing Referencing:
Footnotes Quotations References and Bibliographies
Appendix 9
Footnotes Footnote is a note at the bottom of a page in a
book or journal.
It is used to explain a word or other item or to add some special information or a reference.
Appendix 9
Footnotes Sometimes footnotes appear at the end of the
article or even at the back of a book.
A small number is written above the item in the text. The explanation of the item is then given at the bottom of the page (usually in a different font).
Appendix 9
Quotations
When referring to a book or article in an essay, the normal procedure is to give the author’s surname, the year of publication and the page number (only for direct quotation) in parentheses.
Appendix 9
QuotationsThere are three basic ways of using quotations in
an essay:
1. For short direct quotations, quotation marks are used around the author’s words and they are incorporated in the text.
Appendix 9
Quotations2. For long direct quotations, the quotation is
written with indentation and in a different font to separate it from the text.
3. Indirect quotations in which ideas are rewritten in the author’s own words are incorporated into the text.
Appendix 9
BibliographyReferences at the end of an essay or book are
arranged in alphabetical order of the authors’ surname or the name of the organization.
If more than one reference is given, then the earlier dated reference will appear first.
Appendix 9
Bibliography
If two or more references by the same author appear in the same year, they will be labeled in sequence with letters after the year (Smith, 1999 a).
Appendix 9
BibliographyThe sequence of information commonly used in
references to books:
Author’s name, initials, date in brackets, title (underlined or in italics), place of publication, publisher.
Appendix 9
BibliographyExample:
Frank. A.C. (1987), Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America, New York, Monthly Review Press.
Appendix 9
BibliographyThe sequence of information used for articles in
journals:
Author’s surname, initials, date (in brackets), title of article, name of journal (underlined or in italics), volume number, issue number, season or month (if any), page number.
Appendix 9
Bibliography Example:
Murray, R. Daniel and Smith, E.O. (1993), The role of dominance and interfamilial bonding in the avoidance of close inbreeding. Journal of Human Evolution, 12, 5, 481- 489
Appendix 9
Wish you all the best
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