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Sixth FP Integrated Project no.: 513321
Project title: Towards a Lifelong Learning Society in Europe:
The Contribution of the Education System
ADULT LEARNERS IN FORMAL ADULT EDUCATION
Experiences and Perceptions
Subproject 3 Comparative Report (March 2011)
Ellen Boeren, Eve-Liis Roosmaa, Ellu Saar and Ides Nicaise
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Table of Contents
1. CONTEXT INFORMATION 5
1.1. INTRODUCTION 5
1.2. GENERAL FRAMEWORK OF THE REASERACH 6
1.3. SUBPROJECT 3 AND OTHER SUBPROJECTS 9
2. THEORETICAL OVERVIEW AND HYPOTHESES 11
2.1. THEORETICAL OVERVIEW 11 2.1.1. Introduction 11 2.1.2. THE MICRO LEVEL: Experiences and Perspectives of Adult Learners 12
Socio-Economic Dimension 12 Psychological Dimension 14
2.1.3. THE MESO LEVEL: Learning Environment 15 Educational Institutions 16 Learning Process 17
2.1.4. THE MACRO LEVEL: Characteristics of the Wider Context 17 Educational System 17 Other System Characteristics 19
2.1.5. Participation Models 22 2.1.6. Theoretical Conclusions 24
2.2. RESEARCH QUESTIONS 25 2.2.1. Country/Macro Level Questions and Hypotheses 25 2.2.2. Institutional/Meso Level Questions and Hypotheses 26 2.2.3. Individual/Micro Level Questions and Hypotheses 27
3. SURVEY METHODOLOGY 30
3.1. SURVEY – QUESTIONNAIRES 30
3.2. SAMPLING AND SURVEY METHODS 32 3.2.1. Operational Definition of Formal Education 32 3.2.2. Operational Definition of Adult Learners 32
3.3. SAMPLING FRAME 33
3.4. EFFECTIVE RESPONSE 35
3.5. METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES 36
3.6. STRUCTURE OF THE ANALYTICAL CHAPTERS 37
4. DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS 38
4.1. MACRO LEVEL CHARACTERISTICS – MACROECONOMIC AND INSTITUTIONAL
CONTEXT OF COUNTRIES 39 4.1.1. Broader Economic and Social Context 39
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4.1.2. Labour Market 44 4.1.3. Welfare System 46 4.1.4. Educational System 48
4.2. OVERVIEW OF FORMAL ADULT EDUCATION IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES 51 Austria 51 Belgium (Flanders) 54 Bulgaria 56 The Czech Republic 58 Estonia 60 Hungary 61 Ireland 62 Lithuania 64 Norway 66 Russia 68 Slovenia 70 England 72 Scotland 73
4.3. MESO LEVEL CARACTERISTICS AND ADULT LEARENER’S PERCEPTIONS OF THE
LEARNING INSTITUTIONS 76 4.3.1. Characteristics of the Learning Institutions 76 4.3.2. Country Differences in Characteristics of the Learning Institutions 78 4.3.3. Perceptions of the Learning Process 84 4.3.4. Country Differences in Perceptions of the Learning Process 85
Relationships between learners 85 Learner engagement in the learning process and ability to pursue own interest 86 Teacher support, task focus and organisation of learning 87
4.4. MICRO LEVEL INDICATORS – BACKGROUND OF ADULT LEARNERS 89 4.4.1. Socio-Demographic Profile of Adult Learners 89 4.4.2. Country Level Differences by Socio-Demographic Profile 90 4.4.3. Socio-Economic Profile of Adult Learners 92 4.4.4. Country Level Differences by Socio-Economic Profile 94 4.4.5. Socio-Cultural Profile of Adult Learners 97 4.4.6. Country Level Differences by Socio-Cultural Profile 98
4.5. MICRO LEVEL INDICATORS – MOTIVATION FOR LEARNING 99 4.5.1. Attitude towards Adult Education 99 4.5.2. Country Level Differences in Attitudes towards Adult Education 101 4.5.3. Relevance of Participation in Adult Education 103 4.5.4. Country Level Differences in Relevance of Participation in Adult Education 105 4.5.5. Confidence in Successfully Completing Current Studies 108 4.5.6. Country Level Differences in Confidence of Completing Current Studies 109 4.5.7. Satisfaction with Learning Process and Outcome 110 4.5.8. Country Level Differences in Satisfaction with Learning Process and Outcomes 111
5. THE EFFECTS OF MICRO, MESO AND MACRO LEVEL CHARACTERISTICS ON PERCEPTIONS AND EXPERIENCES OF ADULT LEARNERS 113
5.1. COUNTRY DIFFERENCES IN ADULT LEARNERS’ EXPERIENCES AND PERCEPTIONS OF
FORMAL ADULT EDUCATION BY EDUCATIONAL LEVELS 114 5.1.1. Country Differences in Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motives 114 5.1.2. Country Differences in Barriers and Classroom Environment 115 5.1.3. Country Differences in Attitudes 116
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5.1.4. Country Differences in Satisfaction and Confidence 117
5.2. MICRO, MESO AND MACRO LEVEL CHARACTERISTICS AFFECTING PERCEPTIONS AND
EXPERIENCES OF ADULT LEARNERS 117 5.2.1. Most Relevant Micro and Meso Level Characteristics Affecting Adult Learners’ Perceptions and
Experiences 120 Micro and meso level characteristics affecting confidence 123 Micro and meso level characteristics affecting satisfaction 125
5.3. DIFFERENCES IN ADULT LEARNERS’ EXPERIENCES AND PERCEPTIONS OF FORMAL
ADULT EDUCATION BY COUNTRY CLUSTERS 126
6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 129
6.1. MICRO LEVEL – Learning Experiences and Perceptions of Adults with Different Background 130 Sample Composition 130 Gender and age differences 131 Differences according to the highest completed education and the level of current studies 131 Differences in reasons for participation in adult education 132 Differences in confidence in completing studies and satisfaction with learning 132 Differences in access to and organisation of adult education 133 Differences in learning process, learning environment 133
6.2. MESO LEVEL – Educational Institution Characteristics Influencing Learning Experiences and
Perceptions 133 Influence of perceptions of the learning environment 134 Influence of barriers hindering participation 134
6.3. MACRO LEVEL – Country Variations in Adult Learning Experiences and Perceptions 134 Typology of countries 135 Differences in formal learning perceptions and experiences by country types 135
6.4. RECOMMENDATIONS 137 Limitations of the Study 138
REFERENCES 139
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1. CONTEXT INFORMATION
The report starts with a general overview of the research project, followed by a presentation of
the research questions which will be answered in the following chapters. The third chapter gives
information on the data collection by means of a survey and points out the methodological issues.
The empirical parts of the report are divided in a descriptive chapter containing the characteristics
of the sample population and an analytical chapter searching for influencing factors in the
experiences and perspectives of adults participating in formal education.
1.1. INTRODUCTION
LLL2010 ‘Towards a Lifelong Learning Society in Europe: the Contribution of the Education
System’ is a research project funded by the European Commission in the context of the Sixth
R&D Framework Programme. Nowadays, European lifelong learning is seen as an engine for
economic competitiveness with the rest of the world and as a remedy against social inequalities
and instability. The Lisbon strategy, striving at a 12.5 percent participation rate of adults in
education and training by 2010, failed in a wide range of countries. In order to become the most
knowledge based economy in the world, together with growing social cohesion, newly developed
lifelong learning strategies have to be implemented in the European countries.
The overall focus of LLL2010 project is on the contribution of the education system to make
lifelong learning a reality in the European Union.
The main objectives of LLL2010 are:
to develop and carry out a joint research agenda for a better understanding of the tensions
between the knowledge-based society, lifelong learning and social inclusion in the context
of enlargement of the EU and globalisation;
to provide an analysis of the role played by education system in the enhancing of lifelong
learning and dependency of this role on relevant institutions at micro, meso and macro
levels;
to provide an empirically based analysis of the adequacy of lifelong learning policies in
Europe and their implications for different social groups, especially for socially excluded
groups;
to develop relevant policy proposals for lifelong learning strategies to reduce social
exclusion on the European and national level and to identify their implications for
relevant areas of social and economic policies;
to strengthen cooperation and infrastructure for international and multidisciplinary
comparative research in the area of lifelong learning;
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to develop transnational data sources, including a survey of adult learners in schools and
universities, in-depth interviews with schools management, employers, analysis of policy
documents.
1.2. GENERAL FRAMEWORK OF THE REASERACH
The LLL2010 project consists of five subprojects.
Subproject 1 is a review of literature and policy documents relating to lifelong learning
and adult education policies in Europe.
Subproject 2 investigates participation and non participation of adults in formal learning,
based in the Eurostat Adult Education Survey and the Labour Force Survey.
Subproject 3 focuses on the perceptions and experiences of adult learners enrolled in
formal adult education courses in Europe.
Subproject 4 consists of interviews with the management of small and medium size
enterprises (SME’s) and focuses on learning opportunities for workers.
Subproject 5 focuses on the institutional aspects of adult education and consists of
interviews with schools and university management, officials and other stakeholders in
adult education.
The LLL2010 consortium includes partners in Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic,
England, Estonia, Hungary, Ireland, Lithuania, Norway, Russia, Scotland and Slovenia.
This document is the comparative report of the Subproject 3 and is prepared by the Belgian and
Estonian teams, who coordinated this part of the research.
The report starts with introducing the structure of LLL2010 project, continued with links of
Subproject 3 to other subprojects and with an overview of adult formal education in countries
under study. The second chapter proposes Subproject 3 theoretical framework followed by the
research questions. The third chapter gives information on the data collection by means of a
survey and points out the methodological issues. The empirical parts of the report are divided into
a descriptive chapter containing the characteristics of the sample population and an analytical
chapter searching for influencing factors in the experiences and perspectives of effective adult
learners in formal adult education. Final chapter of Subproject 3 comparative report will integrate
all findings into a structured overview and formulate policy recommendations and points of
attention for further research.
Participation in lifelong learning is approached as being a subject of influence of national
policies, institutional factors and strategies of relevant actors on three – macro, meso and micro –
levels.
The project's points of departure are the following: First, we assume that lifelong learning is
functional within the broader economic, social and cultural systems in which it is embedded.
Country-specific and historically developed institutional systems (for example, education system,
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employment system, welfare state regime, etc.) shape the opportunities as well as incentives for
lifelong learning. Second, all subsystems are in an intense interaction. It means that the
differences between systems are systematic. The systems may be classified along various
dimensions of institutional variation, and they may be grouped into types of systems with
common characteristics. Third, these institutional ‘packages’ and subsystems yield strikingly
different outcomes of analogous political reforms and are the main mechanisms for promotion of
the so-called Europeanization. It means that solutions are path-dependent and changes are
‘institutionally bounded’.
The proposed methodology addresses the different dimensions of the subject of research. The
research covers three levels as well as different aspects:
Macro level, macro-structural aspects to describe how country-specific institutions
influence the supply and demand for lifelong learning. We will try to show how the
institutional differences have influenced the access of adults to education system as well
as demand for different types of skills and levels of education
Macro level, policy aspects to measure the influence of public sector policies
implemented at each level of the education system.
Meso level, schools, universities… to analyse how schools meet the lifelong learning
challenge and promote the access of adults to education
Micro level, adult learners, to analyse the motivation of adults participating in formal
learning, the expectations and attitudes towards LLL, obstacles to access and support
received, determinants of choice behaviour, evaluation of the ongoing training, etc. We
carried out the Survey of adults studying in formal education system (basic, secondary
and tertiary level).
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Scheme 1.1 Scheme of the LLL2020 project
MACRO LEVEL
Subproject 1
Policy analysis
Subproject 2
Research based on
AES data
Macro analysis
MESO LEVEL
Subproject 3
Survey of adults
continuing studies in
the formal education
system
Meso level analysis
(educational
institutions)
Subproject 4
Research in SMEs
Participation of
workers in LLL
Subproject 5
Interviews with
schools and
universities
management,
officials
AD HOC
GROUP
ACTIVI-
TIES
EXPLA-
NATORY
FRAME-
WORK
FOR
LLL
MACRO LEVEL
Subproject 1
Policy analysis
Subproject 3
Survey of adults
continuing studies
in the formal
education system
Macro analysis
Subproject 2
Research based on
AES data
Macro analysis
MESO LEVEL
Subproject 3
Survey of adults
continuing studies in
the formal education
system
Meso level analysis
(educational
institutions)
Subproject 4
Research in SMEs
Participation of
workers in LLL
Subproject 5
Interviews with
schools and
universities
management,
officials
INDIVIDUAL LEVEL
Subproject 3
Survey of adults
continuing studies in
the formal education
system
Individual level
Subproject 2
Research based on
AES data
Individual level
analysis
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1.3. SUBPROJECT 3 AND OTHER SUBPROJECTS
Subproject 2 of the LLL2010 research examines participation and non-participation of adults in
formal learning. It focuses on patterns of participation and non-participation in the different
European countries. ‘Subjective’ elements (motivation and attitudes) play an important role in
this study, next to objective characteristics (individual attributes) and country differences in
institutional settings.
The survey analysed in this report (subproject 3) focuses on adults who are currently participating
in lifelong learning. Existing surveys among representative samples of the working-age
population (such as the Adult Education Survey or the Labour Force Survey, used in
Subproject 2) tend to focus on participation issues. Often the number of effective participants in
such surveys is too small for more detailed surveys to evaluate the process of LLL. A specific
survey among actual participants is therefore essential to collect information about the
expected/actual duration, intensity, contents, teaching/learning methods, progression, assessment
procedures, experienced obstacles and support, costs and funding, triggers and motives for
participation, perspectives after the course, use of APL, evaluation of courses by participants,
alternative learning routes, complementarity/substitutability between formal/non-formal/informal
learning etc. Special attention will be devoted to the participation in lifelong learning of low-
skilled people.
Research objectives
obtain in-depth comparative information about adult learners’ perspectives (demand side)
of formal provision for LLL;
test different hypotheses about the causes of unequal participation, with a particular focus
on low-skilled and low-literate adults.
These objectives and research questions are rather general and descriptive and need further
elaboration into more analytical research questions and hypotheses. The following general
questions, which form the core of the LLL2010 project, are the point of departure for this
undertaking:
What is the role of the formal education system in:
Stimulating participation in lifelong learning?
Reducing inequalities in participation in lifelong learning?
Although there will be a considerable conceptual overlap between SP3 and SP2, SP3 will offer
significant surplus value because:
The sample consists of adults participating in formal education instead of a representative
sample of the adult population. Therefore, it will include a-typical groups, like for
example low-skilled adults who do participate in formal adult education.
It will enable us to collect in-depth information on the process of LLL
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o Information about the learning environment, characteristics of the learning
institution and the learning process
o Information about the experiences and perspectives of learners with regard to the
process of LLL
And both can subsequently be related to each other.
On the meso-level, results of the subproject 4 (interviews with the management of small and
medium-sized enterprises) and subproject 5 (the survey of educational providers) will supplement
the findings of the institutional survey in SP3.
On the macro-level we can build on the results of Subproject 1 and the interim results of the ad-
hoc group.
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2. THEORETICAL OVERVIEW AND HYPOTHESES
2.1. THEORETICAL OVERVIEW
As described above, the present report focuses on participants in formal adult education. From
the literature we know that there are several potential determinants of participation and
persistence in lifelong learning on the macro, meso and micro level. On the individual level,
motivation is a crucial determinant of success, and arguably an important variable to be
influenced or optimised by interventions at the meso and the macro level. To foster a learning
society, it is of prime importance that the learning environment (meso) and the broader
institutional and policy context (macro) stimulate positive attitudes towards lifelong learning and
intrinsic/autonomous, as well as instrumental motivation for participating, and persevering in it.
Within this theoretical overview, we describe the main determinants on the micro, meso and
macro level which form the theoretical basis for our research.
2.1.1. Introduction
Participation issues have always been, and still are, one of the major concerns in the field of adult
education (Courtney, McGivney, McIntyre & Rubenson, 1998; Gorard & Rees, 2002; OECD,
2005; Antikainen, Harinen & Torres, 2006). In the past decades, two main research movements
have emerged in participation research (Jung & Cervero, 2002):
the psychological tradition, mainly from the US, including on the one hand studies about
the relationship between individual attributes such as motivation, attitudes, perceptions,
intentions,… and participation, and on the other hand studies into barriers to participation,
again with a focus on the individual’s and adjacent environmental attributes. These
studies have often been criticized for their individualistic perspective;
The sociological perspective examines the impact of demographic, technological,
economic and cultural factors on aspects of adult education. In this approach, people can
not be seen as independent from their social context in making decisions about learning.
These studies have been criticized for being too deterministic.
In this project we try to combine both views into a ‘socio-psychological approach’ (as suggested
by Jung, 2002, p. 318), following some recent evolutions in the sociology of education and
educational psychology.
In the sociology of education, the ‘life course perspective’, based on structuration theory
(Shilling, 1992), tries to overcome the dualism between the individual and the social context, or
between ‘agency’ and ‘structure’. It focuses on the interplay between individual change and the
changing social context. When examining the behaviour of adults in relation to participation and
persistence, it is important to take account not only of the broader socio-economic context, but
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also the more immediate social situation of individuals (such as family and work dynamics) and
the way in which these social factors play out at the level of the individual’s experiences and
perspectives (Davey & Jamieson, 2003).
In educational psychology, the social cognitive approach towards human agency (Bandura,
1989) also emphasizes the dynamic nature of engagement between learner and environment.
Action, personal factors (cognitive, affective and others such as motivation) and environmental
events all operate as interacting determinants of human behaviour, in our case, participation and
persistence in formal adult education.
Both movements in sociology and psychology thus agree upon the idea that ‘people are making
their worlds at the same time as their worlds are making them’ (Watson, 2001, p. 223 in Webber,
2004).
In this study, we examine individual learners’ perceptions and behaviour as determined by socio-
economic and psychological factors, and the learning environment as determined by the
characteristics of the educational institutions and the learning process, as well as adult education
policy and other system characteristics.
2.1.2. THE MICRO LEVEL: Experiences and Perspectives of Adult Learners
The experiences and perspectives of adult learners that ground their motivation are the central
dependent variables in this subproject. In the literature, ‘motivation’ is generally defined as the
reason why someone participates, and continues participating, in an educational programme
(Gordon, 1993). It is a hypothetical construct, providing a possible concrete causal explanation of
behaviour. A quote of Boshier illustrates the importance of studying motivation: ‘The nature of
the individual learner and his reasons for participation are an important starting point for any
research on adult education. An understanding of why adult education students participate would
facilitate the growth of theory and models to explain participation, throw light on the conceptual
desert that underpins adult education dropout research, and enhance efforts to increase the
quantity and quality of learning experiences for adults’ (Boshier, 1991).
Within this micro-level analysis, we will distinguish between two dimensions. The socio-
economic dimension describes the social, cultural and economic inequalities in participation. It
explains who the actual participants are, to which socio-economic and socio-cultural groups they
belong, and why these characteristics are relevant in understanding learning behaviour. The
second, psychological dimension builds on the concept of motivation to explain (persistent)
participation in adult education.
Socio-Economic Dimension
The demand for participation in adult education is unequal (Desjardins, Rubenson, Milana,
2006). Several studies have already shown those adults who have the highest need to participate –
adults with low skills and knowledge, with a low educational attainment and a low literacy level
–, tend to participate less than others.
The Human Capital Theory argues that the society can invest in people by means of adult
education and training with a goal of increasing their productivity and skills (Becker, 1964).
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Apart from increased productivity on the labour market, a higher knowledge and skill level
within the personal sphere can improve the quality of life. The Rational Choice Theory, which is
related to the Human Capital Theory, assumes that individuals try to maximise their welfare and
minimise costs (Allingham, 2002). Within these perspectives, the decision to participate in adult
education results from an analysis of the costs and benefits.
Costs can be direct as well as indirect. Direct costs are out-of-pocket expenditures which are
linked directly to the course programme, such as the enrolment fee. Indirect costs are less
‘visible’ as they relate to the alternative (foregone) activities of students. Examples of these
indirect costs include child care, foregone earnings (because one is spending time on education
instead of work) etcetera. The indirect costs often turn out higher than the direct costs.
Examples of benefits include one’s increased productivity, employment probability and earnings
on the labour market, improved chances for promotion, etcetera.
Within the personal sphere, a better health condition, more social contacts, increased quality of
leisure activities, … are benefits of participation in adult education as well. Admittedly, such
benefits are visible only in the long run and they are never completely guaranteed.
The balance between costs and benefits differs between individuals and leads to an increased or a
reduced participation for some specific socio-economic and socio-cultural groups. Benefits are
more visible for adults active on the labour market and the costs can be reduced by their
employer. Youngsters have a longer expected return period for their educational investments,
while their costs (foregone earnings) are lower than for older adults. Edwards, Sieminski and
Zeldin (1996) indicated that retired adults participate less, Bélanger (1997) observed a decreased
participation from the age of 55 with a significant decrease from the age of 65. Also Doets, Hake
and Westerhuis (2001) concluded that older participants participate less. Adults with a low prior
educational attainment may be deterred by the perception that they have less chances of success,
while low-income adults may not be able to afford the costs (mainly foregone earnings). Inactive
adults cannot receive financial support from an employer and their own financial resources are
limited. Support from family and friends is insufficient in many cases. Participation also differs
by gender. Jacobs and van der Kamp (1998) noticed that women were underrepresented for a
long time in history, but are currently overtaking. Houtkoop and van der Kamp (1992) also
observed differences in course subjects between males and females. Women participate more in
non work-related courses, whereas men are more active within labour market oriented
programmes. Similar findings on gender differences within adult education participation have
been reported by Hayes (1989), Sargant and Tuckett (1999), Tuijnman and Schuller (1999).
The limited cultural capital of lower socio-economic groups is also relevant. Adults from poorer
socio-economic groups may lack the required knowledge, qualifications and skills to complete an
adult course successfully. Adults with a high initial educational attainment also know better how
to learn, and therefore may encounter less problems during the course. Educational attainment
appears to be a dominant factor from a wide range of research reports. Statistics show that adults
with a high educational attainment tend to participate much more in further education and
training (OECD, 2000). Van Damme and Legiest suggest that adults with a low educational
attainment have a poor confidence in their own abilities, were confronted with failure during their
initial educational career and these aspects have a negative impact on their future willingness to
participate. Other authors emphasising the importance of the educational attainment are Brunello
(2001), Doerbecker and Hake (1979), Jung and Cervero (2002), McGivney (2001), Wössman and
14
Schütz (2006). Not only the individual’s prior educational attainment, but also the general level
of education (and cultural capital) of his social class influences the chances of participation in
adult education.
Tuckett and Sargant (1999) argue that adult education is mostly a matter of the higher and the
middle class. Van Damme and Legiest (1997) observe a gap in participation between white collar
and blue collar workers, something we recognize in the work of different authors. La Valle and
Finche (1999) conclude that employed people participate more and Field (2000) added that the
higher perceive occupational groups participate more. Antikainen (2006), Beirnart and Smith
(1998), Daley (2001) and Sawchuk (2003) reach similar conclusions. In the work of Pierre
Bourdieu (1973) ‘cultural reproduction’ is a key term, meaning that the family in which one
grows up has a major influence on one’s entire life course, especially in the field of education and
work. Bourdieu describes the family as the main transmitter of cultural, social and economic
values, which reproduces the inequalities in social, cultural and economic capital between
individuals. The same issues are also emphasised within the work of Field (2000), Nesbit (2006),
DiMaggio and More (1985), Ganzeboom (1989), Nagel (2004), Brookover (1979), Coleman
(1966), Collins, Moles en Cross (1982), De Graaf and Wolbers (2003), Kreft (1993) and Willis
(1977).
Psychological Dimension
Motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic (Deci & Ryan, 2000). In the former case, the reason to
participate in learning is inherent to the activity itself: for example, adult education might give a
lot of satisfaction. In the latter case, the reason to participate is based on something extrinsic to
the activity, often in the form of a reward or sanction. In the literature, intrinsic motivation is seen
as preferable because it results in high quality learning (i.e. deep learning, intense concentration,
absence of fear of failure,…) (Lambert & McCombs, 1998) while extrinsic motivation can result
in surface learning, fear of failure, and so on. For adult learners who are not intrinsically
motivated, extrinsic motivation can be the first step towards participation and also to intrinsic
motivation (Schön, 1987).
Sometimes the concept ‘instrumental motivation’ is used as an alternative for extrinsic
motivation: someone decides to learn because it is considered as ‘useful’ or because it is seen a
way to obtain a socially valued reward (e.g. on the labour market). Sometimes a strong
instrumental motivation may have the same stimulating impact on learning as intrinsic
motivation. In the present day literature, psychologists involved in motivational research replaced
the distinction between instrinsic and extrinsic / instrumental by autonomous and controlled
motivation (Vansteenkiste, 2005). Autonomous motivation can be translated by the expression
‘willing to participate’, controlled motivation by ‘having to participate’. The former category
includes a large part of extrinsic / instrumental motives, besides intrinsic motives.
According to Keller (1987, 1999), four conditions need to be fulfilled to motivate an adult to
learn:
attention
relevance
confidence
satisfaction
15
These conditions are derived from a synthesis of psychological and educational research
(English, 2005). Ideally, they must be seen as a sequential process. First of all, the attention of the
adult must be gained and the learning activity must be accessible, otherwise the adult will not
consider the option of learning or quit the educational activity. As SP3 focuses on participating
adult learners, we can assume that this condition is fulfilled in our target group. Further, the
learner has to see the relevance or the value of the courses for his own life. Once the relevance is
perceived, the individual has to gain confidence in his own abilities. When the adult learner
experiences success, he will be more motivated to continue participating. Finally, the feeling of
satisfaction (about intermediate outcomes) is also very important to help participants persevere
and to prevent dropout.
Inspired by the literature and by the SP1 comparative report, the following experiences and
perspectives of the adult learners will be taken into account in SP3:
General attitudes towards lifelong learning (A)
The extent to which the adult thinks lifelong learning is (not) joyful, important and/or valuable
for himself, others and society at large.
Motives for (or the relevance of – or the expected benefits of) participation in formal
education (R)
By analogy with the central functions of lifelong learning that can be discerned in
European and national policy and the debate about whether LLL policy is an instrument
of power and social control (see SP1 comparative report p. 7 and Ahl, 2006), 4 categories
of motives for participation are distinguished at the individual level: human capital which
refers to educational and professional advancement, to increase employability in the
knowledge society, social capital in order to become a better, i.e. a more active, citizen
(focus on community service), personal fulfilment for the intellectual enjoyment of
learning and personal development and social control because participation is obligatory,
to comply with external demands
(Lack of) confidence in the ability to successfully complete the selected course in formal
education (C)
(Dis)satisfaction (S)
o with the formal education itself (process)
o with the expected outcomes of participation in formal education (outcomes)
In the following, methodological chapter, we will describe how these aspects of motivation were
measured.
2.1.3. THE MESO LEVEL: Learning Environment
The first general research question of this study is: ‘What is the role of the formal education
system in stimulating participation in lifelong learning?’ The formal education system is the main
environmental factor under study in this research project. In fact, we want to test the central
hypothesis which, according to Ahl (2006), is implicit in traditional participation research,
namely that participation and persistence follow a ‘homeostasis model’: ‘Initially, there is
motivation. This is hampered due to various barriers. After removing those barriers motivation
re-emerges, and all is well again. The model takes for granted that it is possible to affect
motivation, and hence behaviour, by amending individual, situational or structural barriers’ (p.
396). Although it is dominant in the adult education (policy) literature – and it is a central
assumption in the LLL2010 project proposal – Ahl is rather sceptical about this way of thinking.
16
Within the formal education system, we distinguish between characteristics on the meso-level of
(a) educational institutions and (b) the learning process, and characteristics on the macro-level of
the educational system (initial and adult education) and other system characteristics (economy,
labour market, social protection, cultural context).
Educational Institutions
During the 1960s, Coleman raised the question if schools can make a difference in the
achievement of their pupils. In his Equity of Educational Opportunities Report, he came to the
conclusion that children bring their socio-economic and socio-cultural characteristics into the
class, and that these individual differences affect the differences in school attainment (Coleman,
1966). School characteristics did not seem to have any significant influence. As a reaction against
these conclusions, new research proved that the school can make a difference and is able to
reduce the inequalities between pupils (Mortimore, 1988). Within this research study, we are
interested to know if the characteristics of the educational institutions have an impact on the
learning experiences (rather than the achievement) of the adult learners. This information can be
used as a set of quality indicators for the future evaluation of adult education.
Based on an international comparative study Schuetze & Slowey (2002, p. 318) identified 6
institutional and policy factors (the latter being characteristics on the macro-level) which
appeared to either inhibit or support participation by non-traditional students in higher education.
Depending on the autonomy that educational institutions receive, these meso level characteristics
can be aggregated into macro level indicators as well:
institutional differentiation in the adult education system: e.g. horizontal and vertical
differentiation, articulation and transfer routes, student choice and information, no dead-
end routes, equivalence of general and vocational routes, coordination between different
sectors/programmes. Note: these characteristics are not only important with regard to
adult education but also with regard to initial educational.
institutional governance: e.g. institutional autonomy and flexibility
access: e.g. specific policy and outreach strategy for lifelong learners, open or flexible
access, recognition of work and life experience, special entry routes, involvement in
regional development/service for the community
mode of study: e.g. modular courses and credit transfer, part-time mode, distance
learning, independent study
financial and other support
adult education opportunities: e.g. provision of relevant courses, appropriate scheduling,
affordable fee levels
McGivney (2001) argues that only a broad range of strategies can change patterns of
participation. These strategies need to be proactive in their approach, and include policy (national
and institutional) backed by a realistic level of funding. Comparable factors appear in the review
by De Rick & Van Valckenborgh (2004) and in OECD (2003). All these sources confirm the
power of the educational institutions in attracting adult students.
17
Learning Process
Besides the characteristics of the educational institution itself, we are also interested in the
process of the learning activities undertaken by the adult learner. In educational psychology, it is
generally acknowledged that it is part of human nature to be curious, to be active, to initiate
thought and behaviour, to construct meaning through experience, and to be effective at what
people value. Learner-centred education values these primary sources of motivation and
capitalizes on them (Lambert & McCombs, 1998; OECD, 2000b), by stimulating a learning
process which is:
active ( = the learner actively constructs new knowledge on the basis of what he already
knows and is able to do);
functional (= learning takes place in real and realistic situations, aimed at functional
application in a work context, community, etc); and
social (= in co-operation with others; learning with and from others).
Furthermore, the psychosocial climate of the learning environment is very important in
explaining adults’ motivation and persistence. Research has shown that the more academically
and socially involved adult students are, the more they feel connected to other students and
faculty, the more likely they are to persist (English, 2005; New England Adult Research
Network, 1999; Tinto, 1998). From O’Fathaigh (1997) and De Rick & Van Valckenborgh
(2004), the following relevant characteristics of this learning process can be derived:
affiliation: the extent to which students like each other and interact positively with each
other;
teacher support: the extent of help, encouragement, concern and friendship teachers direct
towards students;
task orientation: the extent to which students and teachers maintain focus on task and
value achievement;
personal goal attainment: the extent to which the teacher is flexible, providing
opportunities for adults to pursue their individual interests;
organisation and clarity: the extent to which activities are clear and well organised;
student influence: the extent to which the teaching is learner-centred and allows for
student influence in course planning decisions;
involvement: the extent to which students are satisfied with class and participate actively
and attentively.
These characteristics of the learning process above are taken into account during the survey and
we will explore their impact on the learning experience of adult students.
2.1.4. THE MACRO LEVEL: Characteristics of the Wider Context
Educational System
In this part of the text, we leave the perspective of the concrete educational institutions and their
learning process and widen the scope of the analysis to the broader system elements within the
national and European context.
According to Brunello (2001) participation in education and training is influenced by the type
and level of education, the characteristics of the individual as well as by peculiarities of the
education system. Previous studies have shown that participation in further education and
18
training depends on the level of education people have already attained (OECD 2000a). So
further education occurs least likely in countries/regions where the proportion of people with low
qualifications is high and the proportion of a cohort that is able to move to higher levels is high.
There may be two explanations for this pattern: education increases the demand for more
education or, low educated adults are less motivated.
Education systems differ to quite a great extent, due from longer-term traditions of several
countries. The structure of the education system determines how individuals acquire education,
how it is distributed across the population, and how credentials are valued in the labour market.
Education systems vary in the extent to which they either provide more general education or
include vocational training as distinctive tracks. Also important is the age at which students are
sorted into different tracks and how rigid the boundaries between different tracks are in the
respective education systems. When examining the level of differentiation of education systems it
is also important whether and how the opportunities to access tertiary education differ between
graduates from different types of school, and whether there are educational dead-ends. In a
differentiated education system each education track awards rather narrowly defined
occupationally relevant credentials, and there is little opportunity to change direction once a
student has entered an option.
The degree of educational stratification also appears to influence participation in non-formal
education. The stratification of an education system refers to the extent to which general and
vocational education are separated into distinctive tracks and the rigidity of the boundaries
between different tracks. Comprehensive school systems with greater emphasis on the generic
skills are defined as those of low stratification. In countries with these kinds of education
systems, participation in non-formal education is higher than in countries with highly stratified
education systems. Brunello (2001) suggested that participation in non-formal education is a kind
of compensation for lack of specialisation in initial education. But the same difference between
education systems had been considered as yielding opposite outcomes: as Bassanini et al. (2005)
argue, vocational schools in stratified educational systems produce very specialized skills that
become more rapidly obsolete in the presence of technical progress. So more training might be
required to update existing skills.
In some countries with strong vocational components at the secondary level, vocational and
general education are highly segregated and it is hard to progress from secondary vocational to
tertiary studies. There is little opportunity to change direction once a student has entered one of
career branches. Such differentiated and inflexible systems hardly provide opportunities to
correct earlier educational decisions, to return to education after leaving the system, pass through
school and work episodes or combine work and training activities. We assume that in countries
with a differentiated system adults have lower opportunities for returning to the education
system. These systems cultivate inequalities constraining the chances of the less educated.
The reliability of educational signals is crucially influenced by the degree of standardisation in
education systems (Shavit and Müller, 2000). In highly standardised systems educational
credentials send clear and reliable signals to employers about the quality of education and skills
training of a potential worker. In a majority of European countries the general education system
is rather standardized. Yet, the differences, if any, are revealed in vocational education systems.
In part of the countries (primarily in German language countries) standardization is considered
especially important for vocational schools, because if established professional school leaving
19
certificates are issued to school graduates, the employers can be confident then that those new
workers will meet their expectations. We assume that standardisation has a twofold impact on
lifelong learning opportunities. The standardisation will form the basis for achieving adequate
job-person matches. From the employers’ viewpoint there is less need to develop firm-internal
career structures, nor to promote additional training for workers because recruitment from the
external labour market becomes a more viable option (Müller and Gangl, 2003). Nevertheless
standardisation may help to make educational paths more transparent and to facilitate the return
to the education system.
Recent explanations of participation in non-formal education take into account the rather
complex character of the link between the education system and participation in non-formal
education. Among the theoretical frameworks that inform such explanations are those of labour
market segmentation and internal labour markets (Maurice et al. 1986); welfare production
regimes and the social, economic, and political institutions that support them (Estevez-Abe et al.
2001).
Maurice et al. (1986) distinguish between systems of ‘organisational space’ and ‘qualificational
space’, and examine their linkages to the education system. Each system has specific implications
for non-formal education. In a system of organisational space, education is academic or general
in character with specific occupational skills learned on-the-job. By means of additional training
individuals obtain the skills that are necessary in a given company to make internal upward
moves. The intensity of additional training is expected to be high in a system of organisational
space. In a qualificational space education is closely linked to job requirements and more
importance is placed on diploma requirements and certificates (Maurice et al. 1986). Access to
skilled jobs is reserved for those workers who have the specific skills needed for these jobs. In a
qualificational space the education system produces workers with occupation-specific skills
(vocational education dominates). The acquired skills are transferable across firms and are
recognised by employers. In a qualification space adults with no certificates have a higher
necessity to return to the education system because without certificates their career opportunities
are limited. But as a rule, this space is combined with a differentiated education system and so the
proportion of adults without education certificates is quite low.
Other System Characteristics
Different institutional typologies have been developed to explain life course variation in
educational participation. The impact of education systems, employment relation systems, family
systems, national welfare state regimes and the varieties of welfare capitalism on the life course
have been explored.
Recently, more comprehensive approaches have emerged. They view the institutional
environment as multi-dimensional and highly interactive. Institutional systems and social
structures in modern societies are seen as mutually interdependent arrangements that have a high
degree of mutual complementarity and can be best understood as a kind of country-specific
‘institutional packages’ (Blossfeld, 2003). A ‘varieties of welfare capitalism’ approach seeks out
‘institutional complementarities’ between different production regimes, industrial relations and
social protection systems (Hall and Soskice, 2001). Rather than grouping countries under a single
regime, it seeks to develop multi-dimensional models of institutional structures that are country-
specific. According to this logic, the education system is part of a country-specific institutional
20
package and thus educational opportunities are formed in interplay of different institutions and
actors.
It has been argued that, basically, two alternative roads to competitiveness have been followed in
Europe: the 'low road' based on a low-wage, low-skill, low-involvement, and low-quality
equilibrium and 'high road' entailing high wages, high skill, high co-operation and high product
quality (Berger and Dore, 1996; Crouch and Streeck, 1997; Regini, 2000). Economically
developed countries identified by the varieties-of-capitalism approach as coordinated market
economies (CME) (Hall and Soskice, 2001) might be also characterised as 'high road' competition
economies, while those identified as liberal market economies (LME) rather follow 'low road' of
competition. According to the varieties-of-capitalism approach, important institutional settings
that contribute to different mechanisms of functioning in CMEs versus LMEs are financial
systems, systems of industrial relations, education and training systems and inter-company
relations. Specific features of these institutions have implications for the type of innovation firms
prefer and the type of skills they rely on.
To keep on the high quality road, a certain level of protection of investments into asset-specific
skills is needed. Three different types of such protection have been distinguished: employment
protection, unemployment protection and wage protection (Estevez-Abe et al., 2001). For firms
pursuing product market strategies which depend heavily on firm- and industry-specific skills,
the promise of employment and unemployment security is of great importance as it is an
incentive for workers to invest in (firms- and/or industry) specific skills. The more successful
these firms are, the greater their demand for specific skills, the greater the need for (employment,
unemployment and wage) protection. Firms are prepared to invest in training because they can
expect that workers remain in the firm for a sufficient duration. It is the logic of specific skills
equilibria in CME.
The more fluid markets of LMEs provide economic actors with greater opportunities to move
their resources around in search of higher returns, encouraging them to acquire switchable assets,
such as general skills of multi-purpose technologies. The institutional framework of liberal
market economies is considered to be highly supportive of radical innovation, which entails
substantial shifts in product lines, the development of entirely new goods, or major changes to the
production process (Hall and Soskice, 2001: 38-40).
Labour markets with few restrictions on layoffs allow companies interested in developing an
entirely new product line to hire personnel with the required expertise, knowing they can release
them if the project proves unprofitable. Fluid markets and short job tenures make it rational for
employees to concentrate more heavily on the development of general skills rather than industry-
or company-specific skills. Individual and firm investments in training are therefore small. There
is no quality standardisation and there are no formal degrees and certificates which are accepted
across firms.
In the case of a general skills equilibrium in LME (with most firms pursuing general skills
strategies, while there is weak employment and unemployment protection), higher protection
would undermine workers’ incentives to invest in these skills, without significantly increasing
their appropriation of specific skills (because there is little demand for such skills). Accordingly,
in the industrial relations arena, firms in LME generally rely heavily on the market relationship
between an individual worker and employer to organize relations with their labour force. Top
21
management normally has unilateral control over the firm, including substantial freedom to hire
and fire.
Unemployment protection, as protection from income reduction due to unemployment, is deemed
to reduce uncertainty about income throughout one’s career and is therefore an important
incentive for investment into industry-specific skills (Estevez-Abe et al., 2001). It is the arena
where welfare state policy is of a great importance for the formation of skills and their renewal as
a component of lifelong learning. There appears to be a correspondence between types of
political economies and welfare states. While social policy regimes that accompany coordinated
market economies are quite varied, virtually all liberal market economies are accompanied by
‘liberal’ welfare states, whose emphasis on means-testing and low levels of benefit reinforce the
fluid labour markets (Esping-Andersen, 1990). In the ‘varieties-of-capitalism literature’ the set of
product market strategies, employee skill trajectories, and social, economic and political
institutions that support them, are referred to as welfare production regimes; the welfare state can
also be understood as a component of national production systems (Hall and Soskice, 2001).
Two welfare production regimes have been distinguished: one combining high protection on at
least one of two (employment or unemployment) protection dimensions with firm- and/or
industry-specific skills, represented by the continental European countries and one combining
weak employment and unemployment protection with a general skills profile, represented by the
Anglo-Saxon countries and Ireland (Estevez-Abe et al., 2001). In the latter countries there is high
demand for semi-skilled workers with general skills; general skills are usually obtained in the
formal education system; students who are academically strong do their best to get as high a level
of education as possible, while students who are not academically strong, are offered relatively
few opportunities for improving their labour market value outside of the school system and as a
result, there are fewer incentives for them to work hard inside the school system (Estevez-Abe et
al., 2001). Hence, there are fewer incentives to both employers and workers to invest into
intensive further training in LME. To put it another way the total demand for work-related
lifelong learning in these countries should be more differentiated (shifted rather to low skills but
to very high skills as well) compared to CME where most firms pursue specific skills equilibria.
As in the long run both LME and CME have proven their sustainability, the same can be
expected in relation to general versus specific skills equilibria. ‘Generated by the globalizing
economy’, the demand for lifelong learning is supposed to be filtered by the country-specific
institutional package. This generates different challenges and allows different spaces for change
of education systems. This embeddedness of educational institutions into the wider institutional
context has certain implications for the learning career.
Empirical research based on indicators measuring these system characteristics within the EU-15
showed that the employment rate, the innovation rate and the institutional differentiation in initial
education within the country have a direct impact on the participation rates in lifelong learning
activities (Desmedt, Groenez & Van den Broeck, 2006). Strong government invention in the
areas of education, lifelong learning and active labour market policy emerges as the most
important factor in reducing social inequalities in learning.
22
2.1.5. Participation Models
Although we discussed the determinants of LLL at different levels separately, we also saw that
they interact strongly among each other. Therefore, an integrated analysis is needed using a
single comprehensive model. A selection of such frameworks can be found in the literature
(Silva, Cahalan, Lacireno-Paquet, 1998). Most of these models can be found in the theoretical
school of socio-psychological interactionism, indicating a match between sociological and
psychological variables (Manninen, 2005). Within this report, we started the theoretical overview
with the remark that we also use a socio-psychological approach in our research.
In this report, we build on the Expectancy Valence model of Rubenson (1977) and the Chain of
Response model of Cross (1981). These models are among the best-known models in the
international literature on adult education participation.
Expectancy and valence are the two main key elements within the model of Rubenson. A
combination of these elements leads to a motivational force which can be converted into an
effective participation in adult education. The model shows that expectancy as well as valence are
influenced by elements at an individual as well as an environmental level. The previous
educational experience of the individual, together with his own needs and personal characteristics
interact with his environmental supporting network such as his peer group and the availability of
educational opportunities.
Expectancy-valence model
Rubenson (1977)Previous Experience
Congenital Properties
Environmental Factors
(ie. structure, value of
significant others,
study possibilities)
Individual
Needs
Active
Preparedness
Perception and
Interpretation of
the Environment
Individual’s
Experience of
Needs
Expectancy
Valence of the
Education
Motivational
Force
The model of Cross has to be read as a decision making cycle made up of several stages.
Psychological and environmental aspects are highlighted. The self-perception of the adult is
related to his attitude towards learning and forms the main starting point of the decision process.
23
Next, similar to the model of Rubenson, expectations and values attached to participation are
taken into consideration. Cross clearly states that these values and expectations are influenced by
life transitions such as marrying, retirement or giving birth. Balancing the opportunities and
obstacles is a final step before a decision is made. Cross distinguishes between personal life-
related situational barriers, psychological dispositional barriers and broader institutional barriers.
All these barriers can be increased or decreased by the availability or lack of information on
learning possibilities. The final stage in the model is the result of the entire cycle: participation or
non-participation.
These two models can be linked with the Expectancy Value theory of Vroom (1964). Motivation
is the outcome of a continuous interplay between the value one attaches to a certain activity and
the expected outcomes. The ARCS model of Keller is also based on this Expectancy Value
theory. Keller states that Attitude and Relevance are similar to the value one attaches to
participation and learning and that the Confidence in one’s own abilities and the experience of
Satisfaction are related to the expectancies. Motivation can be increased by adopting the correct
learning and management strategies on the side of the educational institutions and lead to greater
efficiency and effectiveness in learning.
Chain-of-response model
Cross (1984)
(A)
Self-Perceptions
Attitudes Toward
Education
(B)
(D)
Life Transitions
Value of Goals and
Expectations
that Participation
Will Meet Goals
(C)
(F)
Information
Opportunities
and
Barriers
(E)
(G)
Participation
It must be admitted that participation models tend to focus exclusively on the individual side of
the participation process (Boeren, Nicaise, Baert, 2010). Research into the role of the educational
institutions and the government is scarce. Therefore, we felt a need to make a new visual
overview in which all aspects of the literature review are available.
24
Conceptual overview
DEMAND SUPPLY
SOCIETYSOCIETY
SOCIO-ECO
SOCIO-CULT
PSYCHOL
ORGANISATION INSTITUTION
ORGANISATION
PROGRAMME
RELEVANT
OTHERSFamily
Employer
Reference group
Services
RELEVANT
OTHERSEducation policy
Alternative programmes
Competition
Services
INDIVIDUAL EDUCATIONAL
INSTITUTIONDECISION / PERCEPTION
A (continuous) participation can be seen as a match or mismatch between the individual and the
educational institution. The individual has his/her own socio-economic status and psychological
characteristics and is surrounded by relevant others such as family, employer and friends. The
educational institutions are characterized by their organizational approach and the course subjects
offered to the students. Educational institutions have to create their learning programmes in
cooperation with the education policy, services and competitors within the education market.
Both the individual and the educational institutions are embedded in wider society containing all
other policy fields such as the labour market, health, social security etcetera.
2.1.6. Theoretical Conclusions
The overview above makes clear that participation in lifelong learning is a complex process in
which different factors within different levels can have their impact. It is the aim of this research
to investigate the determinants of the educational experiences and perspectives of the adult
learners. The empirical analyses will be performed on a database containing information at the
level of the adult learners, the educational institutions and the country macro-context. Data at the
first two levels are gathered by surveys, while information at the macro-level was collected from
an overview of available macro indicators. In the following part of this report, we will give an
overview of the methodology.
25
2.2. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The new conceptual overview includes three types of players: individuals, educational
institutions and national policies and institutions. These three levels are interrelated. In our
research design, the motivational variables of Keller (attitude – relevance – confidence –
satisfaction) act as the key dependent variables.
In our research, we are interested to know which factors influence the perceptions of motivation
as experienced by effective adult learners themselves – and which determinants matter most.
In the section below, we formulate research questions and hypotheses, based on the theoretical
framework, to be tested in the empirical analysis. Those research questions and hypotheses relate
to each of the three levels: countries – institutions – individuals. In some cases, we have
divergent or indeed opposite hypotheses indicated as H and H’, because we felt that the literature
provides different theoretical predictions.
2.2.1. Country/Macro Level Questions and Hypotheses
Q1 How/to what extent do the characteristics of the educational system explain any cross-
national differences in the adults’ experiences and perspectives?
H With regard to initial education:
In countries with
- high status and fewer dead-end attributes of vocational education
- a more comprehensive system of initial education
adults will show
- a more positive attitude towards lifelong learning
- intrinsic or instrumental motives for participation rather than extrinsic motives
- greater confidence in their ability to successfully complete the selected course in
formal education
- greater satisfaction with the process and the outcomes of formal education
We hypothesize an indirect relationship with the adults’ experiences and perspectives,
through the relationship between the lifelong learning system and the characteristics of the
educational institutions, as well as a direct relationship.
Q2 To what extent do the characteristics of the labour market explain any cross-national
differences in the adults’ learning experiences and perspectives?
H In countries with
- a high level of flexibility and mobility on the labour market
adults will show
- a more positive attitude towards lifelong learning
- stronger human capital motives for participation in formal education
26
Q3 To what extent do the characteristics of the social protection explain any cross-national
differences in the adults’ experiences and perspectives?
H In countries with
- high unemployment benefits
- high level of active LM measures
adults will show
- a more positive attitude towards lifelong learning
- stronger human capital motives for participation in formal education
- greater confidence in the ability to successfully complete the selected course in
formal education
- greater satisfaction with the process and the outcomes of participating in formal
education
H’ In countries with
- high unemployment benefits
- high level of active LM measures
adults will show
- stronger social control motives for participation in formal education, i.e.
- feel more pressure to participate in formal education
- be less motivated because their income is safe
2.2.2. Institutional/Meso Level Questions and Hypotheses
Q4 How/to what extent do the characteristics of the educational institution in which adults
are enrolled influence their learning experiences and perspectives?
Q4’ Which (set of) characteristic(s) of the educational institution matter(s) most?
H Educational institutions which
- are flexibly accessible through open admission, special entry routes for target
groups of adult learners or mechanisms for the assessment and recognition of
prior work and life experiences
- apply flexible modes of study that accommodate for the special needs of adult
learners, such as open (e-)learning (distance learning and self-learning), modular
courses, credit transfer and part-time study
- offer financial assistance and other support (child care, guidance and counselling,
tend to stimulate
- a more positive attitude towards lifelong learning
- greater confidence in the ability to successfully complete the selected course in
formal education
- greater satisfaction with the process of participating in formal education
Q5 How/to what extent do the characteristics of the learning process in which adults are
involved influence their experiences and perspectives?
Q5’ Which (set of) characteristic(s) of the learning process matter(s) most?
27
H A learning environment in one or more of the following characteristics (ceteris paribus):
- a positive affiliation between the students
- a high level of teacher support
- a high level of task orientation
- adults can pursue their individual interests (personal goal attainment)
- activities are clear and well organised
- the teacher is learner-centred and allows student influence in course planning
decisions
- the students feel actively involved
tend to stimulate
- a positive attitude towards lifelong learning
- greater confidence in their ability to successfully complete the selected course in
formal education
- greater satisfaction with the process and the outcomes of formal education
2.2.3. Individual/Micro Level Questions and Hypotheses
Q6 To what extent do the experiences and perspectives of low-skilled and low-literate adults
(ISCED level 1 and 2 educational institutions) differ from those of adults with a higher
educational background/participating at a higher educational level?1
Q6’ To what extent can these differences – from a life course perspective – be explained by
differences in the immediate social environment (work and family dynamics and support)
of these adults?
H Low-skilled and low-literate adults will
- have a more negative attitude towards lifelong learning
- have a more negative attitude towards learning institutions
- have extrinsic motives for participation in formal education rather than
instrumental or intrinsic motives
- have less confidence in their ability to successfully complete the selected course in
formal education
- show less satisfaction with the process and the outcomes of participating in formal
education
than adults with a higher educational background/participating at a higher educational
level.
Q7 Are the characteristics of the educational institutions in which low-skilled and low-
literate adults are enrolled (ISCED level 1 and 2 educational institutions), different from
the characteristics of the educational institutions in which adults with a higher educational
background/participating at a higher educational level participate (segregation)?
1 Note that it is necessary to distinguish clearly between an individual’s initial level of education and the level of the
course in which s/he currently participates. Highly educated adults may enrol in lower-level courses for various
reasons (learn a different language at basic level, take an introductory course on a particular hobby, etc.). In our
sample, there is a sharp contrast between Western Europe and the CEE countries in this regard: 80% of the adult
learners at ISCED levels 1-2 in CEE countries have a low level education (ISCED 1 or 2). In Belgium, Norway,
Scotland and England only up to 50% of the corresponding group have low prior education.
28
H Low-skilled and low-literate adults are more likely be in institutions that
- are flexibly accessible through open admission, and provide for special entry
routes for adult learners or mechanisms for the assessment and recognition of prior
work and life experiences
- apply flexible modes of study that accommodate for the special needs of adult
learners, such as open (e-)learning (distance learning and self-learning), modular
courses, credit transfer and part-time study
- offer financial assistance and other support (child care, guidance and counselling)
than adults with a higher educational background/participating at a higher educational
level.
H The power and social influence of highly-skilled adult learners will force the learning
institution to offer ‘better’ education than the education for low-skilled and low-literate
adults, so that the hypothesis above might be very unlikely.
Q8 Are the characteristics of the learning process (classroom environment) in which low-
skilled and low-literate adults engage, different from the characteristics of the learning
process in which adults with a higher educational background/ participating at a higher
educational level participate (segregation)?
H Low-skilled and low-literate adults more likely engage in a learning environment in
which
- there is a more positive affiliation between the students
- there is a higher level of teacher support
- there is a lower level of task orientation
- adults can pursue their individual interests more (personal goal attainment)
- activities are more clear and better organised
- the teaching is more learner-centred and allows student influence in course
planning decisions
- the students feel more actively involved
than adults with a higher educational background/participating at a higher educational
level.
Q9 Can the characteristics of the educational institution compensate for initial inequalities in
learning experiences and perspectives between adults with a different educational
background?
H Low-skilled and low-literate adults who are in an educational institution that
- is flexibly accessible through open admission, special entry routes for adult
learners or mechanisms for the assessment and recognition of prior work and life
experiences
- applies flexible modes of study that accommodate the special needs of adult
learners, such as open (e-)learning (distance learning and self-learning), modular
courses, credit transfer and part-time study
- offers financial assistance and other support (child care, guidance and counselling
will show
- a more positive attitude towards lifelong learning
- confidence in the ability to successfully complete the selected course in formal
education
29
- satisfaction with the process of participating in formal education
than low-skilled and low-literate adults studying in an educational institution that lacks
these characteristics.
H’ The characteristics of the educational institution alone are highly unlikely to compensate
nationwide for initial inequalities in experiences and perspectives between adults with a
different educational background. They can do so only in combination with specific
system characteristics of the wider society (existence of an open economy, a high level of
flexibility of the labour market, a fair system of social protection, a developed civil
society).
Q10 Can the characteristics of the learning process compensate for initial inequalities in
experiences and perspectives between adults with a different educational background?
H Low-skilled and low-literate adults who engage in a learning environment in which one or
more of the following characteristics apply:
- a positive affiliation between the students
- a high level of teacher support
- a high level of task orientation
- adults can pursue their individual interests (personal goal attainment)
- activities are clear and well organised
- the teaching is learner-centred and allows student influence in course planning
decisions
- the students feel actively involved
will show
- a more positive attitude towards lifelong learning
- greater confidence in the ability to successfully complete the selected course in
formal education
- greater satisfaction with the process and the outcomes of participating in formal
education
than low-skilled and low-literate adults who engage in a learning process that lacks these
characteristics.
H’ The characteristics of the learning process alone are highly unlikely to compensate
nationwide for initial inequalities in experiences and perspectives between adults with a
different educational background. They can do so only in combination with specific
system characteristics of the wider society (existence of an open economy, a high level of
flexibility of the labour market, a fair system of social protection, a developed civil
society).
30
3. SURVEY METHODOLOGY
The empirical study in this subproject is based on a specific survey among 13 000 Europeans
involved in formal adult education – 1 000 on average in each of the 13 participating countries.
This chapter gives an overview of the content and construction of the questionnaires, the sample
population and the sampling methods.
3.1. SURVEY – QUESTIONNAIRES
For the LLL2010-SP3-project two questionnaires were developed: one to be filled out by
educational institutions and one for students enrolled in the courses organized by these
institutions. The core questionnaires were designed by the SP3 coordination team who took
feedback and comments from other partners into account. Additional questions could be added by
each team in their national version of the questionnaires.
The transformation from this core questionnaire, drafted in English, into a national one is
described in the country reports.
The questionnaire for the institutions consists of three main parts.
A. Characteristics of the educational institution: questions about the number of staff, number
of students, full-time and/or part-time programmes on offer, cooperation with other
institutions, use of APL and APEL, services offered to students, promotional activities,
existence of a written Mission Statement, paid training for educators, individual
performance reviews with educators, external quality control and the recruitment of
disadvantaged groups.
B. Characteristics of the specific programme(s) scrutinised in the research: questions about
organization of the study programme, admission requirements, enrolment conditions,
preparatory programmes, teaching modes and enrolment fees.
C. General questions: questions about lifelong learning policy.
The questionnaire for the students consists of four main parts.
A. Questions regarding their educational background: questions about date and reasons of
leaving full-time daytime education, highest educational level, discipline of highest
educational level, unsuccessful studies at a higher educational level and attitude towards
learning.
B. Participation in formal adult education: questions about enrolment in other formal
courses, discipline of current study, start and end date, reasons for starting the programme
and receiving assistance in making the decision to start the programme.
B.1. Characteristics of the institution in which you attend courses: questions about entry
requirements, exemptions, preparatory programmes, time use, teaching modes and
organization of the programme.
B.2. Costs of the entire course: questions about the person who pays the enrolment fee,
the amount of the fee, extra costs, grants, paid leaves and services.
31
B.3. The learning process during the entire course: questions about the classroom
environment, support to continue the study program, barriers and satisfaction.
C. Personal details: questions about socio-demographic characteristics such as gender, age,
nationality, country of birth, first language, educational level and nationality of parents,
marital status and household composition.
D. Questions regarding day-to-day activities: questions about socio-economic characteristics
such as main activity, occupational status, type of contract, sector of employment, date of
entering the labour market, general time use, participation in social and cultural activities
and monthly income.
Both core questionnaires can be consulted in appendix. Questions were based as much as
possible on existing scales and questions. One important source for constructing the students’
questionnaire was the Eurostat Adult Education Survey (AES) codebook. Similarities with the
AES are discussed below. Questions for measuring the attitudes of the adult learners are based
upon the Attitudes toward Adult and Continuing Education Scale of Blunt & Yang (1995).
Within their scale, three dimensions of attitude were found: enjoyment of learning, importance of
adult education and intrinsic value. Each dimension consists of 3 items, 9 in total. All 9 items
were included in question A9 of our students’ questionnaire. The students’ questionnaire also
contains a scale measuring the specific motives or the relevance of participating in adult
education. To create this B8 scale, we used the Education Participation Scale constructed by
Boshier (1977, 1991). Researchers used this scale in the past and performed factor analyses on it.
One example is the extraction by Garst & Ried (1999). They found six dimensions of relevance:
competency-related curiosity, interpersonal relations, community service, escape from routine,
professional advancement and compliance with external influence. Among all these factors, we
selected 3 items for each factor for inclusion in the questionnaire, a total of 18 items. Scale B20
measures the experiences with the learning process and is based on the Adult Classroom
Environment Scale of Darkenwald & Valentine (1986). Previous research revealed dimensions of
these learning process characteristics (O‘Fathaigh, 1997). Seven dimensions are: affiliation,
teacher support, task orientation, personal goal attainment, organization and clarity, student
influence and involvement. We used 2 items of each factor and included the item 15 on
discussion of the learning content on life based experience.
As explained in the introduction, in this subproject we focus only on effective participants in
formal adult education courses. In order to allow for comparisons between our sample and the
overall adult population, we included some common questions with the Eurostat Adult Education
Survey. Mainly the questions focussing on the socio-demographic, socio-economic and socio-
cultural profiles of the adult students were borrowed from the Eurostat core questionnaire. A
concrete overview of SP3 questions comparable to AES questions can be found in appendix.
32
3.2. SAMPLING AND SURVEY METHODS
3.2.1. Operational Definition of Formal Education
With regard to the target group of ‘adults studying in the formal education system’, we used a
common definition for the core sample in all countries (1000 completed questionnaires). Each
research partner had the possibility to include additional target groups in separate sub-samples.
The common definition of formal adult education is based on the final report of the task force on
the Adult Education Survey (AES):
‘Formal education is education provided in the system of schools, colleges, universities and other
formal education institutions that normally constitutes a continuous “ladder” of full-time
education for children and young people, generally beginning at age of five to seven and
continuing up to 20 or 25 years old. In some countries, the upper parts of this “ladder” are
organised programmes of joint part-time employment and part-time participation in the regular
school and university system. Formal learning is intentional from the learner’s point of view. It
leads to certification which leads to the next educational level.’ For reasons of trans-national
comparability, we make use of the internationally accepted ISCED-scale of levels.
Some notes on ‘certification’:
In this subproject, we are investigating adults who participate in institutions that are
authorized to provide certificates of formal education recognized by the ministry of
education. All courses in all fields of study that meet these criteria can be included.
Modular or course certificates are also included (even if individual students may not aim
to obtain a diploma), because they constitute credits that can be accumulated in order to
get access to that next level.
We are aware that this is a very restrictive definition. However, our survey aims to produce a
specific added value for a small, though important, subset of the AES target group, as only about
5% of all adult learning takes place in the formal system (Eurostat, 2007). Adults studying in the
formal education system are therefore mostly a too small subgroup in ordinary surveys.
3.2.2. Operational Definition of Adult Learners
We used the following definition:
People who have left full-time formal initial education – e.g. to enter the labour market – and
who, at some point, decide to participate in formal education again.
The time span between leaving full-time formal education and re-entering must at be least 2
years (of non-participation in education, e.g. work, inactivity, unemployment, travelling,…).
We do not define any lower or upper age limit.
Simplifying, in this part of the research, the label ‘adult learner’ is used to denote an adult who
learns in a formal educational setting. He or she must have the following characteristics:
a. he/she has left full-time initial education
b. he/she participates in formal education again
c. the gap between leaving and re-entering is at least 2 years
33
3.3. SAMPLING FRAME
The initial goal was at to collect least 1000 completed adult questionnaires in each participating
country. Thus, we established a target size for the dataset rather than a target sample size. This is
because of differences in the typical response rates in the participating countries and as the 1000
responses is already relatively small number, we did not want to have less completed
questionnaires.
In some countries the survey was not conducted in the whole country but in one or two regions,
for instance because education is regionalised (e.g. in the UK or Belgium), or because the country
is very big (e.g. Russia).
Within each country, the objective was to stratify the sample by level of education (ISCED) with
four subsets of respondents:
1) ISCED 1+2 primary and lower secondary/basic level 250
2) ISCED 3 upper secondary level 250
a) general secondary 125
b) vocational 125
3) ISCED 4 post secondary (non tertiary) level 250
4) ISCED 5+6 university level 250
a) bachelor 125
b) master 125
This kind of sample is not representative for the whole population of adult learners, but will
enable to analyse the similarities and differences by education level.
These adults were contacted via their educational institutions. A complementary institutional
questionnaire had to be completed by each institution whose students participated in our survey.
From a methodological point of view, our sampling method combines the following
characteristics:
A. Stratified sampling.
As indicated, we have stratified the sample by country/region, and by ISCED level within
each country:
stratum 1: ISCED level 1 + 2
stratum 2: ISCED level 3
stratum 3: ISCED level 4
stratum 4: ISCED level 5 + 6
B. Quotum sampling.
34
Within each stratum, we put forward a quotum of 250 completed questionnaires (with a
minimum of 100).
C. Multistage sampling.
Within each stratum, a number of institutions were selected to represent the variety of types
of providers (colleges, academies, providers of distance education etc.). Next, within each
selected institution, one or more fields of study were selected. A last stage was to select
respondents within each field. Those were drawn from the rolls of the respective institutions,
which means that dropouts were also part of our sample.
STAGE 1: Select institutions within the stratum
STAGE 2: Select a field of study within the selected institution
STAGE 3: Select respondents within the selected field of study
In order to reach the quotum of 250 completed questionnaires per stratum, over-sampling
techniques were applied. This is frequently applied where no register is available of all
members of a population.
Before the beginning of the fieldwork, each national team was asked to provide the best available
data (from the LFS LLL module or earlier AES etc) on the characteristics of the population of
adult learners in formal education. This means that the profile of our respondents can be
compared with the statistics available on (1) adult population data and (2) adult learners’ data (as
reliable as there is), so the gaps can be identified. The national samples achieved in the SP3
survey are discussed in detail and compared with statistics from other sources in the respective
national reports. Different methods of data collection can be used for the survey such as mail
surveys, telephone surveys, face-to face interviews, online surveys. In view of the variety of
countries involved, the complexity of the questionnaire and the fact that low-educated
participants could have difficulties to fill out the questionnaires without the support of an
interviewer, the SP3 coordination team recommended a (flexible) combination of the following
techniques:
a. ISCED 1+2: face-to-face interviews
b. ISCED 3+4: written questionnaire with the help of an interviewer (in group)
c. ISCED 5 + 6: written questionnaire, in group, postal or on-line (e-mail, not web-
survey)
35
3.4. EFFECTIVE RESPONSE
A total number of 13 293 respondents were interviewed, who belong to 734 different educational
institutions within the 13 countries. Unavoidably, however, the effective response obtained in the
13 participating countries diverged from the prescribed framework for a variety of reasons. As
shown in the table below (Table 3.1), the target of 1 000 completed questionnaires in Norway,
England and Lithuania. Reaching the guotum of 250 questionnaires for each stratum appeared to
be even more difficult. Especially students in primary and lower secondary education levels are
less well represented in our sample than desired.
Table 3.1: Effective responses obtained by 13 participating countries
Country Level of the current course
ISCED 1-2 ISCED 3 ISCED 4 ISCED 5-6 Total
Austria Count 104 394 348 154 1000
% within country 10.4 39.4 34.8 15.4 100
Belgium, FL Count 263 283 422 257 1225
% within country 21.5 23.1 34.4 21.0 100
Bulgaria Count 253 268 251 258 1030
% within country 24.6 26.0 24.4 25.0 100
the Czech
Republic Count 0 501 0 500 1001
% within country 0 50.0 0 50.0 100
England Count 58 288 277 189 812
% within country 7.1 35.5 34.1 23.3 100
Estonia Count 341 290 249 244 1124
% within country 30.3 25.8 22.2 21.7 100
Hungary Count 250 244 268 249 1011
% within country 24.7 24.1 26.5 24.6 100
Ireland Count 178 203 263 357 1001
% within country 17.8 20.3 26.3 35.7 100
Lithuania Count 147 296 294 257 994
% within country 14.8 29.8 29.6 25.9 100
Norway Count 116 337 80 243 776
% within country 14.9 43.4 10.3 31.3 100
Russia Count 140 249 249 369 1007
% within country 13.9 24.7 24.7 36.6 100
Scotland Count 71 295 301 355 1022
% within country 6.9 28.9 29.5 34.7 100
Slovenia Count 196 309 274 511 1290
% within country 15.2 24.0 21.2 39.6 100
Total Count 2117 3957 3276 3943 13293
% within country 15.9 29.8 24.6 29.7 100
36
3.5. METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES
The multistage sampling technique in this research implicitly refers to a multilevel design.
Nonetheless, multilevel modelling cannot be seen as a panacea. Tacq (2007) argues that huge
sample sizes are needed and other research has shown that the variance explained at the macro-
level is often very small. A 2-level sample requires a minimum of 2000 units and in order to
obtain unbiased parameter estimations, a sample size of 5000 is ideal. A 3-level sample has to be
gigantic before multilevel modelling will show any significant effects.
Different researches have questioned the accurate sample sizes for multilevel modeling. The ’30
units’-rule is one of the most commonly used benchmarks (Kreft and De Leeuw, 1998): this
means that each level has to contain at least 30 observations in order to avoid unbiased results. In
our case, this would mean we need at least 30 countries, at least 30 courses within each country
and at least 30 students within each course. A first problem occurs at the level of the country
sample, as only 13 countries take part in our research. Sampling difficulties in some countries
resulted in high rates of non-response in some specific courses. Some researchers argue that the
first-level sample size can be reduced to 15 observations for each group, provided that the entire
sample size remains large enough. Maas and Hox (2005) state that smaller groups at level 1 do
not matter that much if the levels above contain at least 50 observations. Huang and Lu (2009)
recently concluded that those new orthodox rules of reducing groups at the lowest level continue
to yield biased results and that researchers have to stick at least to the 30 units-rule in order to
obtain reliable results.
Looking at our sample, we notice that no single country has 30 or more groups with at least 30
students. Nor is there any country with 30 or more groups containing 15 students in each course.
Table 3.2 Number of groups with at least 30 or 15 students
COUNTRY 30 students 15 students
AUSTRIA 11 29
BELGIUM 1 11
BULGARIA 1 19
THE CZECH REPUBLIC 19 27
ENGLAND 6 20
ESTONIA 11 23
HUNGARY 0 0
IRELAND 2 12
LITHANIA 9 22
NORWAY 0 0
RUSSIA 1 11
SCOTLAND 8 21
SLOVENIA 1 19
Therefore, we decided to stick to ‘simple’ linear regressions within this text. Multilevel models
performed for each country can be consulted separately.
37
3.6. STRUCTURE OF THE ANALYTICAL CHAPTERS
Having described the theoretical framework, research questions, data and methodological issues,
we proceed with analysing the Subproject 3 survey data. Chapter 4 begins with an introduction of
independent variables starting from the macro level national system characteristics. This if
followed by meso level variables (characteristics on the learning process and the organisational
aspects of the learning institutions). Further we provide a general picture of the socio-
demographic, socio-economic and socio-cultural profiles of the adult learners. On the basis of the
theoretical framework set out in chapter 2.1, chapter 4.4 explores different motivational
dimensions which will be used as dependent variables in the last chapters of the report. Final
analytical chapters explore the impact and interrelations of macro, meso and micro level variables
on adult learners’ perspectives and experiences.
As a final step, Subproject 3 Comparative Report forms the overall conclusions.
38
4. DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS
Having described the theoretical framework and the methodological issues such as the
construction of the questionnaires, sampling and survey methods, we will now start with
analysing the international database. In order to start with multivariate analyses, there is a need of
defining the independent and dependent variables of use within the research.
As stated before, the experiences and perspectives of the adult learners are the central dependent
variables within the research. This concept is measured by four separate scales containing items
on attitude, relevance, confidence and satisfaction (ARCS), as proposed by Keller (1987, 1999).
We further explore these so-called ARCS variables by means of data reduction techniques in
order to disentangle if these different items can be captured in a reduced set of dependent
variables (please see end notes to the current chapter). The theoretical framework was divided
into three main parts, including a micro, a meso and a macro level. It is the aim of the research to
integrate independent variables of these three levels within one model. Subsections 4.1, 4.2 and
4.3 of this chapter consist of the formulation of the independent variables. On the basis of the
international dataset, we show tables by level of the current course and the totals across level to
gain a first insight into the main differences between the 13 participating countries. By these
tables and figures we give a first overview of the adult population within LLL2010 Subproject 3
international dataset. We start with the set of independent variables beginning with the
description of country level macro characteristics (broader economic and social context, labour
market, welfare system, educational system and adult formal education in particular). This is
followed by exploration of learning institutions offering adult education at different levels of
education (learning organisation/environment and learning process). Next we give an overview of
adult learners’ micro level independent characteristics: socio-demographic; socio-economic; and
socio-cultural background (subsection 4.3). Sample differences here will in turn contribute to
possible explanations in regard to educational level differences by ARCS variables in 13
countries (subsection 4.4).
Scheme 4.1 Overview of Subproject 3 variables
DEPENDENT (Y) INDEPENDENT (X)
Experiences and
Perspectives of Adult
Learners
- Attitude
- Relevance
- Confidence
- Satisfaction
MICRO LEVEL
Socio-demographic Socio-economic Socio-cultural
MESO LEVEL PERCEPTIONS
Learning organisation Learning process
MACRO LEVEL
Broader economic
and social context
Labour
market
Welfare
system
Educational
system
39
4.1. MACRO LEVEL CHARACTERISTICS – MACROECONOMIC AND INSTITUTIONAL CONTEXT OF COUNTRIES
In the following chapter we give description of macro level characteristics that will be used in
further analysis to depict country context effect on differences in participation in formal adult
education. Overview will be presented by characteristics of the broader economic- and social
context, labour market, welfare system, educational system and adult formal education
institutions by countries. Selection of institutional characteristics described below is based on the
Conceptual Framework Paper for LLL2010 (Working Paper No 16).
4.1.1. Broader Economic and Social Context
Here we compare countries by the following characteristics, that give an overall picture of how
favourable is the environment in which adult formal education or lifelong learning in general is
functioning:
GDP per capita in PPS (Purchasing Power Standard)
Public expenditure on education, % of GDP
Percentage of population with at least upper secondary education
Ratio of employees with ISCO 6-9 into employees with ISCED 0-2
Ratio of employees with ISCO 1-2 into employees with ISCED 5-6
There is a clear difference between western European countries and Central and Easter European
countries in their level of GDP per capita: economic production of CEE countries is below EU-27
average and thus much lower than in economically more developed western European countries
(Figure 4.1). However, from CEE countries, Slovenia and the Czech Republic are rather close in
reaching EU-27 average GDP per capita; Bulgaria and Russia have lowest GDP per capita, while
Lithuania, Hungary and Estonia remain in between. Among Western Europe, Ireland and
especially Norway have the highest level of economic production; Austria, Belgium and the UK
are at somewhat lower level, but fairly above the EU-27 average. This clearly implies that
possibilities to promote adult formal education and lifelong learning in general, are bigger in
western highly developed countries. Yet, because GDP per capita plays such an important role in
distinguishing country groups, then we have decided not to include this indicator in further
multilevel analysis, as it will diminish the effect of all other country-context indicators.
40
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Bulgaria
Russia
Lithua
nia
Hungary
Esto
nia
Czech
Rep
ublic
Slove
nia UK
Belgium
FL
Austri
a
Irela
nd
Norway
GDP per capita in PPS
Figure 4.1 GDP per capita in purchasing power standards (PPS), 2007
Note: The volume index of GDP per capita in Purchasing Power Standards (PPS) is expressed in relation
to the European Union (EU-27) average set to equal 100. If the index of a country is higher than 100, this
country's level of GDP per head is higher than the EU average and vice versa.
Source: Eurostat Economy and Finance database
IMF World Economic database for Russia
GDP per capita is quite strongly associated with public expenditure on education (% of GDP),
although differences between countries are not as steep as in case of the former. Accordingly, the
level of public expenditure on education is lower in CEE countries, with the exception of
Slovenia that invests in education proportionally about as much as Belgium (Figure 4.2). Not
surprisingly, only Norway exceeds Belgium in public contributions to education. Exceptional
case among CEE countries here is also Hungary, where expenditure on education as a percentage
of GDP amounts to the level of Austria, Ireland and the UK. But we do have to keep in mind that
the rate of GDP per capita in Western and CEE countries is very different, thus the impact of the
expenditures on education or other fields is different, too. Public spending on education is low in
Russia, the Czech Republic and Bulgaria, while Estonia and Lithuania are at intermediate level in
comparison to other CEE countries.
41
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Czech
Rep.
Bulgaria Lithuania Hungary Norway Austria Estonia Ireland UK Belgium Slovenia
Public expenditure on education, % of GDP
Figure 4.2 Public expenditure on education, % of GDP, 2005
Source: Eurostat Population and Social Conditions database
OECD database for Russia
Picture regarding western European and CEE countries is entirely different when we consider the
percentage of population with at least upper secondary education (Figure 4.3). There are about
90% of population with at least upper secondary education in the Czech Republic, Lithuania,
Estonia and Russia. In Bulgaria, Hungary, Norway, Austria and Slovenia the respective ration is
close to 80; in Belgium, Ireland and the UK around 70. It is well known that higher level of
initial education induces participation in adult/further education. However, this might often work
in disadvantage of low-skilled individuals if special measures to enhance skill and knowledge
level of low-skilled are not applied.
42
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Belgium Ireland UK Bulgaria Hungary Norway Austria Slovenia Estonia Lithuania Czech
Rep.
% of population with at least upper secondary education
Figure 4.3 Percentage of population with at least upper secondary education, 2007
Source: Eurostat Population and Social Conditions database
OECD database for Russia, reference year 2002
Next we examine how the occupational structure of the labour market matches with the
educational qualifications structure of the labour force and vice versa. We do this by comparing
first, the ratios of low level occupational groups (ISCO 6 and 9) with low level educational
qualifications (ISCED 0-2) and second, high level occupational groups (ISCO 1-2) with high
level educational qualifications (ISCED 5-6). This gives an idea of over and underqualification
tendencies in countries. In case of the match between low occupational structure and low
educational qualifications, we see that in Lithuania there are much more occupations that require
relatively low educated workers than there are those with low education (Figure 4.4). Also in the
Czech Republic, Estonia and Bulgaria low level occupations somewhat dominate over low level
qualifications. In Hungary, Austria and Slovenia on the other hand there are slightly more
workers with low educational qualifications than there are equally matched occupations. In
Norway, Ireland and Belgium this tendency is even more pronounced. Match between high
occupational structure and high educational qualifications shows that only in the Czech Republic
there are fewer workers with high level of education than there are occupations requiring high
level skills (Figure 4.5). In Austria and Hungary high level occupations and educational
qualifications are more or less equally matched. Yet in most of the countries there are more
workers with higher level educations than there are respective occupations on the labour market,
this is especially the case in Norway. So mostly it seems that labour force is overqualified.
43
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
Norway Ireland Belgium UK Hungary Austria Slovenia Czech
Rep.
Estonia Bulgaria Lithuania
Ratio of ISCO 6-9 into ISCED0-2
Figure 4.4 Match between low occupational structure and low educational qualifications, 2007
Source: Eurostat Population and Social Conditions database
No data for Russia
0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1
1,2
1,4
Norway Bulgaria Estonia Belgium Lithuania Slovenia UK Ireland Austria Hungary Czech
Rep.
Ratio of ISCO 1-2 into ISCED5-6
Figure 4.5 Match between high occupational structure and high educational qualifications, 2007
Source: Eurostat Population and Social Conditions database
No data for Russia
44
4.1.2. Labour Market
We characterise country specific labour markets by following indicators:
Employment Protection Legislation (EPL) index
Trade union density
Collective bargaining coverage
National legislation setting statutory minimum wages
According to EPL index, which comprises regulations concerning hiring and firing of employees,
we can see that most countries in our study have rather average level of labour market
flexibility/strictness. Labour markets are more regulated in Belgium, Norway, Slovenia and
Lithuania and least regulated in the UK and Ireland, but also in Hungary (Figure 4.6). We expect
more flexible labour markets give incentive to human capital related motives for participation in
formal education.
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
UK
Irela
nd
Hungary
Bulgaria
Czech
Rep
.
Austri
a
Esto
nia
Belgium
Norway
Slove
nia
Russia
Lithua
nia
EPL index
Figure 4.6 Employment Protection Legislation index, 2003 and 2005
Source: OECD StatExtracts dataset, Strictness of EPL
For CEE countries Mirco Tonin paper "Updated Employment Protection Legislation Indicators
for Central and Eastern European Countries" (2005), p. 18
Regarding trade union density and collective bargaining coverage we see that they play much
smaller role in the labour markets of CEE countries (Figure 4.7 and 4.8). Slovenia and Russia are
exceptional, Slovenia especially in case of collective bargaining coverage (no data on collective
bargaining coverage for Russia). We assume that trade unions and collective bargaining
agreements have positive affect on participation in adult education, as trade unions often regard
training and upgrading of skills as being one of employees’ rights.
45
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Esto
nia
Lithua
nia
Hungary
Bulgaria
Czech
Rep
.UK
Austri
a
Irela
nd
Slove
nia
Russia
Norway
Belgium
Trade union density
Figure 4.7 Trade union density, 2003 ... 2006
Source: Worker-participation.eu, a service of the European Trade Union Institute (ETUI)
Data for Russia Federation of European Employers
Data on Norway from Nergaard & Stokke, 2006 (reference year 2004)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Lithuania Bulgaria Estonia Hungary UK Czech
Rep.
Ireland Norway Belgium Austria Slovenia
Collective bargaining coverage
Figure 4.8 Collective bargaining coverage, 2003 ... 2005
Source: Worker-participation.eu, a service of the European Trade Union Institute (ETUI)
46
4.1.3. Welfare System
Under the welfare system we measure the effect of active and passive labour market policies:
Public expenditure on training of unemployed, % of GDP
Public expenditure on active labour market policies, % of GDP
Public expenditure on out-of-work income, % of GDP
Here we see major difference between CEE and western European countries, as the latter invest
significantly more in active and passive labour market policies (out-of-work income
maintenance) as a percentage of GDP (see Figures below). However, there are also some
exceptions – the UK (representative of liberal welfare system) invests in labour market policies
as less as CEE countries, especially in case of active labour market policies, including training of
unemployed. From other western European countries we observe that Belgium invests the most
in active and passive labour market policies, although the percentage of GDP to training of
unemployed is lower than that in Norway and Austria. So Belgium, Norway and Austria, but also
Ireland are countries investing most in welfare system when it comes to labour market policies.
0
0,05
0,1
0,15
0,2
0,25
0,3
0,35
0,4
0,45
Czech
Rep.
UK Bulgaria Estonia Hungary Slovenia Lithuania Belgium Ireland Norway Austria
Public expenditure on training of unemployed (% of GDP)
Figure 4.9 Public expenditure on training of unemployed, % of GDP, 2006
Source: Eurostat Population and Social Conditions database
No data for Russia
47
0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,7
0,8
0,9
1
Estonia UK Czech
Rep.
Lithuania Slovenia Hungary Bulgaria Ireland Norway Austria Belgium
Public expenditure on active LM policies (% of GDP)
Figure 4.10 Public expenditure on active labour market policies, % of GDP, 2006
Source: Eurostat Population and Social Conditions database
No data for Russia
From CEE countries Estonia is the one contributing the least in active labour market policies and
out-of-work income maintenance and support. Yet by expenditures to training of unemployed
Estonia invests about as much as most of CEE countries, and somewhat more than the UK and
the Czech Republic. Hungary and Slovenia differ from other CEE countries in their bigger
expenditure in out-of-work income maintenance and support, which is to some degree
comparable to the expenditure of Norway, but significantly lower than in Ireland, Austria and
Belgium.
48
0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1
1,2
1,4
1,6
Estonia Lithuania Bulgaria UK Czech
Rep.
Hungary Slovenia Norway Ireland Austria Belgium
Public expenditure on out-of-work income (% of GDP)
Figure 4.11 Public expenditure on out-of-work income maintenance and support, % of GDP, 2006
Source: Eurostat Population and Social Conditions database
No data for Russia
4.1.4. Educational System
Regarding country-specific educational system we are interested in following institutional
characteristics:
Percentage of upper secondary students enrolled in vocational education
Typical age at selection to educational tracks
Level of stratification of the educational system
Form of organisation of vocational training (school based or dual)
Countries display great diversity when it comes to the percentage of upper secondary students
enrolled in vocational education (Figure 4.12). In Austria and the Czech Republic there are about
80% of all upper secondary students studying in vocational education. In following countries
participation rate in vocational education is gradually declining from 70% to about 40%:
Belgium, Slovenia, Norway, Bulgaria and the UK. In Ireland, Estonia and Russia around one
third of upper secondary students are enrolled in vocational education, while in Hungary and
Lithuania respective rate is about 25%.
49
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Hungary Lithuania Estonia Ireland UK Bulgaria Norway Slovenia Belgium Austria Czech
Rep.
% of upper secondary students enrolled in vocational education
Figure 4.12 Percentage of upper secondary students enrolled in vocational education, 2006
Source: Eurostat Population and Social Conditions database
OECD database for Russia
The Czech Republic, Austria, Belgium and Slovenia are in addition to having majority of upper
secondary students enrolled in vocational education also countries which could be characterised
as the ones with high stratification of the educational system – tracks of general and vocational
education are rigid (Table 4.1). Russia is another country with high level of stratification, but
here it is combined with low rate of students enrolled in vocational education. Educational
systems of all other CEE countries have medium level of stratification. Ireland and the UK have
least stratified educational systems in conjunction with about 30-40% of upper secondary
students studying in vocational stream. While in Norway low stratification, characterised by
smooth boundaries between different educational levels and tracks, is combined with relatively
high level of upper secondary students enrolled in vocational education (60%).
Table 4.1 Level of stratification of the educational system
Low Medium High
Ireland
the UK
Norway
Bulgaria
Estonia
Hungary
Lithuania
Austria
Belgium
the Czech Republic
Russia
Slovenia
Source: Müller and Gangl 2003; Shavit and Müller 2000
50
In addition to stratification of educational system it is of significant importance at what age are
students selected into general and vocational educational track. It has been found that there is less
social mobility in the society the earlier pupils are selected to educational tracks. In other words
the effect of ones social background on future advancement decreases if decision to continue
educational path either in vocational or general track is postponed. Figure 4.13 shows that in
highly stratified educational systems of Austria and the Czech Republic, but also in medium
stratified Hungary pupils or rather their parents and teachers decide on educational tracks already
at the age of 10 or 11. In Belgium decision is made at the age of 12, in Bulgaria and Lithuania at
14, in Ireland and Slovenia at 15. While in Estonia, Norway and the UK decision regarding
general and vocational educational tracks is postponed until the age of 16.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
Austria Czech
Rep.
Hungary Belgium BulgariaLithuania Ireland Slovenia Estonia Norway Russia UK
Typical age at selection to eucational tracks
Figure 4.13 Typical age at selection to educational tracks
Source: OECD, Education at Glance 2006
Eurydice database for Bulgaria, Lithuania and Slovenia
Further to the distinction between vocational and general tracks we can distinguish whether
vocational education is organised as a dual or school based system. Dual organisation of
vocational education is typical to the German educational system where learning is conducted
partly at school, but to a considerable amount as an apprenticeship at firm sites as well. From the
countries studied by the LLL2010 project, only Austria can be characterised as a dual system, all
other countries tend to organise vocational education at educational institutions (often with some
brief apprenticeship period(s)).
51
4.2. OVERVIEW OF FORMAL ADULT EDUCATION IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES
Following overview of the formal adult education systems in countries under study is mostly
retrieved from Subproject 3 ‘Adult Learners in Formal Adult Education: Experiences and
Perceptions’ national reports.
Austria
Interaction with the initial education system
Preparatory programmes for school leaving-certificate (Hauptschulabschluss, lower secondary
school leave certificate) are offered through out Austria by different adult education providers.
These cooperate with the initial school system regarding examination and certification.
Most programmes for adults at ISCED level 3 and 4 are part of the school system. They are
organized as evening schools for adults and are part of the regular school system, meaning that
they take place at schools. These programmes exist for the general uppers secondary education as
well as for school types (colleges) of vocational education. The most important formal
certificates at ISCED level 3 which are not organized within the school system are
‘Berufsreifeprüfung’ (an adult education programme providing general access to higher
education for skilled workers and graduates of three- to four-year full-time VET schools) and
apprenticeship leave examination for adults (external examination without formalized course
system) for different professions as an adult education form of vocational education where
professional experience can be recognised. Both are organised outside the initial education
system as kind of parallel structure which was historically developed later than the initial
education system and is still seen as ‘second chance education’. Especially ‘Berufsreifeprüfung’
is seen as intermediate step leading to tertiary education, while apprenticeship leave examination
provides with the status of a skilled worker within certain professional fields (apprenticeship is
part of the dual vocational system in Austria).
Adult education at Universities often still seems to be considerable underdeveloped, traditionally
the rate of employed students within initial education has been high in Austria. Therefore it is
often hard to distinguish between initial and adult education. Universities of applied sciences are
probably more inclining towards ideas of lifelong learning and adult education, as here we find
more extra-occupational programmes than at universities. About one third of all students at
Universities of applied sciences participate in extra-occupational programmes. At these
institutions, the possibility to enter a programme without matriculation examination can be an
option for professionals with considerable work experience within their field of studies. This also
holds true for the only state post-gradual University in Austria, the Danube University Krems.
Financing adult formal education
Generally, a mixed system of financing adult education exists in Austria: state government on
federal, regional and municipality level, public corporations, sponsors, and increasingly also fees
from participants (OECD 2003)2.
2 OECD (2003) Adult Learning in Austria. Country Background Report of the OECD Thematic
Review on Adult Learning. Available at:
52
Preparatory programmes for school leaving-certificate are state funded, but for adults they are not
for free, although within several projects free places sponsored by the responsible Ministry are
available. Making this form of education available for free for all participants has not yet been
implemented, although it is discussed.
Generally secondary schools are free of cost.
The Berufsreifeprüfung is not for free, participants in preparation programmes can apply for state
supply at the regional level, but no general study grants exist.
Fees for Universities and Universities of Applied Sciences have not existed in Austria since the
1970s. Between 2001-2008, study-fees for Universities were in place and have been abolished
again with 2009. Universities of applied sciences can charge tuition fees of 363 € per Semester,
but in some regions (Laender) these institutions do not charge fees if the region who co-finances
these tertiary institution chooses not to do so.
Main ‘clients’ of the specific adult tracks
Only 3% of the Austrian population aged between 25 and 64 participates in formal adult
education (data from 2005). If looking only at participants aged 25 and older, the age-group
between 25 and 29 shows the highest participation rates in formal adult education, followed by
30 to 34 year olds. All other age-groups show very limited participation in adult education.
For the Austrian population the biggest target groups could be seen as those with formal
education background at ISCED level 2 (approx. 968.000 persons) and ISCED level 3 (almost
2.5 million). These numbers in no way correspond to participation rates within formal adult
education at ISCED level 3 (approx. 20.000 participants) and ISCED level 4 (approx. 10.000
participants) (Markowitsch et al. 2008)3.
Within lower secondary education and basic education participants in adult education are often
unemployed
BRP is directed towards occupied people without matriculation examination, mainly those who
passed an apprenticeship or graduates from intermediate vocational schools.
Entry requirements
Entry requirements for formal adult education are regulated by law, for adults basically the same
entry requirements exist like for young students in initial education.
No formal entry requirements exist for preparatory programmes for school leaving-certificate.
Age limits exist for some evening schools (e.g. to be aged 17 for AHS academic secondary
school). For upper secondary schools (AHS, HAK, HTL) graduation for 8th form (equalling lower
secondary level) are required. For upper secondary schools graduates from lower streams of
Hauptschule mostly need to pass entrance examination in certain subjects (see interaction with
the initial education system).
http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/51/19/25603759.pdf [Accessed 9th May 2006]
3 Markowitsch, J./ Benda-Kahri, S./ Prokopp, M./ Rammel, S./ Hefler, G. (2008): Neuausrichtung der
berufsbildenden Schulen für Berufstätige. Eine Studie im Auftrag des BMUKK. Donau Universität Krems.
53
For tertiary education in general Matura/Reifeprüfung (matriculation examination) is considered
as entry requirement for all institutions at tertiary level. An alternative form is the
Berufsreifeprüfung (BRP) which is an adult education programme providing general access to
higher education for skilled workers and graduates of three- to four-year full-time VET schools.
Graduates can pass the final examination for BRP not before they are 18 years of age.
Opportunities to shift between tracks
Formal Adult education in Austria is still strongly seen as ‘second chance education’. The
responsible Ministry in an information brochure puts it like this: ‘One of the main purposes of
adult education is to allow students to gain qualifications not obtained earlier by taking adult
classes in the form of “second-chance education’.4
For adult education limited information is available as far as data on shifting between tracks is
concerned. But Berufsreifeprüfung (BRP) was an important step to close gaps with the initial
education system, though this closing only happens afterwards. Adults with apprenticeship
background at upper secondary level or from vocational schools without matriculation exam can
find access to tertiary education. Still, in 2008 this model has fed back into the initial education
system, as the ‘Berufsmatura’ has been established where young apprentices in initial education
can combine their dual vocational training with the BRP programme leading them to
matriculation exam. This is an innovation within the Austrian (initial) education system, as
traditionally apprenticeship does not include matriculation examination.
Generally we can distinguish between tracks that enable participants to pursue their education
further within the formal system (like Hauptschulabschlusskurs, Berufsreifeprüfung, academic
upper secondary school AHS) and which are often seen as intermediary steps. These are all
general education programmes. On the other hand there are tracks which provide vocational
training within the formal system, within our SP3 sample of programmes these are both type of
upper secondary colleges (HAK colleges for business administration, HTL colleges for
engineering). Although graduates are entitled to proceed with tertiary education, these school
types still are regarded as providing graduates with vocational qualifications to be of immediate
value within the labour market.
At tertiary level the Bologna process has led to reorganisation within Universities in Austria. This
has also led to stronger permeability between Universities and Universities of Applied Sciences,
meaning that graduates from the latter can continue doctorate degrees at some university
programmes, although here developments are still ongoing and some problems still need to be
solved.
Credentials from specific tracks
In general all credentials from formal adult education are legally equal to initial education
degrees. Especially when schools for adults are concerned, curricula, teacher staff and quality
assurance mechanisms are the same for initial and adult education. The same applies to study
programmes at tertiary level. Adult education programmes like preparation courses for
Hauptschulabschlusskurs and Berufsreifeprüfung are part of formal education but are not
provided by formal institutions like schools or universities, but by adult education institutions.
Examination then is organised in cooperation with schools. As in Austrian society formal initial
education still is a much stronger concept than lifelong learning, one could state a lack in trust
4 http://www.bmukk.gv.at/medienpool/9043/bw_engl.pdf
54
within formal education institutions towards adult education providers. Still, Berufsreifeprüfung
can be seen as a successful adult education programme, as it recently has been also influencing
initial education programmes for young apprentices and therefore has become a model for initial
formal education.
Belgium (Flanders)
Interaction with the initial education system
Formal adult education constitutes of learning activities at different levels. All forms of formal
adult education are specifically organized for adults.
In the case of primary and secondary education, adults can enrol in Centres for Basic Education
or Centres for Adult Education. They do not have another opportunity within the formal
education system. The Centres for Basic Education are fully dedicated to adults and can be
compared with the level of primary education and the first grade of secondary education.
Secondary Education for Social Promotion is also organised specifically for adults and is
comparable with the second and third grade of secondary education.
Likewise Higher Education for Social Promotion is geared towards adults. The level of this kind
of adult education can be situated between secondary education and the bachelor degree. In
Flanders, these courses lead to the grade of ‘graduate’.
Art academies have separate courses for adults. The starting age of adult courses depends on the
course itself. Music courses, verbal art courses and dance courses have a starting age of 15 years,
plastic arts a starting age of 18 years. The goals and the content of the courses do not differ from
those for children but are adapted to the level of adults.
Colleges and universities sometimes offer separate courses for adults although they are also able
to enrol in the normal daytime courses. Most colleges and universities with a supply of adult
courses have adapted enrolment conditions like being an employee or being registered as a job-
seeker. In Flanders, there is a special Open University which grants university degrees by online
courses.
Financing adult formal education
All forms of formal adult education are organized and financed by the Flemish ministry of
education.
Main ‘clients’ of the specific adult tracks
The main clients of the Centres for Basic Education are low literate adults, migrants, prisoners,
socially disadvantaged groups, low skilled employees, unqualified school leavers etc. More than
half of all the course hours is dedicated to Dutch as a foreign language.
Secondary Education for Social Promotion gives people a second chance of obtaining a degree of
secondary education, but is also accessible for citizens who already have their degree but who
want to learn something new or to update their knowledge with regard to their work or their
leisure time.
55
Two third of all adult students in higher education are younger than 35. Half of the students
follow courses at a college, one third at a university and the remaining group follows online
courses at the Open University.
Entry requirements
Candidate students can enrol for a course in Basic Education when they reach the age of 18 at
least on the last day of the calendar year in which they enrol. This is also the age on which
compulsory education ends. In some cases, students can already enrol at the age of 16 after
ending full-time compulsory education or at the age of 15 when the student finished the first
grade of full-time secondary education.
Students enrolling in Secondary Education for Social Promotion must have completed primary
education. The only exception is an enrolment in the study field of general training. In this case,
students must have completed full-time compulsory education.
Student enrolling in Higher Education for Social Promotion must have at least one of the
following certificates in combination with completion of part-time compulsory education:
certificate of the second year of the third grade of secondary education
diploma of secondary education
certificate of secondary education for social promotion for at least 900 course hours
diploma of higher education for social promotion
diploma of higher education
bachelor degree
master degree
another foreign diploma or degree ratified by European or international agencies.
A diploma of secondary education is obliged for students who want to enrol at a college or
university.
Opportunities to shift between tracks
In the case of primary and secondary education, adults can enrol in Centres for Basic Education
or Centres for Adult Education. They do not have another opportunity within the formal
education system. Higher Education for Social Promotion stands on its own. There is no similar
offer of education at this level. There is also just one form of formal art education for adults.
Students who enrol in specific adult courses at a college or university are able to move between
specific and mainstream tracks as the goals of the courses are the same.
Credentials from specific tracks
Formal adult education can be seen as a continuous ladder. The level in which students can start,
depends from the level already obtained. Basic Education is the lowest step on this ladder. After
completing a course in Basic Education, students receive a certificate. The next step on the ladder
is Secondary Education for Social Promotion. A certificate from Basic Education is not required
as all students who meet the entry requirements can start at this level. Having a diploma, degree
or certificate is no entry requirement.
Secondary Education for Social Promotion gives people the chance to obtain a diploma of
secondary education. With this diploma, people can enrol in higher education. Secondary
56
Education for Social Promotion offers modular courses in a lot of study disciplines which do not
lead to a full diploma of secondary education. Finishing a course leads to a certificate of that
particular course.
Bulgaria
Interaction with the initial education system
Primary and secondary education
• Evening schools
In the sphere of primary and secondary education the forms of schooling stipulated in the current
Law of National Education are: daily, evening, extramural, individually tailored, independent,
distant, and correspondent. Evening and mixed schools are opened for students above 16 years
old.
• Schools at prisons
Part of the formal educational system are the schools at prisons where students above 16 years
are educated in all grades of basic and secondary schools. The number of prisoners entering these
schools is relatively constant: about 35% of all prisoners. Since a relatively high number of
prisoners are illiterate or are with a low educational level, about 50% of the learners enter
elementary school (first to fourth grade).
Vocational education
The Law of Vocational Education and Training from 1999 defines the different educational
institutions which can provide adult vocational education – vocational schools, vocational high
schools, vocational colleges, centers for vocational training, centers for qualification of trainees.
• Vocational high schools
Adult education is carried out throughout the country where there are vocational high schools. In
2008 professional qualification courses for adults have been conducted in 187 vocational high
schools (out of a total of 405).
• Vocational training centers
Vocational training centers are part of the formal education system – 678 centers were licensed
by the end of 2008. Vocational training centers teach pupils over 16 years of age
Higher education
• Colleges
Colleges offer a Baccalaureate degree education. In 2008 there were 41 colleges in Bulgaria. 10%
of all students attended colleges in 2008.
• Higher education institutions
Students in higher education institutions can chose among full-time, part-time, evening and
independent forms of education. Higher education institutions offer distance education, as well.
In 2008 30% of students participated in part-time and evening training and 4% in distance
education.
57
Financing adult formal education Both the evening schools and the schools at the prisons are state owned and financed. The state
and the municipal vocational schools, the centres for vocational training and the centres for
qualification of trainees are financed by the state budget, the municipalities, donations from
different sources, by international programmes and other revenues.
The state universities and higher education institutions are financed mainly by the state as well as
by the student taxes and different projects. The students in the state higher education institutions
pay taxes which are determined by the Council of Ministers, and whose amount is up to 30% of
the normatively fixed expenditure for the particular professional field. The lowest taxes are in the
fields of social sciences (between 140 and 200 Euro per academic year) and natural sciences
(between 150 and 250 Euro per academic year). In engineering the students pay about 250 Euro
per academic year. The highest taxes are paid by students in medicine and art – between 400 and
500 Euro per academic year.
The budget of the private higher education institutions is formed by the students’ taxes as well as
by donations and different projects. The students pay taxes which are determined by the
corresponding higher education institutions. The average fee is about 1000 Euro per academic
year.
Main ‘clients’ of the specific adult tracks
Adults are mainly involved in tertiary and post secondary non-tertiary education. The percentage
of students over 25 years in different levels of education is as follows: in primary education –
0.04%; in lower secondary education – 0.06%; in upper secondary education – 0.64%; in tertiary
– 28.04% (15.66% are between 25 and 29 years old and 12.38% are over 30) and in post
secondary non-tertiary – 29.08% (all of them are between 25 and 29 years old).
Evening schools are attended mainly by early school leavers. According to data of the National
Statistical Institute, in recent years the number of school leavers is about 3% of all students
enrolled in basic and secondary education.
Schools at prisons are attended by prisoners who are low literate or illiterate. Most of them have
interrupted their education for long periods and have no vocational qualification.
The vocational schools and the centres for vocational training are opened predominantly to
people more than 16 years old who have acquired relatively low levels of education and do not
have professional qualification. The vocational courses are organized mainly for the unemployed.
In recent years the universities in Bulgaria have increased the number of accepted new students.
This fact, together with the lowering birth rate, have created two tendencies: 1) increase of the
percentage of students graduating secondary schools who enter the university immediately after
graduation; 2) increase of the number of adult students. This second tendency is related to the
higher dynamics and requirements of the labour market. As a result more and more adults tend to
increase their qualification or to acquire new qualification by entering Master’s programme in a
specialty different from the one of their bachelor’s.
58
Entry requirements
In case of formal education, the requirements for beginning studies are the same for all. This
means that certifying the education previously obtained/the existence of a certificate of the
necessary level of education is required.
Opportunities to shift between tracks
Within the framework of secondary and higher education the opportunities to shift between tracks
are very limited. Adults over 16 years of age can enrol in vocational and evening schools if they
have certificate for the current academic year. On the basis of this certificate the student
continues his/her education in the system of secondary or vocational education. In vocational
schools students acquire profession or part of a profession. Although vocational centres are part
of the system of formal education the certificates they issue are recognized only within their
system.
Vocational schools after secondary education enroll only students with diploma for secondary
education. Most of the students are correspondent students or the courses are carried out as
distant education. Students can acquire more than one specialty but only within the same
institution.
Adult students in higher schools can study two specialties at the same time, but only within the
same university. They can also enrol in two different MA programmes, but only within the same
university. We can say that the opportunities for studying different specialties are greatest in the
MA programmes.
Credentials from specific tracks
In case of formal education, an equal certificate or diploma is issued to all students regardless of
the form of study.
The Czech Republic
Interaction with the initial education system
Formal adult education is permitted in the secondary and tertiary spheres by the Schools Act and
the Higher Education Institutions Act. There is no discrimination in the formal education system,
and every adult may apply to any educational institution and, if the meet the entry requirements,
may study at these institutions. Though this possibility exists, its practical application is sporadic
for many reasons (work, family, psychological, social, financial etc.).
Basic education for adults is not covered by the law, in light of the fact that the number of people
who fail to complete their basic education is statistically insignificant, as well as the fact that
these are citizens whose motivation to become educated is zero. A problem can arise in this
sphere in connection with the increased immigration of citizens without education. Under the
Schools Act secondary and higher vocational education can be completed in the form of evening,
long-distance, part-time, and combined forms of learning. The state does not play a part in the
organisation of this process, and it is fully within the competence of the institution what training
programme it will offer, if indeed at all.
The adult population can supplement its formal education on a tertiary level by studying at
technical colleges and universities. From the very start technical colleges offered the possibility
of long-distance courses.
59
At present the possibility of recognising the results of informal education and knowledge
acquired through practice is not respected during entry proceedings, the modularisation of studies
is not common, and the pedagogic process is not adapted to the possibilities of adult people. For
reasons of capacity the individualisation of education is rarely practiced. The most frequent form
of adult education in formal education programmes involves combined studies, which are
organised mainly by universities on various levels.
The Schools Act will recognize up to 60% of credits acquired on a further education programme
which are required for the proper completion of formal studies in the case of successful graduates
of this education, as long as they transfer to a formal education programme.
Financing adult formal education
Adult people aged over 26 years are financially disadvantaged against younger students and do
not have a right to financial support. Although education at public universities is free of charge,
the system of financial support, stipends and student loans do not apply to adults involved in
long-distance, part-time and similar forms of study. Attendance at private universities is always
paying. The fees are equivalent to one monthly average wage for one semester, though at some
institutions this figure can be up to three times as much.
The costs of studies differ according to educational level. Higher secondary level education is
more often free of charge; clear majority of students pay for education on tertiary level. On
higher secondary level the average amount of fees is 11.750 CZK, on tertiary level it is already
20.675 CZK. Also the indirect costs differ according to educational level, its average amount
comes to 7.313 CZK. Utilization of various financial supports or grants is not very widespread, it
concerns only quite a limited group of students.
The conditions for further formal education are stipulated by the Labour Code, which
distinguishes between two reasons for studying while employed. If the student is supposed to
acquire the credentials necessary for the proper performance of their work, then their studies are
deemed as an impediment at work by the employee: if the studies serve to increase their
qualifications it is regarded as the performance of work for which the employee has a right to
remuneration. There is basically no legal right to neither work concessions or to material security
during further formal education. These conditions are usually set forth in collective agreements,
otherwise it depends on the individual decision of the employer.
Main ‘clients’ of the specific adult tracks
In terms of age, at both ISCED 3 and ISCED 5 levels which are the only levels in the CR to
participate in the formal adult education, almost half of the clients represent young dropouts, less
than 10 years after breaking their initial studies. Educational structure of the clients reflects
required equal ratio of participants in adult education on level ISCED 3 and ISCED 5. Half of
them (50 %) are skilled; adult education is an important way of raising their education, as they
are most at risk on the labour market. Second half is composed of slightly more secondary
education graduates with leaving exam (30%) and university graduates (20%).
Entry requirements
Entry procedures for adults have not been adapted, with entry requirements the same as for a
“normal” programme. Until now, the skills acquired through informal education or practices are
not recognised in admission procedures.
60
Opportunities to shift between tracks
Shifting is from one track to another is generally possible at both secondary and tertiary levels.
However, it is not possible for distant or combined study participant at secondary level to shift to
regular type of study. The rules for shifting vary – on both levels – on the educational institution
itself which has wide range of opportunities to set up the rules.
Most of the school are flexible in reflecting the needs of students, not excluding this aspect.
Credentials from specific tracks
Credentials obtained from the irregular track of formal education are based on standards of
educational outcomes, which are equivalent to standards obtained from regular education.
Estonia
Interaction with the initial education system
Under formal adult education basic, upper secondary or higher education obtained outside
daytime or fulltime form of study is meant.
Formal education provides the opportunity to:
acquire basic education and general upper secondary education in the form of evening
courses, distance learning or as an external student;
undergo vocational training in the form of part-time study. Based on the law amendment
made in 2006, vocational education institutions may offer several flexible opportunities to
participate in vocational training: vocational orientation courses in the framework of
preliminary vocational training to basic school and upper secondary school students;
vocational training in basic school and upper secondary school, giving basic vocational
skills; vocational secondary education; vocational training on the basis of basic education;
vocational training on the basis of secondary education; vocational training without the
requirement for basic education;
acquire higher education in part-time study or as an external student. Both professional
higher education institutions and universities offer flexible forms of study for acquisition
of higher education.
Financing adult formal education
Obtaining of basic education and general upper secondary education in the form of evening
courses, distance learning and external study is free for students. Within the scope of the state
commissioned education, free education is also provided for obtaining vocational education in the
form of part-time study. Obtaining higher education in the part-time form of study is mostly
payable, with the exception of for instance teachers' training.
Study allowances and study loans are granted only to students who study full time; this means
that they are not available to most of adult learners.
Main ‘clients’ of the specific adult tracks
At basic level students over age 30 constituted only a small percentage (6%). Most of the
students (67%) were 15 to 20 at the end of or shortly after the normal ages for completing upper
secondary education. A significant proportion (23.5%) of the students enrolled part-time were
ages 21 to 25.
61
In the middle of the 1990s 78.6% of those participating in part time higher education were under
30 (see Table 1). Now the age distribution of students has changed: two fifths of part time
students and one third of full time students are older than 30.
Entry requirements in the specific tracks
In case of formal education, the requirements for beginning studies are the same for all. This
means that certifying the education previously obtained / the existence of a certificate of the
necessary level of education is required. At present the results of informal education and
knowledge acquired through practice are not recognised during admission procedures.
Opportunities to shift between tracks Despite of vocational education reform the share of vocational school graduates continuing education in higher
schools has persisted low in recent years. Although there are no legal restrictions for graduates of vocational
secondary schools to apply for higher education vocational schools remained dead ends. General secondary schools
provide for a classical academic track giving their graduates the best preparatory education for further studies at
university. The internal differentiation of general secondary education has increased in the 1990s. Regional
differences between schools also increased, as well as the clear differentiation between common schools and ‘elite’
schools that select their pupils on the basis of their own criteria.
Since the Estonian secondary education system is based on German model, Estonia should be
classified as a country with stratified and differentiated education system. Yet, by the extent of
differentiation, Estonia should be placed behind Germany, because in Germany the distribution
of students into different school types is undertaken much earlier than in Estonia (when students
are 12).
Credentials from specific tracks
In case of formal education, an equal certificate or diploma is issued to all students regardless of
the form of study.
Hungary
Interaction with the initial education system
In the formal school-based adult education the main form is the regular part-time education. The
adult education form is the evening and correspondence courses.
Financing adult formal education
There is always a fee for tertiary level and there is never any fee for primary. I would say that
most of the cases there is not fee for secondary level or vocational courses. But sometimes, if the
topic of the course is more "marketable" (e.g. language, computer) than some vocational courses
may charge the students.
Main ‘clients’ of the specific adult tracks
The composition of participants changed in the last decades. The original function of school-
based adult education was to provide an opportunity for adults with low or incomplete levels of
schooling to obtain qualifications (at a more mature age, and parallel with working). However,
adult education has undergone a significant development in the past fifteen years: from a
‘primary schools for workers’ type the institutions have become the alternative institutions of the
education of young people.
During the recent years there has seen an increase in the mean age of participants in adult
training, and, contrary to trends in the prior years, younger generations are no longer dominant. It
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seems that the number of students in the adult age group of people above 25 years of age is
growing, which is probably attributable to the fact that today younger people are much more
likely to complete their secondary school studies in full-time education than they used to do it in
the past.
Entry requirements in the specific tracks
The admission requirements to adult education are identical with those in regular education.
Opportunities to move between specific and mainstream tracks
With a few exceptions, transition between general schools is free of problems. But according to
regulations, students may only continue their primary studies in the framework of adult education
after getting older than 17 years. If someone started a secondary-level vocational training
program in the regular school system but interrupted it later, studies may be continued in the
framework of adult education in the same vocational track.
Credentials from specific tracks
Formal (school-based) adult education in the single structure 8-grade primary schools, in
secondary education (grammar school, vocational training school giving nationally recognized
qualification) or in tertiary institutions provides the same qualifications and certificates as those
which are available in full time education.
Ireland
Interaction with the initial education system
There is some degree of overlap between adult education provision and the initial education
system within an Irish context. The overlap occurs at two key junctures; primarily at tertiary level
wherein adults, having previously ceased formal education return as ‘mature’ students to higher
education and secondly and to a much lesser extent where adult education programmes leading to
the Junior (ISCED 3 – lower secondary) and Leaving Certificate (ISCED 4-upper secondary)
programmes are delivered within the secondary-level of the formal education system.
A rather distinctive feature of the provision of adult basic and further education in Ireland is the
diverse nature and extent of its provision. For the majority of adult learners of adult basic
education and of further education, their adult education programmes are provided by a broad
range of adult education service providers including but not exclusive to, the Vocational
Education Committees VECs, community-based organisations and through a range of training
agencies such as FAS, CERT and TEAGASC.
Financing adult formal education
While primary, secondary and full-time higher education are funded by the State, there is no
singular approach to the financing of adult formal education in Ireland. Financing of adult formal
education – provided by the range of public sector education providers is the responsibility of the
state through funding lines of the Departments of Education and Science; Enterprise, Trade and
Employment and Community, Rural and Gaeltacht Affairs. Funding for the adult education
sector, specifically, currently stands at just under 2% of the overall annual education budget
(AONTAS, 20105).
5 AONTAS (the National Adult Learning Organisation) Annual Report 2009.
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In terms of adult basic education, no tuition fees apply for students either of the Vocational
Training Opportunities Scheme (VTOS) or of approved Post Leaving Certificate PLC courses. At
third-level, adult ‘mature’ students as first-time undergraduates are entitled to free tuition fees if
they are in full-time undergraduate education. Those returning to part-time higher education
course, however, are required to pay course fees of varying amounts dependent on the third-level
course/institution – an inequity which has received much critical attention (cf. Maunsell, Downes
& McLoughlin, 20086).
Local authorities in Ireland may provide maintenance grants to students, where eligible, who are
entering undergraduate or postgraduate education for the first time. Mature students may be
entitled to maintenance grants on the same basis as other third-level students. The student’s local
VEC (Vocational Educational Committee) provides maintenance grants for Post Leaving
Certificate PLC courses. Maintenance grants are generally based on family income limits, and on
whether or not the student must live away from home to attend college or is living at home.
Adults in receipt of state-benefits, such as job-seekers, disability, one parent family allowances
etc. may have the added costs of their return to education subsidized in part or whole through a
number of ‘Back to Education’ funding initiatives.
Main ‘clients’ of the specific adult tracks
The main ‘clients’ of specific adult education tracks – are, traditionally, those who:
(i) are unemployed either in the short-; long-term,
(ii) have left school early,
(iii) possess low levels of formal educational qualifications,
(iv) are migrants/asylum seekers availing of literacy provision in ESOL,
(v) are in receipt of other state benefits/allowances.
The current economic recession has wrought changes in policy and practice in relation to funding
and provisions for the up-skilling/re-training of those who have been recently become
unemployed. This will, in the short to intermediate term, result in changes to the profile of the
main clients of specific adult education tracks.
The funding of adult education services is finite and in some cases has been reduced
dramatically, particularly, in relation to community education initiatives, thus, already limited
resources at service provision level are being further stretched so those most marginalised, such
as the long-term unemployed, become even less likely to access adult educational opportunities.
Entry requirements
While some entry requirements are dependent on conditions imposed by the State as the primary
funding agency, entry requirements to adult education courses, as a whole, vary broadly
according to each specific educational provider and indeed to the particular educational
programme being undertaken.
One example of this might be, entry requirements to the Vocational Training Opportunities
Scheme, VTOS require that students are aged 21 or over, and in receipt of Jobseekers Benefit or
6 Maunsell, C., Downes, P. & McLoughlin, V. (2008). National Report on Lifelong Learning Policies in Ireland.
LLL2010 Towards a Lifelong Learning Society: The Contribution of the Education System. Funded by the European
Union 6th Framework Programme.
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Assistance, One-Parent Family Payment, Disability Allowance, Disability Benefit or Invalidity
Pension for at least six months to be eligible for participation on the Scheme.
Another example within the higher education system, to be eligible for entry as 'mature' students,
applicants must be 23 years of age by January of the proposed year of entry. While mature
students – apply through the Central Applications Office (CAO) – each institution, and indeed
different programmes within the same institution, may require different entry criteria. Thus
applicants may have to undertake a written test, aptitude test, interview, successfully complete an
access course to the programme/institution as a pre-requisite or a combination of one or more of
these conditions.
Opportunities to shift between tracks
Generally limited in the Irish context, though with the introduction of the National Framework of
Qualifications NFQ in 2003 which sets out a 10 level educational structure that accommodates
qualifications gained in schools, the workplace, the community, training centres, colleges and
universities, from the most basic to the most advanced levels of adult learning – a structure now
exists which can allow for transfer across and progression onto other adult education
programmes.
Credentials from specific tracks
The National Framework of Qualifications NFQ, linked as it is to the European Higher Education
Area – the Bologna Framework, and the European Qualifications, has remit in relation to the
development, recognition and award of qualifications based on standards of knowledge, skill and
competence acquired by learners. It was specifically designed to account for all types of
education and training, no matter the location of provision.
Lithuania
Interaction with the initial education system
Formal adult education can be administered in:
adult secondary schools (full time and evening courses);
young adults schools (full time, evening, concentrated courses);
vocational training centres (in 5 ranks);
labour exchange training centres (formal, non-formal education programmes);
colleges (full time, extramural, evening courses);
universities(full time, extramural, evening courses);
distance learning;
continues learning;
modular programmes at the education centres;
adult learning at the secondary schools (concentrated courses);
adult learning centres;
business and technology schools;
agricultural schools;
possibility to continue studies at courses, seminars, formal education programme studies
in other EU countries.
Financing adult formal education
Financial support for the adult education comes from: a) state budget and municipal budget; b)
other sources. Education is financed in accordance with the State Investment Programme, as well
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as in accordance with the Government and the Ministry of Education and Science approved
programmes. Municipal funding is drawn from the municipal budgets. Formal adult education
institutions: adult schools, learning centres, and adult classes in the secondary schools are
financed in accordance with the learner’s basket formation methods and the relative number of
learners counting method. Obtaining of basic education and general upper secondary education is
free for students. Within the scope of the state commissioned education, free education is also
provided for obtaining vocational education in the form of part-time study. Higher education
study allowances are granted only to full time students with the “learner’s basket”. Higher
education in the part-time form of study is payable.
Main ‘clients’ of the specific adult tracks
They are:
people with unfinished secondary or other education;
people without required profession or qualification;
people seeking to re-qualify;
mothers forced to interrupt their studies;
people kept in detention;
people reintegrating market after imprisonment;
migrants;
national minority representatives;
disabled;
other labour market players (or unemployed).
Persons younger than 35 years make 97.6% of adult students in secondary schools, 90.3 % - in
colleges, 94.5% in vocational schools and 91.4% - at the universities (Lithuanian statistics, 2008
data). Thus, a majority of adult students are younger than 35.
Entry requirements
All institutions providing general and/or professional education admit individuals upon
submission of a certificate of previous education in any adult formal education institution.
Colleges admit all individuals who produce a document about graduating from the secondary
education, where three graduation marks significant for the particular college are taken into
consideration and on their basis the applicants compete.
Higher non-university schools accept adults in accordance with the admission procedure at each
separate school and on the basis of the document certifying formal completion of the secondary
level education.
University Bachelor degree programmes are open to adults in compliance with the general
admission rules determined by the Government and the Ministry of Education and Science and
on the basis of the maturation diploma or a graduation diploma from non-university higher
education school.
The graduate programmes admit adults in compliance with the general admission rules
determined by the Government and the Ministry of Education and Science and on the basis of the
Bachelor Degree certificate or a graduation diploma from non-university higher education school.
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For non-university higher education school graduates complementary courses are organized to
supplement 40-80 credit deficit.
Opportunities to shift between tracks
Formal adult education institution graduation documents certify certain general level of
education. Labour Exchange non-formal vocational training programmes are completed with
certain certificates (the graduates receive documents on a module completion and qualification
certificate). These documents let the adult learner apply for studies in formal education
institutions if the received certificates grant comparable degree of received education to the
intended school’s programme (re. programme content and number of hours of training).
In accordance to the individualized school (secondary, higher, professional and university level)
requirements the following may be applied: knowledge test by examination; compensation
course; supplementary credits to match formal programme requirements; in separate cases
admission may depend on the age of adult students and on the size of the class.
Credentials from specific tracks Formal adult education can be successfully continued stepping on a higher education degree every time. The
first step – basic general education. The document testifying to the presence of this education open doors to
study in colleges, professional schools or higher, university education (Bachelor, Master studies depending on
the requirements of a certain institution).
Norway
Interaction with the initial education system
Adult education is normally located in regular secondary schools, often organized in
collaboration with education and training networks serving adults. Separate adult education
institutions are not common in Norway. All adults can apply for attending regular full-time and
part-time training.
Distance education institutions
With a low population density and endowed with a long-stretched coast, Norway developed adult
education based on distance teaching very early. Among the providers are separate distant
education institutions and study associations covering all ISCED levels.
There is a variety of distance education institutions in Norway. 13 detached distance educations
were reported active in 2006. Of the 24 registered member institutions in the Norwegian
Association for Distance Education (NADE), there are public higher education institutions,
which often have their own centres of further and continuing education. There are also private
institutions specialized in specific vocational areas, detached distance education institutions with
a broad profile offering education at different levels and umbrella organizations embracing
several member organizations and cooperation partners. The detached distance education
institutions are regulated by the law of adult education (§11) and come in different shapes; such
as organizations, foundations or schools for a branch or an economic sector.
Study associations
The Adult Education Law embraces study associations but they are separated from the public
educational system. The 19 publicly recognized study associations are idealistic organizations
that consist of 400 nationwide membership organizations, built upon democratic principles
emanating from the voluntary sector and the civil society.
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Most study associations offer a broad range of formal and non-formal studies and courses, of
shorter and longer duration, at all educational levels both of theoretical and practical nature.
Study associations are supposed to reflect the political and cultural multitude of society, and
traditionally many courses have been tied to Norwegian cultural traditions. The Law of Adult
Education opens up for some collaboration with the formal educational system, and today
increasingly more study associations offer adult education that is related to the public educational
system. In practical terms, this means that public schools living up to the statutory right for pupils
to complete education are buying courses from study associations. Equally, public employment
offices buy courses from study associations as part of labour market training for unemployed
people.
As a general rule, public compulsory education in Norway is free of charge. At upper secondary
level, pupils only pay for text books and study material. University students have to cover their
own textbooks and study material, but they can apply for grants and loans from the Norwegian
State Educational Loan Fund in order to cover these expenses. Moreover, adult students can
receive additional financial support.
Main ‘clients’ of the specific adult tracks
If these tracks are sorted along educational levels, the following picture occurs: Adult students in
basic education are primarily low-skilled immigrants or people dropped out from initial
education. At upper secondary level, both in general and vocational education, there are more
dropouts from initial education and slightly less immigrants compared with basic education.
Adults in university training represent more Norwegian speaking students with Norwegian
parents, but also immigrants completing studies started in foreign countries enrol in universities.
What most adult students have in common is that they tend to have job experiences and that they
now want to climb the educational ladder.
Entry requirements
As study associations and distant education institutions are gradually approaching ordinary
formal education, the entry requirements for formal courses will become more equal to the
national requirements. The issue of mainstream vs. specific requirements can be elucidated by
existing procedures for validation of non-formal and informal learning.
The Norwegian framework for validating non-formal and informal learning in the formal
education system makes a distinction between access to and shortening of education/training. It
aims to facilitate the appreciation of learning in different settings and life situations and at
different levels of the education system. The assessment of “Real Competencies” is less
commonly used in primary and lower secondary education than in upper secondary school.
Validation of non-formal and informal learning is also relevant for higher education. Applicants
aged 23+ might obtain ‘general study competence’ if they have spent five years in education after
lower secondary school or provided they have five years of vocational practice. From the age of
25, applicants can be enrolled in higher education provided that each university considers that
their non-formal and informal competencies allow them to study specific subjects. In the last
case, the students in question do not obtain ‘general study competence’. Around 10 % of the total
number of students is now being enrolled according to the procedure for those aged 25+.
Higher education institutions have very gradually started to develop procedures for exchanging
prior learning with shortened studies.
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Opportunities to shift between tracks
Given that adult learners have statutory rights to complete their education up to and including the
upper secondary level, they have in principle equal opportunities for moving within and between
educational ‘mainstream tracks’ as students in initial education.
Credentials from specific tracks
Credentials from the few specific adult education tracks do not systematically differ from those
obtained in ’mainstream’ tracks’ belonging to the formal education system.
Russia
Interaction with the initial education system
Formal education in Russia is regulated by the Russian Federation Law ‘On Education’ that
defines general demands to education system as well as to different institutions and citizens.
There are no specifications in the law concerning formal adult education. However, there are
specific laws and legislative acts concerning education of adults, especially those belonging to
socially underrepresented groups (former military persons, orphans, disabled people, prisoners,
etc).
Thus, although in practice separate programs are often organized by institutions of formal
education for adult learners at ISCED levels 1-4 (evening schools, prison schools, educational
centres) they are officially regulated by the general legislation that does not distinguish between
initial and adult education. On the level of tertiary educational programs there often exists no
practical distinction which leads to the situation when young and adult participants are jointly
enrolled into the same courses.
Adult education also develops in the form of the additional education system which includes both
formal and non-formal programs. In addition to granting the opportunities for acquiring
secondary education it offers alternative forms of post-compulsory vocational training without
getting compulsory secondary education with the purpose to cover the shortage of skilled
workers. A set of various forms and levels of additional (general and vocational) training creates
the system that fills the gaps of compulsory primary and secondary education. Higher general and
vocational training is the basic form of post-compulsory education. The system of continuing
education (lifelong learning) starting from preschool education and up to additional education is
built as an independent system of continuous general and vocational training on the basis of
primary education. Generally, contemporary Russian system of adult formal education proves to
be rather chaotic and thus inefficient.
Financing adult formal education
According to the national Act ‘On Education’ (article 41. Financing of educational institutions)
compulsory primary and secondary education is entirely financed by the state and is free for
learners. However, the financing system of education is now in the process of transformation,
which main idea is to introduce per capita budgets (based on the number of students) for
education institutions of all ISCED levels. Besides, a new projected law proposing a number of
school subjects to be paid is currently being under consideration.
Higher education is usually funded by the state budget as well as by tuition payments. Most
universities have both paid and unpaid programs for students. There are special quotes for budget
and paid places in every university. Students, who have managed to pass all exams with high
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results enrol into free programs, and those, whose results are not that good, can enrol into a
university on paid basis. At the same time, the sector of commercial formal adult educational
offers is rapidly developing.
As far as vocational schools are concerned, there are both free and paid programs available. The
tuition fees are paid either by learners or their employers.
For unemployed citizens registered as such at employment centres both formal and non-formal
educational professional training are available for free.
Employed citizens willing to improve their professional skills be enrolling into formal or non-
formal educational programs bear the costs either themselves or have them paid by their
employers. Sometimes the costs are shared by both parties.
At vocational training and tertiary education adult learners are entitled to monthly stipends in line
with existing stipend schemes without any limitations.
Main ‘clients’ of the specific adult tracks
As far as adult learners in the system of secondary education are concerned, they are mostly
represented by early school leavers returning to school in order to obtain full secondary education
and take the Unified National Examination (UNE). Besides, secondary education in prisons is
compulsory for all prisoners under 30 years of age without complete secondary school diploma.
Adult learners of professional vocational education institutions are mostly those enrolled in short-
term paid professional courses paid either by themselves or their employers
However, the percentage of adult learners in the system of secondary and professional vocational
education is rather low, the majority of adult learners are enrolled in higher education institutions.
Most employers require their employees to have a higher degree, even at the positions where
such high qualification if often unnecessary. Therefore, adult learners are rather motivated to
obtain higher education. The amount of those acquiring 2nd higher degree also increases in
Russia during last years even though it is paid.
Entry requirements
The entry requirements for the enrolment in formal education are defined by respective laws and
by individual education programmes. They are the same for young and adult students, some
privileges are made for orphans and disabled applicants in the system of vocational and higher
education. The basic requirement is adequate educational certificate or diploma validated by the
state as well as passed exams. In order to be admitted to a higher education institution applicants
have to successfully pass the Unified National Examination (UNE) and sometimes some other
additional exams.
Educational legislation doesn’t provide a possibility for validation and recognition of non-formal
education and learning as well as prior work experience.
Opportunities to shift between formal and non-formal education
The system of non-formal education in Russia started to grow large and get more oriented at the
labour market after the collapse of the Soviet Union, when there appeared a wide range of
commercial education courses aimed both at career and personal interests development. The main
obstacle for non-formal educational programs development is that they are not integrated into the
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formal educational ladder and the recognition of prior non-formal learning by formal educational
institutions is not possible. Formal educational system in contemporary Russia benefits from its
privileged position and moves towards further commercialization and social exclusion of
marginalized groups (e.g. through the cancellation of correspondence courses and the extinction
of evening schools) thus preventing educational market from multidimensional development.
Even though the matters of non-formal education, adult and lifelong learning are being widely
discussed by the officials, who see such programs as a good support and addition for the system
of formal education, the systems of formal and non-formal education remain disconnected. So
far, there are no visible efforts on the part of the government aimed at making bridges between
the two in order to make the system of education in Russia modernized and more accessible for
different categories of population. However, it is clear that non-formal education should become
a fully legitimate participant of the educational system because current formal education is unable
to provide learners with quality knowledge and skills required by the modern labour market.
Slovenia
Interaction with the initial education system
Formal educational system in Slovenia is designed so that adult formal education forms a
complementary system to the education of children and youth. This means that all levels of
education are accessible to adults, from primary education onwards. Therefore formal educational
system deals with adults at its every level. No specific track within formal education is geared to
adults.
The renewed Vocational education and training act from 2006 and the Higher education act do
not acknowledge adult education; instead they distinguish between regular and irregular
education. Regular education covers full time youth education and irregular education designates
part-time education which is intended for adults. According to the Vocational and professional
education act employed and unemployed persons as well as those of 16 years of age and older
who have lost their status of a regular pupil may enrol into irregular vocational and technical
education.
In contrast, the Gimnazija act speaks of education of adults. This act states that employed,
unemployed and those older than 18 years of age may enrol in education for adults. According to
the above secondary education legislation, adults/irregular students may enrol either in
educational programmes specially prepared for adults or in educational programmes for youth
adjusted to the needs and peculiarities of adults.
Financing adult formal education
Financing of regular education at the primary and secondary level is the responsibility of the
state. This holds also for regular tertiary education when it is provided in the public sector.
There is no unified approach to the financing of irregular (adult) education. Primary education is
entirely state financed. At the secondary and tertiary level participants have to pay the tuition fee.
Whether participants alone are bearers of financial costs of their education or not depends on
their employment status. Adults who are unemployed and registered with the National
employment office may have their formal education subsidised on the basis of the Active
employment policy programme. The employed not eligible for the support of their formal
education from the active employment policy programme bear the costs either themselves or have
them paid by their employers; sometimes the costs are shared by both parties.
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Adults are entitled to scholarship in line with existing scholarship schemes only if they are
younger than 28 years of age and holders of the status of a student.
The main ‘clients’ of irregular education
Here one has to distinguish between secondary and tertiary education. At the level of secondary
education one can most often find young dropouts who return to schooling to obtain their first
formal qualification and those finishing vocational training who would like to pass maturity
examination in order to enrol in tertiary studies or upgrade their attained certificates because of
promotion at the work place.
Looking at the tertiary level where irregular students represent about 24 % of all enrolled in
tertiary studies, the picture is somewhat different. Since tertiary education in Slovenia is very
exclusionary every study year the number of the candidates for enrolment largely exceeds the
number of available study places for regular students. Therefore a large number of young people,
who do not fulfil the criteria for regular enrolment, enrol in tertiary studies as irregular students
immediately after finished secondary education.
Entry requirements
The entry requirements for the enrolment in formal education are defined by respective laws and
by individual education programmes. They are the same for regular and irregular students. The
basic requirement is adequate educational certificate or diploma. A universal entrant ticket for
tertiary education is successfully passed general maturity examination.
Educational legislation has opened the possibility for validation and recognition of non-formal
education and learning as well as work experiences but the whole process is still at its very
beginning. In addition, it is not foreseen that work experiences or non-formal education and
learning my count towards entry requirements; it is recognised only upon the enrolment in
particular education /study programme.
Opportunities to shift between tracks
Irregular students at the secondary vocational and technical education do not have the possibility
to shift to the regular track if they are employed, unemployed or are 16 years old and older, and
have lost their status of a regular pupil. As for general secondary education the age limit is 18
years. In addition, differences in organisation of delivery of the educational programmes may
represent a serious barrier to such shift.
No legal barriers for shifting from irregular to regular studies exist at the tertiary level. Higher
education institutions themselves define their own internal criteria. They are usually represented
by attained average grades in a particular study year. How strictly they apply them is again
dependent on the number of available study places for regular students. Moreover, it has to be
considered that irregular study represents an important financial source for an educational
institution. With transferring irregular students to the mainstream track the inflow of additional
financial means decreases.
On the other hand, tertiary education students may switch from regular to irregular track any time
without any limitations.
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Equivalency of credentials obtained from the irregular track
Credentials obtained from irregular track of formal education are based on standards of
educational outcomes, which are equivalent to standards obtained from regular education. Hence,
they give the same opportunities for the development of educational and occupational careers.
England
Interaction with the initial education system
The principal institutions offering formal learning opportunities to adults in England are the
further education (FE) colleges. These are located in most major towns (larger city often have
several); there are over 400 FE colleges in England and Wales. The sector is characterised by its
diversity. Some are chiefly ‘sixth-form colleges’, essentially providing the last two years of
schooling for 16-18 year-old students (where local schools do not have ‘sixth forms’). Some are
very large, with over 30,000 enrolments, some (especially the sixth-form colleges) have fewer
than a thousand. There are also a few focussed on specific areas: agriculture and horticulture, and
art, design and performing arts. However, many are general colleges, combining sixth-form
provision with provision for adults, chiefly of a vocational and skills-related character.
Some colleges, especially in big cities, have large programmes of foundation-level work: this is
not directly vocational, but provides essential language and life skills for employability. Some
colleges are focussed very much on local employer needs – though even here, some are quite
narrow in their curriculum, as with the art of agricultural colleges, while others are much broader.
Some courses contribute to apprenticeship training, others to retraining for the unemployed.
Many colleges offer programmes of higher education (HE), often in collaboration with
universities. The levels of programmes offered therefore extend from ISCED level 2 to level 5.
In England, the term ‘adult education’ traditionally referred to a body of largely non-vocational
and non-accredited part-time study provided partly within FE, but also within a range of local
authority adult education centres or institutes, by universities (through ‘extra-mural’ or ‘adult
education’ departments), and by bodies such as the Workers’ Educational Association (WEA).
Changes over the past two decades, however, have meant that university provision for adults is
largely in the form of part-time programmes leading, or accredited toward, undergraduate
degrees. Unaccredited provision within the WEA and adult education institute sector is now
limited.
Financing adult formal education
Finance for formal adult education comes from three main sources: government, the student (or
his or her family, friends, etc.), and students’ employers. Government funding is channelled
chiefly through the Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE) in respect of
courses leading to qualifications at degree level (whether in universities of FE colleges) or
through the Learning and Skills Council (in respect of all other provision). The LSC, established
in 2001 under the Learning and Skills Act 2000, is to be abolished, however. Under the
Education and Skills Act 2008, responsibility for funding learning ‘post-19’ will be transferred
with effect from April 2010 to a new Skills Funding Agency. The SFA ‘will route around £4
billion of funding swiftly, efficiently and securely to FE colleges and other providers, including
the Third Sector, primarily in response to customer (employer and learner) choice’. The
underpinning ideology is that it should be ‘demand-led and customer focused’.
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Within the higher education sector, full-time and part-time students are charged fees. Full-time
students are eligible for loans to support tuition fees, and, depending on their household income,
to support maintenance. Support for part-time students is less routine, and typically less generous.
In FE, the Adult Learning Grant provides ‘up to £30 per week during term time – that’s around
£1,000 a year’ to students aged 19 or over who are studying full-time (at least 12 hours per week)
for their first Level 2 or Level 3 qualification. Following a government decision in 2007, there is
a general presumption in HE and FE that students will not receive funding in respect of courses
which are at a level equivalent to, or lower than, a level they have already achieved (albeit in a
different subject).
Main ‘clients’ of the specific adult tracks
With very limited exceptions there are no tracks designed specifically for adults. The main
exception is the ‘Access to Higher Education Diploma’, designed to provide mature students who
have not gained standard university entry qualifications (normally, A-levels) with the knowledge
and study skills needed for higher education). Around 1,000 such courses are offered across the
country, in subjects including arts and humanities, legal studies, science, technology and nursing.
Entry requirements
Adults who wish to enrol in education are not required to have a formal initial qualification,
provided they are ‘mature students’ (typically, aged 21 or over). (Many postgraduate degrees and
professional qualifications are exceptions.) Often colleges (and sometimes universities) have
arrangements for assessment of prior (or sometimes prior experiential) learning (APL or APEL).
Opportunities to shift between tracks
Although the principle of consumer choice is well-established, the practice often falls short of
this. In many cases, specific courses will have progression requirements which hinder post-entry
movement between tracks. This is particularly true of professional qualifications, where
universities and colleges are often beholden to the power of professional bodies. Arrangements
for credit transfer are often limited, especially within the university sector between ‘elite’ and
“non-elite” institutions.
Credentials from specific tracks
The National Qualifications Framework (NQF) sets out the levels against which a qualification
can be recognised in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. It is intended to help learners make
informed decisions about what qualifications they wish to take, by comparing the levels of
different qualifications and identifying different progression routes. Qualifications are at nine
levels (‘entry’ to level 8); levels 4-8 cover various levels of higher education award. This is now
being supplemented with a range of credit weightings under the Qualifications and Credit
Framework, designed to ‘present qualifications in a way that is easy to understand and measure’
(http://www.qcda.gov.uk/19674.aspx) Credit weightings are based on the size (volume of study)
of the programme concerned.
Scotland
Interaction with the initial education system
Within the formal education system there are a number of programmes available to adult learners
and these are offered mainly through Scotland’s colleges (also known as further education
colleges); however, the courses are open to all irrespective of age. The one exception is Access to
Higher Education courses. These are only available to those aged 21 and over. It could be seen
74
(as the Slovenian system) as complementary to the initial education system. Colleges offer
courses from basic literacy/numeracy to post-graduate qualifications. They therefore span ISCED
levels 2 up to and including level 5. They have a strong focus on vocational qualifications and it
is possible to study full-time or part-time and a considerable number of courses are available
online.
The term ‘adult education’ has been used mainly in relation to the development of community
education following the Alexander report Adult Education: the challenge of change. Community
education included adult learning, youth work and community work and it changed to
Community Learning and Development (Wallace, 20087). It has had a strong focus on
community based learning for adults as well as youth work and community work. However,
many of the courses provided do not offer accredited learning and would therefore not qualify as
‘formal adult education’. The boundaries are blurred though between community education and
colleges. Some community education courses are provided in colleges and courses sometimes
provided by Community Learning and Development provide SQA accreditation.
Financing adult formal education
Formal adult education provided in colleges and universities is financed by the Scottish Funding
Council (SFC). Here are differences between full-time and part-time studying.
Full-time courses: All Scottish domiciled students, irrespective of age, are entitled to free
education (fees paid) up to and including ISCED level 5 (undergraduate qualification). College
students may also be eligible for allowances to cover: set texts, health and safety equipment,
study trips, dependant’s allowance, childcare costs and travel costs. Students in higher education
can apply for a student loan to cover living costs; students in colleges can apply for a means
tested bursary.
Part-time studies: College students are expected to pay their own fees but may receive
support/fee waiver if they are in receipt of certain benefits, are on a low income or disabled.
Students over 16 can apply for an Individual Learning Account of £200/year to be used towards
the cost of the course. Allowances such as Jobseekers Allowance (unemployed) and Income
Support benefits can affect the number of hours a person can study.
Non-advanced college courses leading to an SQA qualification are normally free of charge to all
students.
Main ‘clients’ of the specific adult tracks
As can be seen from above there are no specific adult education tracks except for Access to
Higher Education courses. These are aimed at students who do not have the relevant
qualifications to access higher education and successful completion of an Access course provides
entry to certain degree course. Colleges often have links with specific universities which allow
transfer from Access course to degree level course.
7 Wallace, D. (2008) Community Education and Community Learning and Development, In: T.G.K. Bryce and
W.M. Humes Scottish Education: 3rd edition beyond devolution. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press
75
Entry requirements
Adults wishing to enter into education do not normally need formal initial education
qualifications provided they are classed as ‘mature students’ (over 21 for undergraduate study).
Colleges are normally more flexible than universities though all state that they offer APL at least.
Opportunities to shift between tracks
Students can change courses but this may affect funding for the course; however, to gain a
particular qualification there will be a specified number of modules and levels that have to be
achieved by the student. The extent to which you can shift will also depend on the course you
wish to do, e.g. a mature adult student will be affected by the level of the course, the entry
requirements (especially if it is an elite university) and also, for certain professions, by the
requirement of any professional body.
Credentials from specific tracks
All course programmes within the formal education system are linked to the Scottish Credit and
Qualifications Framework (SCQF). They are assigned to a level and allocated a certain number of
credit points and range from Level 1 (Access 1 – note this is not the same as Access to Higher
Education courses) to 12 (doctoral degrees). Level 1 starts roughly with modules/qualifications
aimed at 16-year olds who are still at school though colleges also offer this provision. A number
of vocational qualifications are also included in this framework. The credit points are based on
notional number of hours of study. A full-time course over one year is normally 120 credits.
Courses included within the system are either accredited by the Scottish Qualifications Authority
(SQA) – initial education system courses – or by the universities as they have degree awarding
powers. University teaching and learning for the UK is overseen by the Qualification Assurance
Agency (QAA). As the majority of qualifications are based on modules it is possible to build up a
qualification over a period of time. The intention of the qualifications framework was that it
would open up access for all – but this has not really happened (it is discussed by interviewees in
SP5).
76
4.3. MESO LEVEL CARACTERISTICS AND ADULT LEARENER’S PERCEPTIONS OF THE LEARNING INSTITUTIONS
4.3.1. Characteristics of the Learning Institutions
It is widely accepted that the motivational process can be influenced by external factors. Within
the context of education, we can argue that school level variables can increase the attractiveness
of the learning activity. Furthermore, clear and functional information on the content of the
learning activity as well as on the practical organisation of the study programme are necessary to
convince adults to enrol for a course (Cross, 1981). Barriers experienced by the adult learners
have a hindering effect and cause drop outs. Therefore, it is important that the practical
organisation of the courses is in accordance with the educational needs of the adult learner.
In the further linear regression analysis, as a first variable related to the organisation of the study
programme, we observe the effect of the level of the current course. Statistics on socio-
demographic, socio-economic and socio-cultural profiles showed significant differences between
educational levels. Within the regression analyses with motivational aspects as dependent
variables, we are also interested if the level of the current course has a significant relationship
with motivational characteristics. Other variables of interest in our study consist of perceptions of
the learning organisation from the point of view of the individual learner. First variable here
focuses on the entrance requirements, indicating that previous qualification was needed by an
extensive group of adult learners enrolled at the highest level courses (Table 4.1.A, Appendix).
Second set of variables focuses on the course organisation. Modular courses were more indicated
by adult learners at higher educational levels, while classical linear system was widely recognised
at lower levels (ISCED 2-3). Granting exemptions for certain parts of the study programme on
the basis of prior learning or relevant experience is more practiced at tertiary education.
Another aspect of course organisation is the intensity of work done within school premises: how
long is the entire course/programme, how often learners go to classes and for how many hours
per week. On the average, most adults reported that the duration of the course is up to one year,
less than a tenth were taking two-year courses. Adult learners studying in higher education
(ISCED 5-6) were most likely to take courses that lasted for one year, while at ISCED 4 there
were about 20% of learners taking longer courses. It is also evident that adult learners at ISCED
level 5 attend school less frequently than those at ISCED 2-4. This is also apparent by class hours
where learners at ISCED level 2-4 mostly have classes for 20 hours a week and more; learners at
ISCED level 5 on the other hand less than 20 hours (the range is rather broad though: 5-19
hours). Difference in average class size as estimated by the adult learners themselves show that
bigger classes (21-50 students) are more common at ISCED level 5 and about one tenth of these
learners attend courses with even 51 students and more. Adult learners at ISCED levels 2-4 learn
mostly in groups with up to 20 students and third of learners at ISCED level 2 have classes with
up to 5 student-groups. Differences of didactical methods are rather small, but it is clear that
distance education is more used within tertiary education than primary and lower secondary
education. While one-on-one teaching is due to bigger classes less practiced at ISCED 3-5.
Results show that at all ISCED levels adult learners are faced with course fees, more so at higher
educational levels. Thus, if at ISCED level 2 about 20% of adult learners report paying entirely or
77
partly for their course themselves, then at ISCED level 5 the respective percentage is 56.
Accordingly, financial means and support is also much more received by adult learners at ISCED
levels 4 and 5 because in many countries post-secondary and tertiary education is at least partly
for a fee. Therefore, student grants and loans are somewhat more common at ISCED levels 4 and
5; paid leave and educational leave benefit at ISCED 5; and travel allowances at ISCED 2-4.
Adult learners at higher educational levels (ISCED 4 and 5) report also more often than others
problems related to financial issues. Of course financial problems are not solely resulting from
educational fees, adult learners at any educational level might also struggle with supporting
themselves and/or their family. Hence, about one third of those studying at ISCED level 2 and 3
report having financial problems while participating in adult education (Figure 4.14). However,
most pronounced problem at all educational levels appears to be the lack of time for studying,
especially so at ISCED level 5 (60%) and less at ISCED 2 (32%). Other rather essential problems
for adult learners at all ISCED levels are transportation and lack of preparation for the study
programme. In addition, at higher educational levels also studies being scheduled at an
inconvenient time seem to pose considerable difficulties (19% at ISCED 4 and 29% at ISCED 5).
Other problems do not show significant differences between educational levels of the current
course.
0,0
10,0
20,0
30,0
40,0
50,0
60,0
70,0
ISCED 1-2 ISCED 3 ISCED 4 ISCED 5-6
Too little time for studying Financial problems
Transportation problems Lack of preparation for the study programme
Studies scheduled at an inconvenient time Troubles arranging for childcare
Family problems Difficulties competing with younger students
Figure 4.14 Problems and barriers related to the current course
Next to the problems adult learners are facing during their learning activities we were also
interested in services which are provided for them by the educational institutions and which of
those are they actively using. Table 4.2 shows that most educational institutions provide learners
with library, Internet access, cafeteria and services for study advice, although to somewhat lesser
degree at lower ISCED levels. Near half of the adult learners at ISCED level 5 also acknowledge
availability of sports accommodation and dormitory. Career services appear to be offered more
frequently at ISCED levels 4 and 5. There are fewer differences between educational levels in
availability of other services. Regrettably, least available service according to adult learners in the
78
current study is transportation, which is one of the most apparent problems for learners.
Accordingly, services most often used by adult learners are the ones that were most available to
them, yet at much lower rate than the actual availability would let us presume.
Table 4.2 Services provided by the educational institutions by ISCED level, %
ISCED 1-2 ISCED 3 ISCED 4 ISCED 5-6 Total
SERVICES AVAILABLE AT
SCHOOL
Library 55.0 59.0 72.8 92.6 70.6
Internet access 55.1 62.1 67.1 84.6 68.0
Cafeteria 45.5 56.4 67.8 77.0 62.3
Services for study advice 51.1 50.5 57.8 64.1 56.1
Sports accommodation 21.3 24.0 32.7 45.5 31.3
Career services 22.6 21.7 29.5 36.0 27.6
Social services 23.1 22.5 26.9 27.5 25.0
Dormitory 6.9 11.2 29.2 49.1 24.9
Medical services 19.5 17.5 27.1 23.7 21.9
Legal services 9.1 11.2 18.7 17.2 14.1
Childcare 14.1 9.6 11.4 10.6 11.3
Transportation 6.1 5.8 9.2 5.9 6.6
SERVICES USED BY LEARNERS
Cafeteria 28.7 34.3 44.1 53.4 40.4
Library 27.2 30.2 40.1 61.2 40.1
Internet access 26.2 29.7 35.0 50.0 35.6
Services for study advice 26.1 24.1 27.6 27.6 26.3
Sports accommodation 8.7 6.9 6.7 9.0 7.9
Career services 7.0 7.1 8.4 8.4 7.7
Medical services 7.3 4.8 5.9 4.7 5.6
Social services 6.0 4.0 3.4 3.4 4.1
Legal services 2.1 2.8 5.0 2.9 3.2
Transportation 2.2 1.9 2.1 1.5 1.9
Childcare 2.2 2.2 1.4 0.6 1.6
4.3.2. Country Differences in Characteristics of the Learning Institutions
While deciding about re-entering formal education system, important factors among other things
are entrance requirements, weather one can get exemptions for certain parts of the study
programme, how the course is organised and how often and intensively are classes organised. We
see that previous qualifications are more often required in Central and Eastern European
countries (Table 4.2.A, Appendix). Thus, in Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary,
Lithuania, Russia and Slovenia adult learners at all educational levels report much more often
than other countries that previous qualifications were necessary before entering current study
programme. In the UK and Ireland, however, previous qualifications are needed far less.
Interestingly, Norway resembles here more of CEE countries than the UK and Ireland, showing a
bit higher level of requirement of previous qualification when compared to the total average.
Results of Austria and Belgium are in between, although at lowest educational level in Belgium
previous qualifications are required only from about 6% of respondents, which corresponds to the
overall peculiarity of Belgian ISCED 2 case. Differences between countries by the requirement of
previous qualifications are smaller at tertiary level of education. Yet also here previous
qualifications are more required in CEE countries, together with Belgium and Norway – about
90% of respondents acknowledge this requirement. In case of Austria, the UK and Ireland
previous qualifications at ISCED level 5 seem to be required somewhat less.
79
Entrance tests (including interview), as part of study programme enrolment procedure, are
practiced by educational institutions to a far lesser extent and there is more variance by countries
by ISCED levels. Thus, at the lowest level of education we see that in Austria and Russia
entrance tests were required more often than on average (35%) – 60-70% of respondents report
passing entrance tests. In Belgium, Scotland, England, Hungary and Bulgaria, on the other hand,
entrance tests were mentioned as an entry requirement only by 10-20% of adult learners. In
Estonia, Lithuania, Slovenia and Norway entry tests were required from 37-46% of adult
learners. At ISCED levels 3-5 entrance tests are practiced more often, and accordingly variation
between countries decreases as the level of education increases. About 50-60% of adult learners
report having performed an entrance test while enrolling to ISCED level 3 programme in the
Czech Republic, Russia, Ireland, Scotland and Estonia. Results are considerably different in case
of Hungary and Bulgaria where only 7-13% of adult learners recognise entrance test as one of
enrolment requirements. At ISCED level 4 entrance tests were required more often from students
in Scotland, Ireland, Russia, Estonia, Lithuania and England (63-77%); and significantly less in
case of Hungary, Austria, Belgium, Norway and Slovenia (12-27%). When entering to highest
level of education, entrance test is regarded as important screening measure of students in Russia,
Estonia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Austria and Scotland, 63-86% of respondents indicated
performing a test. Yet in Belgium and Norway only about 20% of students had to take an
entrance test during their admission to ISCED level 5 programme.
Next we are interested whether after re-entering formal education system learners are entitled to
exemptions for certain parts of the study programme on the basis of prior learning or relevant
life/work experience (Table 4.3.A, Appendix). It appears, as expected, that accreditation of prior
learning (APL, diploma or certificate required) is more widespread than accreditation of prior
experiential learning (APEL). Results indicate clearly Norway to be a forerunner in applying
APL and APEL broadly at all ISCED levels. In Norway there is no distinction between APL and
APEL, both of those exemptions are regarded as “real competences”8. Thus, 60% of Norwegian
adult learners studying at primary and lower secondary education state that they have been
granted exemptions for certain parts of the current study programme on the basis of prior learning
and life competences. In Bulgaria, Slovenia, Estonia and Austria there are about 30-40% of
learners at ISCED level 2 admitting of receiving exemptions on the basis of prior learning and 6-
22% on the basis on prior experiential learning. Respective rates for Lithuania are 16% APL/9%
APEL; and for England 11% APL/7% APEL. However, there are countries with similar to
Norwegian results in implementing APL/APEL at intermediate levels of education – ISCED 3
and 4. Hence, at ISCED level 3, compared to 67% of those in Norway, 61% of learners in
Slovenia and Austria also report of getting exemptions on the basis of prior learning. Another 12-
14% of Slovenian and Austrian students have been granted exemptions on the basis of prior life
and/or work experience. The level of receiving exemptions on the basis of APL is somewhat
higher than average also in Estonia (39% compared to the average of 25%); 20% of students
report exemptions on the basis of APEL as well (average is 9%). Slovenia, Estonia and especially
Austria stand out with implementation of APL also at ISCED level 4. In Lithuania, Belgium and
England results are close to the average of 24%. Around 20% of those studying at ISCED 4
report APEL exemptions in case of Ireland, Estonia, Austria, Russia and Lithuania (average here
is 12%). Norway stands particularly out at the highest level of education with over 90% of adult
8 In Norway, exceptions can be made with regard to admission and/or shortening of studies. According to SP3
Norwegian survey, overall exceptions regarding admission seem a bit more common than exceptions regarding
shortening of studies.
80
learners getting exemptions on the basis of their prior competences. Other countries exceeding
the average of 28% for APL at ISCED level 5 are Austria, Lithuania and Belgium (49-43%); and
for APEL Austria, Slovenia, Russia, Hungary and Lithuania with 20-40% compared to the
average of 14%.
Predominantly, courses in a study programme are organised as linear, i.e. standard year system
(Table 4.4.A, Appendix). To increase learning flexibility for participants educational institutions
are gradually introducing modular system: intense lessons in a shorter time period. At tertiary
level of education there are already more than half of SP3 sample taking courses via modules. At
the lowest level, however, modular courses are rather broadly introduced only in Ireland and
Norway (about 40%). In case of Estonia there are about 30% of adult learners at ISCED level 2
saying that courses are organised by modules. Modular courses seem to be practically nonexistent
at primary and lower secondary education in Bulgaria, Slovenia and Hungary. Yet, when in
Bulgaria and Slovenia linear system prevails (98%), then in Hungary there are 79% of learners
taking courses via standard year system. At ISCED level 3 modular courses are most widely used
in Belgium – 65%. In Norway and Ireland about 40% of adult learners study via modules; in
Austria, Estonia and the Czech Republic around 30%. Modular study is used the least again in
Slovenia, Bulgaria and Hungary. At higher ISCED levels courses are organised via modules
much more often. Thus, at ISCED level 4 more than 60% of adult learners in Lithuania, Estonia
and Ireland take up modular courses; in Norway 54%, and around 40% in Bulgaria and Belgium.
Modular system is least popular at ISCED level 4 in Hungary, but also in Slovenia, Russia and
Austria. Yet, in higher education 91% of Hungarian adult learners report taking courses via
modules; modules are widely recognised in Lithuania, Estonia, Ireland, the Czech Republic and
Norway as well (65-87%). In Belgium and Austria respective rates are 41% and 32%, while in
Bulgaria a quarter of adult students take modular courses; and only 16-18% of adult learners in
Russia and Slovenia study by modules.
Further, adult learners were asked to indicate intensity of the classes: how long is the entire
course/programme (the start and the expected end date of the course) and how often are they
going to school (Tables 4.5.A and 4.6.A, Appendix). In general, adult learners take courses that
last up to one year, only 10% of all respondents had longer courses. To this question we have
overall 40% of missing answers, thus we might assume that learners were not sure when exactly
did they start and when will they end current study programme or perhaps they just decided to
leave these questions unanswered. At ISCED level 2 almost all learners in Belgium, Bulgaria,
Ireland, Lithuania and Slovenia report having courses that last no longer than one year, while in
Estonia and Hungary 70-75% and in Russia 46% admit the same. In case of Estonia, Hungary
(~50%) and Russia (~70%) also at ISCED level 3 and 4 there are less adult learners studying for
up to one year. Whereas in other countries the respective percentage remains between 80 and
100. Country differences are less evident at ISCED 5, although again in Estonia and Hungary, but
also in Austria there are somewhat less adult learners taking courses that last up to one year
(~70%). Mostly, adult learners are attending school more than three times a week9, however,
quite many students in basic and secondary education claim attending school once a week (22%
at ISCED 2 and 29% at ISCED 3). Only few adult learners at ISCED 2-4 go to school less than
once a week, but among learners at ISCED level 5 there are 25% of learners visiting school that
seldom. So in general, adult learners at the highest educational level (need to) attend school less
frequently than others. Because most adult learners in our sample go to classes more than three
9 In the questionnaire, ‘more than three times a week’ was a maximum given frequency for the respondent to answer
about how many times a week is s/he going to the educational institution for instruction.
81
times a week (41%) and in this case it gets rather difficult to combine learning activities with
other domains of one’s life (at home, at work, in civil society), following analysis by ISCED
levels and by countries will be presented by this level of frequency. At ISCED level 2 vast
majority of adult learners go to school more than three times a week in Bulgaria, Austria and
Slovenia (77-99%). Also in Russia, Lithuania and Norway adult learners seem to visit school
somewhat more often than on average at the lowest educational level (54-59% compared to the
average of 45%). At the level of upper secondary education frequency of going to classes is lower
– 37% on average do that more than three times a week. Here we find highest rate of adults going
to classes three times a week in Bulgaria (87%). In most countries there are about 50-60% of
ISCED level 3 students attending classes three times a week: Norway, Scotland, Austria, Estonia,
Ireland, Russia and Lithuania. Adult learners at ISCED level 4 attend school most frequently,
about 55% of all learners here go to school four or more times a week. Most frequent school
visitors appear to be among Lithuanian (94%), Austrian (82%), Estonian (76%) and Scottish
(75%) ISCED 4 adult learners; while in Belgium and Hungary less than one tenth visits school
that often. At ISCED level 5 though it is only around 30% of adult learners going to school more
than three times a week. Still, among Russian, Austrian and Lithuanian sample adult learners
attend school rather frequently (48-66%).
To a large extent ISCED level 2-3 education for adult learners is free (Table 5.7.A, Appendix),
yet about 20% of learners at ISCED 2 and 30% at ISCED 3 say that they entirely or partly paid a
course fee for their studies themselves. In Belgium we find the highest percentage (~80%) of
adults paying for their studies at all educational levels. Here we should keep in mind that in case
of Belgium formal adult education includes art, language and other types of courses that are
attended by those older and with higher initial education when compared to the overall
Subproject 3 sample. In Bulgaria (0%), Ireland, Russia, Estonia, Slovenia and Scotland less than
one tenth of learners at ISCED 2 indicated paying themselves a course fee. Respective percentage
is also fairly low in Austria – 14%. At ISCED level 3 few learners in Bulgaria and Scotland are
paying course fee; compared to the average adult learners are faced less often with course fees
also in Estonia and Ireland (~12%). While about half of adults in England, the Czech Republic,
Hungary and Norway pay entire or part of their course fee themselves. Next to Belgium rather
many learners in Slovenia do pay for their ISCED 3 studies themselves – 60.5%. At ISCED level
4 there are less adult learners paying for courses than an average in Estonia, Scotland and
Lithuania, but also in Austria. Whereas in Belgium, Slovenia, Bulgaria, Hungary, Norway and
England 84-50% of adults are themselves paying ISCED 4 course fee. In Scotland there are
relatively few adults paying their course fee at ISCED level 5 as well – 11%. The respective
percentage is low in case of Austria too – 25%. Countries where 70-90% of adults state that they
pay entirely or partly themselves for higher education are: Lithuania, Belgium, the Czech
Republic, Slovenia and Bulgaria.
Although financial means/support and financial problems are more prevalent at higher
educational levels (ISCED 4 and 5), there are still countries where adult learners report
substantial financial difficulties also at lower levels (Table 4.3). Thus at ISCED level 2 in
Slovenia, Hungary and Austria bout 60-50% of adult learners say they have financial problems.
Also in Russia and Norway percentage of learners admitting financial problems is rather high
(about 40%). Financial difficulties are felt on an average level (one third of learners) in Estonia
and Lithuania. While in Belgium, Bulgaria, England, Ireland and Scotland there are only up to
12% of learners having financial issues. In these countries there are also substantially less
learners receiving financial support. Financial support is most often received by ISCED level 2
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learners in Norway and Slovenia (42% and 47% respectively). Compared to other countries,
received support is rather high also in Lithuania and Hungary (around 20%).
Table 4.3 Financial aspects by ISCED level and country, %
ISCED 1–2 ISCED 3 ISCED 4 ISCED 5–6
Financial
Support*
Financial
Problems
Financial
Support*
Financial
Problems
Financial
Support*
Financial
Problems
Financial
Support*
Financial
Problems
Austria 13.5 47.6 10.4 27.1 6.0 24.8 22.1 39.0
Belgium 6.8 3.8 17.0 13.8 28.7 10.8 38.1 20.9
Bulgaria 0.0 4.5 5.2 30.8 23.9 46.6 27.9 44.9
Czech R. 10.0 22.2 33.6 29.2
England 3.4 4.5 5.2 17.7 9.7 35.7 48.1 22.2
Estonia 10.9 33.0 29.0 34.6 65.9 43.9 63.9 49.2
Hungary 20.0 52.4 20.5 38.2 23.1 36.1 48.6 39.7
Ireland 0.6 10.5 10.3 22.1 16.3 36.7 35.0 38.9
Lithuania 17.0 29.3 8.4 21.6 86.1 39.0 31.5 52.1
Norway 42.2 36.0 54.9 34.0 53.8 30.8 52.3 30.9
Russia 5.0 38.6 20.5 45.4 29.3 53.4 39.8 61.8
Scotland 7.0 11.8 18.0 36.0 45.8 47.7 48.7 35.8
Slovenia 47.4 58.1 42.4 52.9 36.9 43.7 45.2 39.6
Note: * Types of financial means and support are: student grant, student loan, paid leave, educational
leave benefit and travel allowance
Alongside financial problems, adult learners face difficulties with transportation, but even more
so with having too little time for studying (time pressure) and studies being scheduled at an
inconvenient time. The overall picture shows that in Bulgaria, Ireland and even more so in
England and Scotland, adult learners seem to have either less pronounced or average level
problems with transportation, time pressure and scheduling of the studies (Table 4.8.A,
Appendix). Adult learners in Estonia, Norway, Slovenia, the Czech Republic and at higher
educational level also in Austria express more often problems related to transport and time issues.
To go in further detail, at every ISCED level learners feel more time pressure than problems with
transportation or scheduling of studies. At ISCED level 2, time pressure is somewhat less an
issue compared to higher levels of education, but still one third is concerned with having too little
time for studying. This is even more problematic for adult learners in Norway, Hungary, Russia
and Slovenia where 40-53% of adults recognise time pressure. However, in Bulgaria and in
England only about 10% are troubled by having too little time for studying. Transportation is an
issue more than on average (19%) for ISCED level 2 learners in Austria, Estonia and Slovenia –
29-48% –, while in Bulgaria, Belgium and Ireland less than one tenth is brining up this problem.
Inconvenient scheduling of studies bothers learners at the lowest level of education more than on
average in Estonia, Norway and Slovenia, yet this is an issue for rather few in Bulgaria, Ireland
and Scotland. At ISCED level 3 transportation problems are more relevant for adult learners in
Estonia and Russia (30% compared to the average of 20%), but less so in Scotland, England and
Belgium. Scheduling of studies poses more problems than generally only for Norwegian and
Slovenian students, but time pressure is felt more in addition to those countries also in Hungary
and the Czech Republic. Again we observe less time related problems in case of England,
Scotland and Ireland. At ISCED level 4 transportation problems are mentioned by one third of
adult learners in Estonia and Russia, average for this educational group is about 10% lower.
Studies being scheduled at an inconvenient time is more problem than on average at post-
secondary level for Slovenian and Norwegian learners, while in England and Scotland they are
practically nonexistent. Time pressure is felt significantly more than on average in Austria and
Slovenia where about 60% of students report this as one of their problems during current studies.
83
Understandably, time scarcity is much wider issue for those studying at ISCED level 5 however,
more than a third of Hungarian, Czech and Austrian learners say they have problems with
transportation. If on average about 30% of adults studying at tertiary level of education feel that
studies are scheduled at an inconvenient time, then in case of Norway, Austria, Estonia, Belgium
and Slovenia respective rate is about 40-45%. For the same countries, plus the Czech Republic,
we find that more than 65% of adult learners also have too little time for studying. Yet, despite of
this alarmingly high proportion of learners struggling with lack of time, they continue learning in
formal education and majority is confident in successfully completing current studies. Moreover,
previous studies have indicated that adult learners and those not continuing their studies bring up
financial and time related problems to about the same rate in all countries representing different
welfare system regimes (see Rubenson & Desjardins, 2009). Yet some welfare state regimes
(social democratic for instance) help adult learners more in overcoming those barriers.
To conclude with the characteristics of learning institutions we provide country level differences
by educational levels by services that are available to adult learners in schools/universities (Table
4.9.A, Appendix). As we saw in the beginning of this chapter, most learning institutions provide
access to library, Internet, have cafeterias and provide study advice. However, these facilities are
more available at higher levels of education. Adult learners acquiring ISCED level 2 education
are better equipped with library at their schools in most of CEE countries: Russia, Estonia,
Lithuania and Bulgaria – 70-90% of adult learners here claim having library at their school, while
average for this groups is 55%. In Belgium and Austria there are only about 20% of adults stating
the availability of library. Internet access is most accessible to adult learners at lowest level of
education in Estonia (79%) and Scotland (95%), in Bulgaria on the other hand only 16% have
Internet access, in Austria, Belgium and Hungary around 35% and in Russia 44%. In England,
Ireland, Lithuania and Slovenia Internet is available for about 70% of learners. Somewhat
surprisingly, cafeterias are available at ISCED level 2 according to very few respondents in case
of Bulgaria and Slovenia; to the contrary, in England, Hungary, Ireland and Scotland majority of
schools seem to have cafeterias. At ISCED level 2 study advice is offered more than on average
in this group (51%) in Slovenia and Lithuania – around 80%. While in Belgium study advices in
practically non-existent and in Hungary it is offered to about 26% of students at ISCED level 2.
When coming to ISCED level 3 we see that here mainly Internet access and availability of
cafeterias is significantly higher than it was at ISCED level 2. Libraries are more common in
Estonian, Lithuanian, Russian, Scottish (~90%) and also English (66%) schools. Internet is again
more available in Scotland and Estonia, whereas in Russia, Hungary, Slovenia and Belgium the
rates are below the average. Regarding cafeterias and study advice the pattern of countries is
almost the same as it was for ISCED level 2 with the exceptions that in the Czech Republic study
advice is not too common, while in Scotland at ISCED level 3 study advice is given in majority
of schools. Libraries are significantly more available at ISCED level 4, here only in Slovenia and
Belgium about half of adult learners say they have school-library, in all other countries library
coverage is basically above 60%. Internet access continues to be low in Hungary and Russia
(32% and 45% respectively), but access is below average of 67% also in Slovenia, Lithuania,
Bulgaria and Belgium. Cafeterias are not common in Slovenia at ISCED level 4 and also at
highest level of education, while in other countries majority of educational institutions providing
post-secondary and tertiary education do offer cafeteria services. At ISCED 4 study advice is less
available in Belgium, Hungary, Austria and Estonia, while it is very popular in Scotland, England
and Lithuania. Internet access is broadly available at highest level of education – in Slovenia,
Bulgaria and Russia about 70% of adult learners claim having Internet, in other countries access
is even wider. Study advice at ISCED level 5 is offered to a lesser degree in the Czech Republic,
Ireland, Austria, Hungary and Estonia, but the respective rate is nonetheless quite high – 41-55%.
84
4.3.3. Perceptions of the Learning Process
Literature based on processes within the classroom state that a positive perception of the
classroom environment or learning context in turn leads to personal determination of participants
(Tobias, 1998), higher persistence, more wellbeing, better understanding of the learning content
and to better performances. Within our research, we focus on the classroom environment scale of
Darkenwald & Valentine (1986). This classroom environment scale consists of many items
measuring interrelations between students and interrelations between students and the adult
educator/teacher. Based on research by O’Fathaigh (1997), seven factors were extracted:
affiliation, teacher support, task orientation, personal goal attainment, organization and clarity of
the course/programme, student influence and involvement. Within Subproject 3 students’
questionnaire, we included 2 items of each factor and added one item on real-life examples (item
15)i. As a first overview, we show the descriptive statistics for each item, divided by level of the
current course and indicating the mean and standard deviation (Table 4.4). Comparable to other
scales as used within the construction of the dependent variables, items were measured on a five
item scale ranging from 1 (totally disagree) till 5 (totally agree). On an overall level, we have to
state that the perception of the adult learners is rather positive. Adult learners at the lower levels
experience more help from the teacher, feel more respected as individuals, experience more clear
organised programme and enjoy the study programme more.
Table 4.4 Mean and standard deviation of classroom items by ISCED level
ISCED 1-2
Mean (St.D.)
ISCED 3
Mean (St.D.)
ISCED 4
Mean (St.D.)
ISCED 5- 6
Mean (St.D.)
TOTAL
Mean (St.D.)
Relationships between students
1. The study programme provides
opportunities for making new friends 4.13 (0.79) 4.11 (0.85) 4.21 (0.75) 4.17 (0.78) 4.15 (0.79)
14. The students in the study programme
enjoy working together 4.01 (0.86) 3.89 (0.85) 3.94 (0.80) 3.78 (0.81) 3.90 (0.83)
Learner engagement, pursuing own
interests
2. Students often ask the teacher questions 4.16 (0.81) 4.09 (0.84) 4.18 (0.78) 3.95 (0.88) 4.09 (0.83)
13. Most students enjoy the study
programme 3.93 (0.90) 3.83 (0.89) 3.89 (0.86) 3.67 (0.85) 3.82 (0.88)
10. The teacher insists that you do things
his or her way 3.34 (1.09) 3.30 (1.04) 3.29 (1.04) 3.28 (0.97) 3.30 (1.03)
11. Students feel free to question study
programme requirements 3.50 (1.11) 3.57 (1.03) 3.46 (1.03) 3.40 (1.05) 3.48 (1.06)
15. Participants in the training discuss
real-life examples based on their personal
experiences 3.88 (0.93) 3.89 (0.87) 3.93 (0.85) 3.94 (0.84) 3.91 (0.87)
4. Students can select assignments that are
of personal interest to them 3.20 (1.19) 3.04 (1.16) 3.02 (1.16) 3.05 (1.13) 3.07 (1.16)
6. Most students in the study programme
achieve their personal learning goals 3.89 (0.87) 3.80 (0.84) 3.85 (0.80) 3.67 (0.78) 3.80 (0.83)
85
Table 4.4 continued… ISCED 1-2
Mean (St.D.)
ISCED 3
Mean (St.D.)
ISCED 4
Mean (St.D.)
ISCED 5- 6
Mean (St.D.)
TOTAL
Mean (St.D.)
Support from teachers, task focus,
organisation of learning
3. The teacher makes every effort to help
students succeed 4.30 (0.78) 4.21 (0.85) 4.17 (0.82) 3.83 (0.90) 4.12 (0.86)
7. The teacher respects students as
individuals 4.22 (0.82) 4.14 (0.88) 4.18 (0.80) 3.90 (0.89) 4.10 (0.86)
5. Activities not related to the study
programme are kept to a minimum 3.41 (1.05) 3.35 (1.02) 3.40 (0.97) 3.42 (0.95) 3.39 (1.00)
8. Getting work done is very important in
the study programme 4.12 (0.80) 4.14 (0.80) 4.21 (0.76) 4.06 (0.80) 4.13 (0.79)
9. The study programme is well organised 4.04 (0.88) 3.99 (0.89) 3.91 (0.93) 3.60 (0.99) 3.88 (0.94)
12. The study programme has a clear
sense of direction 3.98 (0.81) 4.03 (0.82) 4.00 (0.80) 3.83 (0.84) 3.96 (0.82)
4.3.4. Country Differences in Perceptions of the Learning Process
Regarding perceptions on learning process we can divide 15 statements presented to adult
learners into three major categories: 1. relationships or affiliation between students; 2. learner
engagement in the learning process and ability to pursue own interests/goals; 3 support from
teachers, task focus and organisation of learning.
Relationships between learners
Adult learners agreed the most with the statement saying ‘the study programme provides
opportunities for making new friends’. Differences by ISCED levels are rather low, but still level
4 learners, followed by level 5, agree with this statement somewhat more than learners at lower
levels (Table 4.4). Relationship between students was also measured with item stating ‘the
students in the study programme enjoy working together’. This statement finds less support than
first one; and when comparing students at different educational levels we see that ISCED 2 and 4
recognise enjoying working together in their study programme more often than others.
There are few countries diverging from the overall pattern (Table 4.10.A, Appendix). Namely, in
Belgium it is the adult learners at lowest level who are significantly more likely to agree that the
study programme does provide opportunities for making new friends. In Ireland, on the other
hand, students at tertiary level agree with this significantly less. Also in case of Scotland there is
a tendency indicating that tertiary level students are less optimistic about the opportunities to
make new friends (differences between educational levels are not statistically significant). In
Scotland and Ireland ISCED level 5 learners state enjoyment of working together in the study
programme less too. In Scottish sample, many adult learners studying at tertiary level are learning
online, this explains why they do not feel so much affiliation between students as others – actual
contacts between students are seldom. Unlike in other countries, we find for Russia that adult
learners at ISCED 2 agree significantly less with students enjoying working together in the study
programme. Similar tendency appears for Estonia and Lithuania, but here differences between
educational groups are not significant.
86
Learner engagement in the learning process and ability to pursue own interest
Next we observe that in general students are quite actively involved in learning process. Thus,
majority of adult learners agree that during the studies students often ask the teacher questions,
but interestingly enough this is little less recognised by adult learners at highest level of
education – ISCED 5. Whereas, ISCED level 2 and 4 learners agree with students asking the
teacher questions the most. In regard to this statement, there are no countries showing results that
differ significantly from the overall trend. Hence, in Belgium ISCED level 2 students agree with
asking the teacher questions the most, while ISCED level 5 agree with this the least; also in the
Czech Republic and Ireland ISCED 5 students stand out as agreeing with questions being asked
less than others; while in Estonia ISCED level 4 students sense active involvement of their peers
the most. Similarly, adult learners at ISCED level 2 and 4, followed by level 3 agree more with
the statement claiming ‘most students enjoy the study programme’. So again, this is less felt at
tertiary level. In Austria, Belgium and the Czech Republic those at lower levels of education are
sensing significantly more enjoyment of the study programme, whereas in Hungary, Ireland and
Scotland the opposite is true for ISCED 5. In Lithuania, in accordance with the general tendency,
ISCED 4 learners agree significantly more with most students enjoying their study programme.
Only in case of Estonia we see that adult learners at higher levels of education (ISCED 4 and 5)
agree with this statement considerably more than those at lower levels.
Following statements measure how learner-cantered teachers are while teaching their subject
matters. Adult learners at lower levels of education tend to agree slightly more with the fact that
‘the teacher insists that you do things his or her way’. Results are still encouraging in the sense
that differences between ISCED levels are very small and the level of agreement with this
statement when compared to other 15 statements is lower than average. Nevertheless, we find
significant differences supporting the general trend in case of Belgium and England where
tertiary level students are less confronted with the teacher insisting on doing things his or her
way; and in Scotland where adult learners at ISCED 2 perceive more pressure from the teacher.
Answers to the next statement ‘students feel free to question study programme requirements’ are
slightly puzzling, because now it is the primary and secondary level students who agree with this
statement more. Tertiary level students feel that they can question study programme requirements
more than others only in Slovenia. However, ISCED level 5 students agree with this statement
significantly less than others just in three countries: Belgium, Hungary and Ireland. In Austria, on
the other hand, ISCED level 2 students are more comfortable in questioning the requirements of
study programme. Expected results appear in responses given to the statement ‘participants in the
training discuss real-life examples based on their personal experiences’. This seems to be more
common at higher levels of education where adult learners’ work experience (preferably in the
sphere related to the field of study) helps. Yet, of course, real-life examples are very important to
students at lower levels of education as well, especially in motivating them to continue with the
studies and helping to realise the advantages and even the fun of learning. For Bulgaria and
Ireland results are significantly distinct, as in the former ISCED level 2 students state discussing
real-life examples more than others; and in case of the latter ISCED 5 agree with discussing real-
life examples the least. Significant differences occur also in Austria, but here both ISCED level 2
and 5 students agree more than others with real-life examples based on their personal experiences
being discussed. Significant results confirming the overall trend are found for Russia and
Slovenia.
Unfortunately adult learners agreed the least out of 15 statements with the one saying ‘students
can select assignments that are of personal interest to them’, yet freedom of choosing assignments
87
is more recognised at ISCED level 2. Although, we find significant differences between
educational levels in less than half of the countries: Belgium, Bulgaria, Ireland, Norway and
Estonia. Only in Estonia results are opposite, as here adult learners at lower levels of education
agreed less with being able to choose assignments that are of personal interest to them than those
at ISCED level 5 and 4. Adult learners agree more with the statement ‘most students in the study
programme achieve their personal learning goals’, but still not overwhelmingly. Adults at highest
educational level continue to have more critical view on learning process in this regard as well;
especially so in Bulgaria, Hungary and Ireland. In Estonia, though, it is the ISCED 4 learners feel
more confident about achieving their personal learning goals. No significant differences between
educational groups appear for other countries.
Teacher support, task focus and organisation of learning
Both statements measuring teacher support – ‘the teacher makes every effort to help students
succeed’ and ‘the teacher respects students as individuals’ – get equally high support from adult
learners. But again, answers of learners are more positive as the level of current studies
decreases. One reason for this could be that at higher ISCED levels learners are expected to be
more independent in their studies. On the other hand, ISCED level 5 learners have been more
reserved in all of their responses to different questions regarding satisfaction with various
learning aspects. Accordingly, learners at tertiary level of education agree significantly less with
the teacher making every effort to help students to succeed compared to those at ISCED 2 or 3 in
Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Ireland and Russia. While in
Slovenia it is the ISCED level 2 learners who differ significantly with their more positive
answers from those at higher levels of education. In case of England we observe slightly opposite
tendency, as students at lower levels of education are here somewhat less convinced in teacher’s
effort to help students succeed, yet these differences between ISCED levels are not statistically
significant. In Belgium, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Hungary and Ireland adult learners at
ISCED level 5 also differ significantly from others with their lower support to the statement
claiming the teacher respecting students as individuals. In Austria adult learners at ISCED level 4
and in Russia level 5 together with level 2 feel less respect from their teachers. We observe
slightly contradicting results also for England and Estonia, where learners at higher levels of
education report teacher respect more often than others, but differences between educational
levels are not substantial.
When analysing the level of task orientation in the study programmes it appears that only ISCED
level 3 students agree somewhat less with the statement that ‘activities not related to the study
programme are kept to a minimum’. However, the overall level of agreement with this statement
is below the average (total mean 3.4). There are practically no differences between educational
levels, just in Belgium learners at ISCED level 2 tend to agree more than the rest with activities
irrelevant to the study programme to be kept to a minimum. Adult learners agree much more with
the second aspect of task orientation: ‘getting work done is very important in the study
programme’. ISCED level 4 students occur here as the most optimistic, followed by levels 3 and
2. We also observe more differences between ISCED levels here than in opinions to keeping
activities not related to the study programme to a minimum. Adult learners at ISCED 4 agree
significantly more with getting work done to be very important in the study programme in
Hungary and together with ISCED level 3 in Bulgaria and Ireland. Results are in line with the
general tendency also in the Czech Republic where ISCED level 5 learners agree less with this
statement than those at ISCED 3. In Lithuania it is the ISCED level 5 learners who together with
ISCED 4 support more the idea that getting work done is very important in the study programme.
88
While in Austria results show ISCED level 4 learners to agree significantly less with this
statement than others.
As a final step in analysing adult learners’ perceptions of learning process via descriptive
statistics, we examine how well is the study programme organised and whether it has a clear
sense of direction. Similarly to their answers regarding satisfaction with the study programme in
Chapter 4.2.7., ISCED level 5 learners express lower level of satisfaction here as well, while
learners at ISCED levels 2-4 are satisfied somewhat more. Differenced between ISCED levels in
regard to how well the study programme is organised are most pronounced in Belgium –
agreement with this statement decreases as educational level increases and differences between
educational groups are significant at all levels. In case of Hungary higher values to the
organisation of study programme are given by ISCED 3 learners, ISCED level 2 and 4 learners
are significantly less satisfied with the organisation of study programme, and in turn, ISCED
level 5 are even less satisfied with it. In Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Ireland and Russia
differences appear between ISCED 5 and those at lower levels of education, the latter agreeing
more that the study programme is well organised. ISCED level 2 and 3 students in Austria are
more supportive of this statement than those at ISCED 4 and 5; while in Russia it is learners at
ISCED 2 and 5 who are less satisfied with organisation of the study programme than others. In
more than half of the countries there are significant differences by educational levels in adult
learners’ opinions about whether the study programme has a clear sense of direction. ISCED
level 5 learners agree significantly less with this than others in Ireland, Hungary and the Czech
Republic. In case of Belgium ISCED level 2 learners continue to be the ones who feel most
comfortable with their study programme, thus they also state more often than learners at higher
levels that ‘the study programme has a clear sense of direction’. Like we saw in answers to the
previous statement, Austrian ISCED 2 and 3 learners are also more satisfied than others with the
sense of direction of their study programme. In Russia, however, ISCED level 2 learners tend to
agree with this statement to a lesser degree than those at higher levels. In case of Lithuania
ISCED level 4 learners stand out as agreeing with the study programme having a clear sense of
direction more than other educational groups.
89
4.4. MICRO LEVEL INDICATORS – BACKGROUND OF ADULT LEARNERS
Based on the research questions, we are interested in a set of factors influencing the motivational
aspects to participate in formal adult education. Based on previous research and conceptual
models on participation in lifelong learning, we have to state that a broad attention is dedicated to
the individual characteristics (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1980; Cookson, 1986; Darkenwald & Merriam,
1982, Cross, 1981). Within this micro level part of the document, we distinguish three main parts.
We start with describing the socio-demographic variables, which have a fixed character – you
cannot change your country of birth or your year of birth – previous research findings state that
these variables have an impact on the participation behaviour of the individual (Doets et. al.,
2001; Bélanger, 1997, Houtkoop & Van der Kamp, 1992). In a second part, we describe the
socio-economic variables. This group of variables consists of a wider set of characteristics such
as the educational attainment of the adult student, the educational attainment of the parents, the
occupational status and the net monthly income. Other than the socio-demographic variables,
these socio-economic variables have a typical changeable character. Changing mobility is also
one of the main important issues within the sociology of education (Erikson & Goldthorpe,
1992). An unemployed status can be transferred into an employed status. Educational attainment
is something which can be increasing. Adult education is seen as an ultimate key in realising
opportunities for mobility. As a last part, we introduce the socio-cultural variables. Participation
in social- and cultural activities is an indicator marking involvement with the other domains of
life than education and work. After all, participation in social- and cultural activities has positive
relation with a reduced level of poverty, a better health and an increased well-being (Alpass et al.,
2007). Besides these positive outcomes of social and cultural participation, we can state that these
activities themselves generate a high potential of learning activities and can therefore be seen as
opportunities of informal learning.
4.4.1. Socio-Demographic Profile of Adult Learners
Socio-demographic variables included here are gender, age, nationality and country of birth
(Table 4.11.A, Appendix). It has to be stressed, however, that our research is not based on
representative samples of adult learners because there is no available data on adult learners in
total population as we have defined them in LLL2010 project – learners who have interrupted
their studies in formal education for at least two years. According to Figure 4.15, we see that
females are more represented in our database. Not only within the entire database, but also within
each stratum of educational level of the current course (more so at ISCED level 4 – 64%; and less
at ISCED 210 – 55%). Furthermore, most adults fall between ages of 25 and 40, but keeping in
mind lifelong learning ideas, we have to pay attention to the youngest and older group as well
(Figure 4.16). Due to sampling definition, adults who did not leave formal education for two
years or more could not be included into the research design. Nevertheless, we find one third of
respondents being younger than 25 years of age, meaning that re-entering the formal education
system already starts at a young age. This is especially the case for adult students at the lowest
course levels. Regarding nationality and country of birth, we observe that almost 9 out of 10
students have the nationality of the country in which they follow their courses. The same applies
10 Here and onwards in text ISCED 2 refers to ISCED levels 1-2 (mostly this groups is comprised of those at ISCED
2), while ISCED 5 refers to ISCED levels 5-6.
90
to ones country of birth. Further exploration of the database forces us to make similar conclusions
regarding the mother tongue of the adult student as well.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
ISCED 1-2 ISCED 3 ISCED 4 ISCED 5-6
Male Female
Figure 4.15 Gender distribution in the sample by the level of the current course, %
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
ISCED 1-2 ISCED 3 ISCED 4 ISCED 5-6
Younger than 25 25 – 40 41 – 65 Older than 65
Figure 4.16 Age distribution in the sample by the level of the current course, %
4.4.2. Country Level Differences by Socio-Demographic Profile
Next we observe how predominant groups of gender, age and country of birth are represented by
educational level of the current studies by countries. Results in Table 4.5 show that in Bulgarian
sample there are much less female adult learners at ISCED level 2 when compared to the average
for this group (16% versus 55%), while in Belgian, Irish and Scottish samples females at ISCED
91
2 are overrepresented by additional 15-20%. In Bulgaria, part of the formal education is
organised via schools at prisons where students above 16 years are educated. Hence, in Bulgarian
sample at ISCED level 1-2 in majority male prisoners were interviewed. In Ireland, however,
men are underrepresented in literacy and basic education programmes also at the level of the
whole population. For ISCED level 3 we find Ireland, England and Slovenia having somewhat
more females than in the overall sample. In the Czech Republic dataset there are only 36% of
women compared to the average of 60% for this group (all in all the share of men and women at
upper secondary level in the Czech Republic is equal). At ISCED level 3 in Bulgaria there is
about an equal share of women and men. Yet, women are even more predominant at ISCED level
4 than on average (here we mean total of the sample) in Lithuania, Estonia and England (80-
85%). In Austrian sample, on the other hand, only 34% of adult learners at ISCED 4 are women
and 40% in Hungary. In Austrian case two different programmes with very different gender
proportions were covered at ISCED level 4: (a) business collages with two thirds of females and
(b) vocational colleges of engineering and industrial arts for employed persons with about 90% of
males. There are by about one tenth of women less than on average at ISCED 4 also in Slovenia.
We observe the highest divergence from the average at ISCED level 5 in case of Scotland where
about 80% are women. Women make up a vast majority also in Norway, Russia, Austria and
Estonia (around 70% compared to the average of 63%). This should be kept in mind especially in
case of Austria, where in general population two thirds of all participants on ISCED level 5 are
actually male and one third female. Yet in Slovenian sample there are slightly more males at
ISCED 5, although in the total population females are prevalent in tertiary education. At ISCED
5 in Bulgaria we observe equal ratio of men and women.
Table 4.5 Gender and nationality by ISCED level and country, %
ISCED 1-2 ISCED 3 ISCED 4 ISCED 5-6
female home
country female
home
country Female
home
country female
home
country
Austria 55.6 43.9 64.7 90.8 34.0 91.9 68.5 90.2
Belgium FL 74.1 96.6 62.8 92.9 63.6 90.7 65.0 95.3
Bulgaria 15.8 92.1 53.7 98.1 68.5 98.0 48.8 97.3
Czech Republic 35.9 99.2 55.8 98.2
England 60.7 91.1 71.3 88.3 79.7 83.9 59.0 89.3
Estonia 52.1 92.2 58.3 84.4 80.3 87.1 67.1 98.3
Hungary 54.8 86.8 65.3 99.2 40.3 98.5 59.1 98.0
Ireland 77.5 88.7 75.2 90.1 72.4 79.1 64.5 85.3
Lithuania 56.5 91.2 56.1 77.0 85.4 82.3 66.9 88.7
Norway* 58.6 67.2 57.0 78.6 63.7 85.9 70.4 77.8
Russia 40.7 100.0 59.4 99.6 57.0 99.2 70.2 98.9
Scotland 67.6 96.9 66.1 93.5 70.2 93.6 81.9 96.2
Slovenia 46.5 66.5 71.2 89.7 54.9 91.7 45.1 97.2
Note: * In Norwegian questionnaire it was asked about adult learners’ citizenship, not home country or
nationality.
Vast majority of adult learners at all ISCED levels reported being born in and having a
nationality of their home country (Table 4.11.A, Appendix). Hence, there are rather small
differences according to these characteristics by ISCED levels and by countries too. Still, in case
of Austria we see that at ISCED level 2 there are only about 44% of learners saying their
nationality is that of a home country. At higher educational levels about 90% of adult learners
state having Austrian nationality. This might indicate that people with other nationalities do get
the chance to attain basic or compulsory education, but only few (can) continue their educational
92
path at higher levels. Also in Slovenia and Norway at ISCED level 2 there are less of those with
nationality of the home country when compared with other countries.
Examination of the age profile of participants first reveals a pattern between post-socialist or
Central and Easter European (CEE) countries and Austria, on one hand, and members of the EU-
15 on the other (Table 4.6). In the samples of Belgium, England, Ireland and Scotland we find
less of those belonging to the youngest age group – under 25 years of age. At the same time, in
these countries there are more learners in the age group 41-65. Some CEE countries do differ
from the overall pattern. Hungary, for instance, seems to resemble more EU-15 countries,
especially at ISCED levels 2-4. At ISCED level 3 in Slovenia, the Czech Republic, and Lithuania
we observe lower proportions of adult learners under 25 years of age than among other CEE
countries. Age composition in Lithuania at higher educational levels is also closer to EU-15.
While Austria stands out from CEE countries on ISCED level 5, as here we find rather high
proportion (close to EU-15) of learners being 41-65 years of age. Belgium, in return, has the
highest rate of adult learners in the age group of 41-65 at ISCED levels 2-4. This is partly
explained by the fact that in Belgium formal adult education offers among other things art and
language courses and thus are also attended by those who have achieved higher levels of
education prior to the current course.
Table 4.6 Age groups by ISCED level and country, %
ISCED 1-2 ISCED 3 ISCED 4 ISCED 5-6
< 25 25–
40
41–
65 < 25
25–
40
41–
65 < 25
25–
40
41–
65 < 25
25–
40
41–
65
Austria 70.6 18.9 10.5 65.7 23.9 9.1 61.1 33.8 5.1 19.5 53.5 27.0
Belgium FL 4.4 27.5 62.5 14.5 35.6 45.6 9.7 42.6 41.5 16.3 52.2 31.3
Bulgaria 46.4 47.1 6.5 40.3 51.8 7.9 39.8 48.2 12.0 32.0 61.2 6.8
Czech Rep. 26.5 63.1 15.2 10.4 70.0 14.8
England 17.6 44.6 37.8 20.1 38.2 40.2 36.7 48.5 14.8 12.8 41.6 45.2
Estonia 85.5 14.5 0 74.3 25.3 0.4 44.8 39.5 15.7 25.8 61.9 12.3
Hungary 27.6 48.8 23.6 14.2 65.0 20.9 20.5 61.5 18.0 22.3 62.3 15.4
Ireland 9.8 36.8 44.7 28.7 29.9 34.0 20.9 43.2 34.8 8.9 57.1 33.6
Lithuania 54.0 42.4 3.6 34.3 64.9 0.8 19.2 41.2 39.6 12.5 58.9 28.6
Norway* 23.9 65.2 10.9 22.1 63.8 14.1 22.7 60.2 17.0 11.8 66.0 22.2
Russia 83 16.0 1.0 65.2 31.2 3.6 51.0 42.4 6.6 33.5 58.6 8.0
Scotland 14.4 22.2 55.4 22.6 51.1 25.1 33.1 48.8 18.2 17.9 48.5 33.3
Slovenia 48.3 39.1 12.6 25.5 61.7 12.8 30.3 59.2 10.5 19.7 61.9 18.4
Note: * In case of Norway there is no information on the year of birth, respondents marked their age by
following age brackets: 16-24; 25-44; 45-64, which are close to the ones presented in this table.
4.4.3. Socio-Economic Profile of Adult Learners
Within the scientific literature, the socio-economic status is often operationalised based on
educational attainment, social position within the society and financial resources. Families with
high socio-economic status have more access to and more experience with the educational
practices. People with lower socio-economic status have lower aspirations, feel less pressure to
learn and are less used to it (Darkenwald & Merriam, 1982). They often lack financial resources
and come across a wide range of barriers to participate (Cross, 1981).
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Within our dataset, the educational attainment of the adult students varies somewhat according to
the level of the current course (Figure 4.17). Still, low skilled adults are mainly enrolled at lower
level courses and high skilled learners can mainly be found within higher level courses. Four out
of ten adults enrolled in tertiary education already obtained a bachelor or master equivalent
degree in the past. These statistics clearly show the principle of formal education as a continuous
ladder (Eurostat, 2005). Before entering the next step, finishing the previous step is obliged. In a
following part of the chapter, we will explore the possibilities of deviating from these rules by
making use of exemptions based on accreditation of prior experiential learning (APEL).
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
ISCED 1-2 ISCED 3 ISCED 4 ISCED 5-6
No or 1 + 2 (low) 3 + 4 (medium) 5 + 6 (high)
Figure 4.17 Highest completed education by the level of the current course, %
Results concerning the educational attainment of the mother and father are more or less
comparable to the educational attainment of the adult learners themselves, but the differences
between the levels of the current course are less clear-cut (see Table 4.12.A, Appendix). Most
adult learners within low level courses have low educated parents, while most adult learners with
high skilled parents are enrolled at tertiary level courses. This finding is comparable to the
habitus idea of Bourdieu (1973) stating that the socio-economic background of the parents is
reflected into the own social position obtained within society. The labour market status of the
adult learners is also not stable across levels of the current course (Figure 4.18). Adults enrolled
in tertiary education courses are more often employed, only a small part of them are seeking a
job. The cluster of inactive learners consists of retired adults, those fulfilling domestic tasks,
fulltime students and disabled learners. Four out of ten adult students at the lowest level can be
found within this group.
Answering the income question was refused by a huge amount of all adult learners within our
database (although somewhat more at lower levels of education). On an overall level, we have to
state that the income is increasing by an increasing level of the current course. Based on the
totals, we have to argue that our adult learners have an income below average as more than half
of all validated answers are situated within quintiles 1 and 2 (see Table 4.12.A, Appendix).
94
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
ISCED 1-2 ISCED 3 ISCED 4 ISCED 5-6
Active Job-seeker Inactive*
Figure 4.18 Labour market status by the level of the current course, %
Note: * Inactive: retired adults, those fulfilling domestic tasks, fulltime students and disabled learners
4.4.4. Country Level Differences by Socio-Economic Profile
According to one’s educational attainment (highest level of education completed prior to current
studies) we see that majority of adult learners studying at lower educational level (80%) are
currently obtaining their first level of education (Table 4.7). Yet, there are countries significantly
different from this pattern. In Belgium there are 44% of adult learners at ISCED level 2 who
already have acquired higher level educational degree; another 31% of them have previously
finished medium level education (ISCED 3-4). This is again due to the specificity of Belgian
formal adult education that includes art and language courses at ISCED level 2, which are often
taken up by adult learners with higher initial education. Norway, Scotland and England are other
exceptional cases. In Norway and Scotland there are about 20% of those with higher education
and around 40% of medium level education who currently study at lower educational level. In
English sample there are 10% of adult learners with higher previous education studying now at
low educational level (differences are probably due to sampling procedures). In the UK there are
also computing courses offered at ISCED level 2, this might explain why we find more adult
learners with medium and high education studying at so to say lower level courses. We observe
some interesting results also at the highest level of current studies. In Belgium, England, Scotland
and Norway there are many of those who seem to be either acquiring second higher education or
master’s degree, as they have a high level of education already before starting current studies at
ISCED 5-6. In Bulgaria, Estonia and Ireland there are about 40% of adult learners with higher
education starting their current studies at ISCED 5-6.
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Table 4.7 Educational attainment by ISCED level and country, %
ISCED 1–2 ISCED 3 ISCED 4 ISCED 5–6
Low Medium High Low Medium High Low Medium High Low Medium High
Austria 91.5 7.3 1.2 42.7 54.3 3.0 16.6 76.1 7.3 0.7 79.1 20.1
Belgium 25.6 30.5 43.9 27.7 33.1 39.2 10.1 46.4 43.5 2.4 21.3 76.3
Bulgaria 100.0 0.0 0.0 99.6 0.4 0.0 0.0 94.4 5.6 0.0 57.4 42.6
Czech
Republic 2.2 97.8 0.0 0.0 66.2 33.8
England 51.9 38.5 9.6 5.9 61.5 32.6 4.2 84.2 11.5 0.6 32.6 66.9
Estonia 97.4 2.6 0.0 93.2 6.8 0.0 4.5 84.9 10.6 0.4 54.9 44.7
Hungary 81.6 17.6 0.8 77.0 21.7 1.2 27.6 64.6 7.8 0.0 66.7 33.3
Ireland 86.9 9.7 3.4 72.5 22.5 5.1 27.0 56.8 16.2 8.5 47.3 44.2
Lithuania 100.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 95.6 3.4 0.4 73.9 25.7
Norway* 31.5 44.5 23.9 22.2 63.1 14.6 19.3 67.1 13.6 6.2 46.4 47.5
Russia 98.6 1.4 0.0 79.1 18.9 2.0 14.1 78.7 7.2 1.9 72.4 25.7
Scotland 38.5 41.5 20.0 12.8 63.1 24.1 4.9 78.5 16.5 1.8 50.9 47.4
Slovenia 87.0 1.1 11.9 46.0 54.0 0.0 6.7 93.3 0.0 0.2 96.1 3.7
Note: * Data for Norway retrieved from Norwegian SP3 Country Report
According to one’s main activity we see that there are less employed adult learners at ISCED 2
compared to higher levels in all countries, but in Belgium, England, Estonia, Hungary and Russia
about 60% of those at lowest level are working, i.e. currently active on the labour market (Table
4.8). Respective percentage is lowest in Austrian sample, where only 10% of respondents are
active on the labour market. Highest rate of those wanting to find a job is in Slovenian ISCED 2
sample –72%. There are somewhat more job seekers among adult learners studying at low
educational level, when compared to the average of the total sample, also in Austria (26%) and
Hungary (19%). Highest rates of inactivity (about 60-70%) we find in Scottish, Austrian, Irish
and Estonian samples. There are more active labour market participants at medium level courses
(at ISCED 3 more so than at ISCED 4). Again, when compared to the total average, there are
more employed adult learners taking ISCED level 3 courses in the Czech Republic, Hungary,
Belgium, England, Lithuania and Bulgaria. At ISCED level 4 activity rates are higher for
Hungary, Belgium, Slovenia, Russia, Austria and Estonia. Labour market activity rates are
highest at ISCED level 5 where on average about 70% of the sample is reporting employment as
their main current activity and thus only few are looking of a job. Labour market activity is lower
in England, Scotland, Ireland and Bulgaria where only about 40-50% of those at ISCED 5 are
employed. Our results thus confirm the general tendency of those with higher education (or
acquiring higher education) having better chances for being employed. In addition to having
higher qualifications, also often the nature of higher level learning institutions enables better to
combine work and learning activities. Nevertheless, many adults at higher levels of education
report problems with the lack of time and studies being scheduled at an inconvenient time (Table
4.1.A, Appendix). Hence, among students at lower ISCED levels (especially so at ISCED 2)
there are more job seekers and those who have (temporarily) withdrawn from the labour market.
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Table 4.8 Labour market status by ISCED level and country, %
ISCED 1–2 ISCED 3 ISCED 4 ISCED 5–6
Active Job-
seeker Inactive Active
Job-
seeker Inactive Active
Job-
seeker Inactive Active
Job-
seeker Inactive
Austria 9.9 26.4 63.7 53.9 9.9 36.1 64.7 8.4 26.9 78.9 3.9 17.2
Belgium FL 62.1 8.4 29.5 66.2 11.0 22.8 70.8 7.8 21.3 72.0 9.2 18.8
Bulgaria 63.7 19.2 17.1 45.6 20.0 34.4 53.2 11.1 35.7
Czech Rep. 86.8 6.3 6.9 90.4 1.4 8.2
England 56.2 6.2 37.5 65.2 4.7 30.0 39.5 2.4 58.1 41.5 0.6 58.0
Estonia 32.5 7.0 60.5 37.8 4.2 58.0 58.1 2.8 39.0 68.2 0.4 31.4
Hungary 61.2 19.2 19.6 79.5 9.8 10.7 71.1 16.5 12.4 79.8 0.4 19.8
Ireland 25.1 13.8 61.1 20.0 14.1 65.9 31.9 6.7 61.3 48.5 3.7 47.8
Lithuania 47.2 15.0 37.8 64.2 11.2 24.6 12.1 49.5 38.4 85.2 2.7 12.1
Norway 44.2 8.0 47.8 38.4 6.6 55.0 34.2 8.9 57.0 61.2 2.1 36.7
Russia 58.3 10.8 30.9 56.1 9.4 34.4 65.4 3.7 30.9 81.3 3.0 15.7
Scotland 23.7 3.4 72.9 21.3 7.8 70.9 12.3 1.9 85.8 41.2 1.2 57.6
Slovenia 22.3 72.0 5.7 57.0 37.1 5.8 68.2 23.9 7.8 84.0 4.5 11.5
Table 4.9 Lowest and highest income quintile by ISCED level and country, %
ISCED 1–2 ISCED 3 ISCED 4 ISCED 5–6
Quintile 1 Quintile 5 Quintile 1 Quintile 5 Quintile 1 Quintile 5 Quintile 1 Quintile 5
Austria 53.8 1.2 17.8 5.2 13.5 10.9 5.8 25.8
Belgium FL 28.1 8.6 19.9 8.1 16.0 8.5 23.2 15.2
Bulgaria 69.7 0.0 41.4 1.9 29.3 1.2 20.2 3.9
Czech Republic 18.6 2.2 8.5 7.0
England 17.9 7.1 24.9 4.8 35.6 3.6 20.4 9.0
Estonia 37.6 20.2 42.4 22.4 35.3 22.1 14.4 58.4
Hungary 30.6 7.7 14.8 17.9 18.8 22.5 18.0 34.5
Ireland 19.6 1.8 14.1 3.2 23.2 6.0 22.8 22.8
Lithuania
Norway 16.0 8.6 21.2 12.1 23.1 13.5 9.8 38.7
Russia 3.6 5.1 11.7 10.9 10.9 7.3 8.1 22.2
Scotland 25.4 3.2 52.5 2.3 56.6 1.4 38.3 5.3
Slovenia 45.0 3.3 45.3 1.0 30.6 0.8 14.7 3.1
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Because of the reference to ones labour market position, also received income is clearly higher
among those currently studying at tertiary level (Table 4.9). However, we find in case of
Bulgaria, Austria and Slovenia that there are significantly more adult learners at ISCED level 2
whose personal net monthly income belongs to the lowest income (quintile 1) when compared to
the same group is other countries. The share of those receiving lowest income is higher than
average in case of Estonia as well (38% compared to the average of 31%). Interestingly enough,
in Estonian sample there is also the highest proportion of those receiving high income (quintile 5)
at lowest educational level (20% compared to the average of 6%). Among adult learners at
ISCED level 3 and 4 income distribution in general is equal – 27% receive lowest and about 8%
receive highest income. Percentage of adult learners receiving lowest income at ISCED level 3 is
higher in Estonia and Bulgaria, but also in Slovenia and Scotland; at ISCED 4 in Scotland,
Slovenia, Estonia and Bulgaria. We find highest rate of receivers of high income at ISCED 3 and
4 in Estonia and Hungary (around 20% of the corresponding sample). Distribution of income is
more equal at ISCED level 5, where 17% receive low and 19% receive high income. Bigger
differences between countries are by highest income quintile: 58% of Estonian ISCED 5 sample
report receiving highest income, 39% and 35% respectively in Norway and Hungary.
4.4.5. Socio-Cultural Profile of Adult Learners
Participation in social and cultural activities can have positive effects on different aspects of life
(Matarasso, 1997). It increases the personal development including one’s confidence and self-
respect. Participation in these activities is also regarded as informal learning opportunity and are
often a first step in exploring further learning possibilities in non-formal or informal settings.
Furthermore, participation in social and cultural activities contributes to social cohesion, the
decrease of loneliness and criminality and shapes a more tolerant world. It gives people the
opportunity to develop their own talents and creativity and has a positive influence to the
happiness of people.
In addition to the socio-demographic and socio-economic profiles of the adult learners, we also
want to disentangle if participation in these informal learning activities is related to the
motivation of following a course in formal education.
Construction of the cultural and social variables was based on separate items listing several
examples of cultural and social activities. Culturally active adult learners visit at least four times
a year one of the following events: live concerts, theatre, opera, ballet, cinema and museum.
Socially active adult learners are a member of at least one of the following organisations: political
party, trade union, professional organisation, religious organisation, recreational, leisure or sports
group, charitable organisation.
On an overall level, half of all the adult learners within our sample are culturally active, but the
rates increase with an increasing level of the current course (Figure 4.19). Most popular cultural
activities seem to be going to cinema followed by visiting live concerts and attending sport
events. Biggest differences between educational levels appear by going to the theatre, opera or
ballet; visiting museums, but also going to live concerts, which all are more attended by and
accessible to those learning at highest educational level (see Table 4.13.A, Appendix).
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0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
ISCED 1-2 ISCED 3 ISCED 4 ISCED 5-6
Culturally active Socially active
Figure 4.19 Labour market status by the level of the current course, %
More than one out of three adult learners is a member of at least one social organisation. Again,
learners enrolled at the highest course levels are more socially active. Adult learners report more
often being a member of recreational/leisure/sports organisations and or trade unions; among
those currently learning at ISCED 5 one tenth is also a member of professional associations
(associated with their higher employment rate). Rather seldom at all educational levels, adult
learners state being active in political parties, religious and charitable organisations.
4.4.6. Country Level Differences by Socio-Cultural Profile
Countries exhibit rather different patterns by participation in various cultural activities by ISCED
levels. Adult learners at ISCED level 2 have remarkably high participation in cultural activities in
Bulgaria, Belgium and Norway – 60-85% report being culturally active (see Table 4.14.A,
Appendix). Belgium and Norway stand out through all educational levels. In England, Lithuania,
Slovenia and Hungary, however, participation of those learning at ISCED level 2 is the lowest –
26-35% compared to the average of 47% for that group. At ISCED level 3 the average
participation rate is slightly higher (51%), but for Lithuania, Slovenia, Russia and Scotland
participation interval is 34-42%. Average participation in cultural activities is the same also at
ISCED level 4; countries having lower participation are again Lithuania and Slovenia (30-33%),
but also in England, Estonia and Russia participation is below the average (44%). At the highest
educational level though, 58% of adult learners on the overall take part in some kind of cultural
activity. Still, somewhat less than half of adults at ISCED level 5 participate in cultural activities
in case of Lithuania, Scotland, Austria and Slovenia. In addition to Norway (81%) we see also
that Bulgarian adult learners at ISCED 5 have high cultural activity rate (69%), while in Belgium
it is close to the average (61%).
Also in regard on adult learners social activity we find significant differences between ISCED
levels by countries. Again, activity rates by educational levels are remarkably high in case of
99
Belgium, but also in Ireland. There is no available data for Norway though. At ISCED level 2 the
average involvement in social activities is 30%, yet in Lithuania it is only 14%; also Hungarian,
Estonian, Slovenian and Austrian adult learners are slightly less socially active when compare to
the average (~25%). Among ISCED level 3 adult learners participation in social activities is
about the same as for ISCED level 2 – 31%. Here we see that in addition to Belgium and Ireland
also Slovenia has high level of activity (41%). In Lithuania, Bulgaria and Russia on the other
hand only about 15-21% of adult learners are involved in activities of social organisations.
Coming to ISCED level 4 students we observe slight increase in social activity – 34%. In
Belgium there are 72% of those claiming activity in social organisations, almost half of ISCED 4
learners are socially active in Ireland and Austria. Yet again in Lithuania mere 14% report social
involvement and in Bulgaria one fifth does so. At ISCED level 5 there are 45% of adult learners
who actively take part in some sort of social organisations. Here, in addition to Belgium and
Ireland, also Estonia has rather high activity rate (68%). England stands out as well with 58% of
adult learners currently studying at ISCED level 5 being active in one or more social
organisations. Similarly to previous results, in Bulgaria and Lithuania activity rates are lower
(~30%).
4.5. MICRO LEVEL INDICATORS – MOTIVATION FOR LEARNING
‘Although motivation has been studied largely as a psychological concept, as a process, it is
inseparable from culture’ (Wlodkowski & Ginsberg, 1995). ‘Understanding an adult’s
motivation requires a multidisciplinary approach that considers but is not limited to that
individual’s perspective, ethnicity, family of origin, spiritual beliefs, personal goals, age,
economic means, and lifestyle’ (Wlodkowski, 1999, in: English, 2005).
4.5.1. Attitude towards Adult Education
‘Broadly conceived, attitudes towards adult education are persons’ dispositions, preferences,
prejudices and beliefs, usually expressed as opinions, that influence adult education participation
decisions. Attitudes shape how individuals value and assess the importance of adult education for
themselves, others and the larger society’ (Adrian Blunt, in: English, 2005).
Measurements on attitude towards adult education are mainly developed within the Northern
American research tradition on adult education. Blunt & Yang (2002) revised the Adult Attitudes
towards Continuing Education Scale of Darkenwald & Hayes (1988). The original scale
contained 22 items, but the authors of the revised scale also proposed a limited scale with only
nine items. These concrete items, together with their mean and standard deviation are shown in
Table 4.15.A (Appendix). Results are divided by level of the current courses, but also include the
statistics based on the totals.
Items are measured on a Lickert’s scale ranging from totally disagree (1) till totally agree (5).
Scores on items 2 till 5 are reversed because this was needed to perform a principal component
analysis on this scale.
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Overall results show that the attitudes towards learning are rather positive among adult learners,
which might be expected, because they already have made a decision to continue their education
(Figure 4.20). All means are rather close to ‘4’, the code for ‘agreeing’ with that statement. The
most positive reactions are given to the statement “adult/continuing education is mostly for
people with little else to do”, as vast majority does not agree with this; and ‘continuing my
education makes me feel better about myself’ – adult learners overwhelmingly agree with this.
Separate Chi-square tests on all items crossed by the level of the current course indicated that
differences between students enrolled at higher or lower course levels are all significant. For
instance, adult learners enrolled at the lowest course levels dislike studying somewhat more, are
more convinced that successful people do not need adult education, have more the opinion that
adult education is meant for people with little else to do and have less confidence in the fact that
money spent on adult education is well spent money. On the other hand, adult learners at higher
ISCED level tend to enjoy a bit less educational activities that allow to learn with others and
believe somewhat less, that adult/continuing education is an important way to help cope with
changes in their lives.
2,5
3
3,5
4
4,5
5
ISCED 1-2 ISCED 3 ISCED 4 ISCED 5-6
I enjoy learning with others I dislike studying +
I'm fed up with teachers + Succesful people do not need AE +
AE is for those with nothing else to do + Money spent on AE for employees
AE helps make better use of l ives AE helps to cope with changes
CE makes me feel better about myself
Figure 4.20 Attitudes towards adult education by the level of the current course
Note: Statements marked with + indicate that the figure shows positive answers to those negatively
formulated statements
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4.5.2. Country Level Differences in Attitudes towards Adult Education
At first glance it is difficult to follow country patterns in attitudes to lifelong learning when
analysing all the statements by countries and ISCED levels together (Table 4.16.A, Appendix)11.
However, it is interesting to observe in which countries adult learners’ attitudes to lifelong
learning differ from the overall pattern of attitudes presented above in Figure 4.20. On average,
its adult learners at ISCED level 4 and 2 who enjoy educational activities that allow to learn with
others a bit more than those at ISCED 3 or 5. Yet, in case of Scotland and Hungary we find
ISCED 3 and 5 learners to be most positive in regard to this statement, although there are
significant differences between ISCED groups only in Hungary where upper secondary students
enjoy studying with others more than students at other levels of education. Significant differences
between ISCED groups appear also among Bulgarian, Estonian and Russian adult learners. In
Bulgaria and Estonia ISCED 4 learners tend to enjoy learning with others more, while in Russia
it is ISCED level 4 and 5 learners who are slightly more positive than learners at lower ISCED.
Mostly adults, who have decided to continue their educational career, do not agree with disliking
studying, but if, then ISCED level 2 learners are the ones who are less exited about learning.
Primary and lower secondary students stand out especially in case of Estonia and Russia, where
they are significantly less optimistic about learning than students at higher levels of education.
These results might be explained with the fact that some of adults continuing their studies at
lower levels probably dropped out of the educational system at a rather early stage and therefore
developed less positive attitude towards learning. Adult learners at ISCED levels 4 and 5 are
more likely to study in a field they are more interested in and will probably use the knowledge
acquired also in their (future) work life. Even teachers themselves might have more positive
attitude towards adult learners studying at higher ISCED levels, because those learners are not
perceived as (former) dropouts or failures in some regard. Still, there are countries where ISCED
2 students are not the ones disliking studying more than students in higher ISCED levels: Austria,
Belgium, Ireland (although there are no significant differences between the groups).
Disliking learning most probably reflects relationship between students and teachers/classes.
Thus, it is again adult learners at lower ISCED levels who tend to disagree less with being fed up
with teachers and classes. Positive case is once again Belgium where ISCED level 2 learners
agree the least with this statement. Austria is also exceptional, as learners at ISCED level 2
(together with those at ISCED 3 and 5) are significantly less likely to be fed up with teachers and
classes than learners at ISCED level 4.
Differences between ISCED groups are most evident in attitudes to next two statements:
‘successful people do not need adult/continuing education’ and ‘adult/continuing education is
mostly for people with little else to do’. In majority of cases ISCED 2 learners agree somewhat
more with these statements than learners acquiring higher level qualification. From these results
we might assume that adult learners at ISCED level 2 do not regard themselves as successful or
as an adult learner and therefore feel less connected to those statements. There are no significant
11 In the Table 4.11 (and all analogous tables) we present differences in means by ISCED levels by country with
arranging ISCED levels (marked with respective number) starting from the level at which certain statement was
chosen the most (highest lowest mean). If ISCED levels in that sequence are separated with /, then there appear
no significant differences between the levels; when ISCED levels are separated with –, then there are significant
differences between respective ISCED levels.
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differences between ISCED groups in regard to the first statement in case of Belgium, the Czech
Republic, Estonia and Lithuania; and to the second statement only among adult learners in
Estonia, Lithuania and Slovenia.
Adult learners at ISCED levels 3-5 are also more optimistic that ‘money spent on adult/
continuing education for employees is money well spent’. This could indicate that adults at
ISCED 2 have less experience on the labour market, and if they do work, then low-skilled12
employees are still less likely to get trained. In the Czech Republic, Russia, Scotland and
Slovenia differences between attitudes of those at lowest educational level compared to higher
levels are statistically significant. Once again, Belgium stands out, as here it is ISCED level 2
adults who agree more than others with this statement. ISCED 5 group stands out especially in
case of Estonia where they are significantly more convinced in rational spending when it comes
to training/educating employees than those who study at lower educational levels.
Adult learners at ISCED 5 level are a bit less positive in regard to last three statements (items 7-
9). Thus, they believe less in practical outcome of education: ‘adult/continuing education helps
people make better use of their lives’ and ‘adult/continuing education is an important way to help
people cope with changes in their lives’. ISCED level 5 learners also give somewhat less support
to the statement ‘continuing my education makes me feel better about myself’. We could assume
that adult learners in tertiary education have already quite high self-esteem (probably due to their
labour market position or having own household and raising a family). In case of Estonia and
Lithuania it is still learners obtaining vocation or academic degree who support aforementioned
statements more, but differences among ISCED groups are not statistically significant. From
these last three statements we observe somewhat more ISCED level differences in regard to
attitudes to the statement claiming that adult education helps to cope with changes in ones life.
Hence, in Belgium, Ireland and the Czech Republic ISCED level 5 students are more convinced
in this than others; in Norway ISCED 2 more so than those at higher levels; and in Russia ISCED
3-5 more than ISCED 2.
LLL2010 project is especially interested in how low-skilled adult learners are coping in formal
adult education system – do their perceptions and experiences in adult education vary from those
at higher levels of education. Therefore it is interesting to follow, in which countries there are
significant differences in attitudes to lifelong learning between students at ISCED level 2 versus
others. It appears that Russian adult learners differ in their attitudes to lifelong learning the most,
they feel less positive almost about all statements (excl. enjoying educational activities that allow
learning with others) (Table 4.16.A, Appendix). In Slovenia ISCED 2 students are less positively
oriented towards about half of the statements. On average in other countries, adult learners
studying at ISCED level 2 differ significantly from students at higher levels by having somewhat
lower enthusiasm only towards one or two statements measuring attitudes to lifelong learning.ii
12 In general, we refer to those studying at ISCED level 1-2 as low-skilled, because majority of adult learners (80%)
currently studying at ISCED level 1-2 have no or low level of prior education, with the exception of Belgium,
Norway, Scotland and England where only up to 50% of adults currently at ISCED level 1-2 have no or low level of
prior education.
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4.5.3. Relevance of Participation in Adult Education
Engaging in learning starts from a certain purpose which is often translated into the concept of
motivation. The Education Participation Scale of Boshier & Collins (1985) is the most well-
developed measurement instrument within the adult education motivational research tradition.
The scale has been tested by different researchers (see of example Garst & Ried, 1999). It has
also been found that participation is not limited to one single motivational dimension (there can
be several) and that motivations differ according to socio-demographic background
characteristics (Boshier, 1991).
Within our own research, we integrated three items of each motivational orientation found by
Garst & Ried (1999): competency-related curiosity, interpersonal relations, community service,
escape from routine, professional advancement and compliance with external influence. As we
worked with a reduced number of statements, it was not our aim to control the original factor
structure as found in previous research, but to construct a set of clear and usable dependent
variables which we can use within the multivariate analyses.
First, we show the descriptive statistics for each of the 18 items included in our SP3
questionnaire. The file is divided by the level of the current course. The scale ranges from totally
disagree (1) to totally agree (5).
Once again, differences between the educational levels of the current course and the separate
items composing relevance of learning are significant following the results of Chi-square tests.
Students enrolled at the lowest levels learn less because of a certain interest, less to earn more,
were more forced by others to enrol, are more interested in group activities, enrol more to get a
break from the daily routine, participate less to do their job better and also somewhat less to
receive a certificate. Learners at higher levels continue their educational path more because of the
interest in a subject and have more job-related motives. In general it seems that adult learners
give high relevance to extrinsic, but also to intrinsic motives for re-entering formal education
system, meaning that they are very much interested in increasing their human capital, but also
social capital (building social relationships) and are looking for personal fulfilment. While
mostly, adult learners are not motivated by social control aspects of learning (see Figures 4.21-
4.24 and Table 4.17.A, Appendix).
104
0,00
0,50
1,00
1,50
2,00
2,50
3,00
3,50
4,00
4,50
ISCED 1-2 ISCED 3 ISCED 4 ISCED 5-6
to learn more on a subject that interests me to learn knowledge/skills useful in my daily l ife
to gain awareness of myself and others to get a break from the routine of home and work
because I was bored
0,00
0,50
1,00
1,50
2,00
2,50
3,00
3,50
4,00
4,50
ISCED 1-2 ISCED 3 ISCED 4 ISCED 5-6
to meet new people to contribute more as a citizen
to contribute more to my community to participate in group activities
Figure 4.21 Personal fulfilment reasons for participation Figure 4.22 Social capital reasons for participation
0,00
0,50
1,00
1,50
2,00
2,50
3,00
3,50
4,00
4,50
ISCED 1-2 ISCED 3 ISCED 4 ISCED 5-6
to obtain certificate to earn more
to do my job better to get a job
to be less l ikely to lose my current job to start up my own business
0,00
0,50
1,00
1,50
2,00
2,50
3,00
3,50
4,00
4,50
ISCED 1-2 ISCED 3 ISCED 4 ISCED 5-6
because someone advised me to do it because my employer required me to enrol
because I was obliged to do it
Figure 4.23 Human capital reasons for participation Figure 4.24 Social control reasons for participation
105
4.5.4. Country Level Differences in Relevance of Participation in Adult Education
In all countries, two most important reasons for adult learners starting their current study
programme are: ‘to learn more on a subject that interests me’ (personal fulfilment), followed
closely by ‘to obtain a certificate’ (increasing ones human capital) (Table 4.18.A, Appendix).
Yet, there are some differences by educational levels. Students at ISCED level 4 and 5 seem to
appreciate more the subject they are learning, while ISCED level 2 students are slightly less into
obtaining a certificate. Adult learners at ISCED level 4 and 5 continue their education to obtain a
vocation or get specialisation in a certain field that they chose (with or without someone’s help)
and therefore are also more interested in it. ISCED level 2 certificates offer the least possibilities
at the labour market, hence compared to higher level students ISCED 2 learners are somewhat
less motivated to continue studies because of the certificate. But receiving lower secondary
education does open the doors to higher educational levels, making it thus still fairly important to
those adult learners. Yet, this does not apply universally to all countries studied. Results show
that in Belgium, Bulgaria and Norway adult learners obtaining primary education are actually
interested in the subject that they learn more or as much as their counterparts at higher
educational levels (differences between ISCED groups are not significant). Among half of the
countries there are significant differences between two or more ISCED groups in how important
they consider learning on a subject of their interest. In regard to obtaining certificate there are
also several countries where it is more important for lower level students: Austria, Estonia,
Hungary and Lithuania (no significant differences in case of Hungary and Lithuania). We find
practically in all countries significant differences between educational levels and the degree of
relevance that is given to obtaining a certificate.
We continue describing results by personal fulfilment reasons for continuing ones studies. Quite
often adult learners stated learning new knowledge/skills useful in their daily life as a reason for
starting current studies. Here, the overall trend is that learning for new skills useful in daily life
increases as educational level of learning decreases. Thus, students at ISCED 5 agreed with this
the least (especially in the Czech Republic, Estonia and Ireland), probably because they already
consider themselves rather competent in daily activities. In addition to having interest in a certain
subject and wanting to learn new skills useful in daily life, adult learners were also quite often
motivated by another personal fulfilment aspect of learning – ‘to gain awareness of myself and
others’. This was more important motivator again for learners at ISCED level 2, but there are
significant differences between ISCED levels only in few countries. Among Russian adult
learners, however, ISCED 2 students are significantly less likely than those at higher ISCED
levels to claim that they started current studies as to gain awareness of themselves and others.
Same tendency is apparent for Estonia, Lithuania, Slovenia and to some degree England and
Scotland, yet there are no significant differences between ISCED levels. Last two aspects of
personal fulfilment were chosen less often as a reason for continuing ones education. But also
here, learners at lower ISCED level stand out; they were more motivated by getting a brake from
the routine of home and work and/or because they felt bored. The latter reason though, affected
decision to start up studies in formal education much less when compared to other reasons
presented in Tables 4.18.A (Appendix). To go in more detail, we observe that in case of Estonia
and Lithuania it is the ISCED 4 students who say that learning will give them a break from the
routine of home and work more often than others. This could be due to gender differences: at
106
ISCED level 4 in Estonian and Lithuanian sample there are substantially more women when
compared to other levels; so women might experience more home-work routine because of their
higher workload of domestic tasks. However, this gender-related tendency does not apply to other
countries.
It seems that adult learners at ISCED level 2 compared to those at higher levels are more inclined
to communal or social aspects of learning – social capital. Learners at primary level of education
state more often that participating in group activities was one of the reasons to start current
studies, even though this reason was not too widespread among adult learners. In CEE countries
(excl. Bulgaria) there were no significant differences between ISCED groups, but the trend of
lower level students to prefer group activities still persists. In line with these results are also
answers to the statement regarding meeting new people. Adult learners at ISCED 2 have chosen
this as a reason to continue education more frequently than adults at ISCED 5. So it seems as
though learners at higher ISCED levels become more individualistic or perhaps just place a
higher value to other reasons in continuing their educational path. Nevertheless, there are
countries were opposite is true. To adult learners studying at primary level of education in the
Czech Republic, Estonia, Lithuania and Russia meeting new people appears to be less appealing
than to the learners at higher levels.
ISCED level 2 and 4 students associate continuing learning also with contributing to their
community and being more active as a citizen – ‘to contribute more to my community’ and ‘to
contribute more as a citizen’. Yet, in Belgium these qualities are more important to adult learners
at tertiary level of education. In Russia, Lithuania and Estonia (no significant differences in two
latter countries) students at primary and lower secondary level seem to be less aware of
contributing to community. In case of Estonia, for ISCED 2 and 4 students also being a more
active citizen is somewhat less important reason in stimulating participation in adult education
than for upper secondary and tertiary level students, but differences between educational levels
are not significant.
Notable relevance was given to job-related reasons for starting current studies – increasing ones
human capital. Thus, many adults at higher ISCED level stated that ‘to earn more’ and ‘to do my
job better’ were one of the reasons for continuing studies. ‘To get a job’ and ‘to be less likely to
lose my current job’ were mentioned less frequently. Overall tendency is that first two reasons
are more important to higher level and second two for lower level students. These results can be
explained by the fact that adult learners at higher ISCED level are more likely to be employed,
thus they would expect or hope to gain from learning better competences at work and higher
salary or promotion. Adult learners at lower ISCED level, in return, are more likely to search for
a job or are more apprehensive about being able to keep their current job because of a low or no
qualification. Also here we find some “exceptions to the rule”. In the Czech Republic and
Hungary it is the lower ISCED level learners who are more or as eager to earn more than those at
higher levels. There are no significant differences between ISCED groups in Bulgaria, Estonia
and Lithuania, but ISCED 2 students are the last ones in the rank order, thus somewhat less
motivated by earnings. This could also mean that adult learners at primary level do not expect
decent earnings after attaining low-level qualification certificate. However, we could assume
from this that in CEE countries earnings are a crucial issue for learners at all educational levels.
In Austria, Hungary and Scotland ISCED level 2 learners are motivated in continuing studies by
doing their job better as often as learners acquiring higher education do. And not in all countries
107
are low-skilled students the ones who are more motivated by getting a job – Belgium, England
and Scotland (no significant differences in case of the latter though). In Belgium ISCED 2
students also state the least that they started currents studies to avoid losing their current job. In
most of the countries there are no significant differences by educational levels in this regard. As
the overall mean here is below three, then being less likely in losing a job was not so relevant to
adult learners in starting their studies during economically stable or even booming times. To
better understand special cases of some countries we present here their employment/activity rates.
In Belgian, Hungarian and England’s samples we find the highest rates of employment when
comparing ISCED 2 adult learners (around 60%). In Scotland’s sample there are relatively less
people employed at all ISCED levels (about 20% at ISCED 2 and 3, 10% at ISCED 4 and 40% at
ISCED 5) and just few percent are searching for a job.
Another career related reason that was presented to adult learners in SP3 questionnaire is ‘to start
up my own business’. Mostly this was not a reason for starting current studies, and especially so
for ISCED 5 students. On average, adult learners at ISCED 5 are older, more experienced and so
perhaps more aware of the risks and difficulties related to own business. It has also been
suggested that sometimes starting up own business is considered as a way out of unemployment
or inactivity, which are less of a problem for those with tertiary education.
Next we observe employers influence on the decision to continue ones education – ‘because my
employer required me to enrol in the programme’. According to total mean (Table 4.17.A,
Appendix) we can conclude that employer’s requirement played a relatively minor role in starting
up current study programme. However, if this was the case, than more so for adult learners at
ISCED level 2. Interestingly enough, in Belgium the trend is opposite, ISCED 2 learners have
stated employers requirement as a reason to start studies significantly less than learners at higher
ISCED levels. In more than half of the countries there are no significant differences between
educational levels, but still ISCED 2 learners appear in the first end of the sequence (Table
4.18.A, Appendix), meaning they are slightly more inclined to answer that their employer did
require obtaining primary or lower secondary education.
In addition to employer’s requirement learners were also asked whether being obliged or
following someone’s advice was a reason to continue their studies, hereby measuring whether
learners felt social control to re-enter formal education system. Social control aspects were not
overriding reasons chosen by adult learners, but the lower ones current level of education the
more likely s/he was to be motivated (at least partly) by the reasons reflecting social control.
Belgium is once again an exceptional case here, as ISCED level 2 students felt obligation or were
affected by someone’s advice less than students at higher levels of education.iii
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4.5.5. Confidence in Successfully Completing Current Studies
‘Confidence has been described as an inherent personality trait (McKinney, 1960). However,
confidence is generally accepted as situation-specific, and it can be therefore manipulated by
internal and external factors (Keller, 1979; Moller, 1993)’ (in Huett et. al., 2008).
Following Keller, confidence in one’s own abilities and experiencing support from others is a
main condition to survive in a certain environment. One of the main concerns within the field of
adult education is the persistence of the students. Early school leavers dropping out without any
qualification are often labelled as missed opportunities to increase skills and knowledge useful in
daily life, labour market and within society as a whole.
Within our questionnaire, we constructed a five-item scale including three items on receiving
support from persons within the own life, one on confidence in one’s own abilities and one on
negative learning experiences in the past.
Similar to the attitude and relevance scale, items were measured from totally disagree (1) till
totally agree (5). Descriptive statistics, including means and standard deviation by level of the
current course and totals are presented in Table 4.19.A (Appendix). Again, Chi-square tests
indicate significant differences between the levels of the current course. Students enrolled at the
lowest levels receive less support from others, are a bit less confident in their own abilities and
are less motivated because of negative learning experiences in the past (Figure 4.25).
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
3,5
4
4,5
5
ISCED 1-2 ISCED 3 ISCED 4 ISCED 5-6
My family supports me while I am studying
My friends encourage me to continue the study programme
I am confident that I will be able to complete the study programme
I am not very motivated because of my negative learning experiences in the past (+)
My employer encourages me to continue the study programme
Figure 4.25 Confidence in completing the study programme by the level of the current course
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4.5.6. Country Level Differences in Confidence of Completing Current Studies
Results are encouraging as majority of adult learners in all countries analysed feel confident
about being able to complete the study programme (total mean 4.3), although confidence
increases slightly by the level of education. Statistically significant differences between ISCED
groups appear only in three countries (Table 4.20.A, Appendix): in Bulgaria ISCED level 2 and
in Lithuania ISCED level 2 and 3 are less confident in completing current studies, while in
Hungary ISCED level 5 stands out as significantly more confident than learners at lower
educational levels. In Belgium, however, learners at primary and lower secondary level seem to
be somewhat more confident in successfully completing current studies than others (no
significant differences by educational level though).
Next adult learners were asked about the level of support and encouragement they receive from
family, friends and employer. As expected, learners feel most supported by their family.
Regrettably though, adult learners at lower levels of education experience family support during
studying less. Perhaps this question was understood in terms of financial support and as at least
compulsory level of education is free of charge in all countries then this might be the reason why
learners at tertiary level feel more supported. In Belgium, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, England,
Hungary and Slovenia differences between higher and lower ISCED levels are significant. Russia
is exceptional, as here it is ISCED level 4 adult learners who report significantly more often
family support than others.
Adult learners at primary and lower secondary level also feel that their friends encourage them to
continue the study programme less. We could assume that at lower levels of education or at
younger age people are less aware of the importance of education and therefore do not encourage
their friends so much. Or perhaps learning is somewhat less popular at this stage of life. ISCED 2
students are significantly less encouraged by their friends to continue current studies in following
countries: Austria, Belgium (here as much as at ISCED level 3), England, Hungary, Lithuania,
Russia and Slovenia.
Employer encouragement to continue the study programme is felt the least. This is in line with
previous results regarding motivation to start current studies, as only in few cases employers
required continuing studies in formal adult education. Sometimes employers are even not aware
of the fact that their employees are studying in formal education, because they study in a field not
related to current job or industry. Employers are more involved in non-formal education (courses,
seminars, etc.). ISCED level 2 students feel significantly less employer encouragement in Austria
and Belgium. In Scotland and Slovenia they actually report higher level of employer support than
those at ISCED level 3 and 4. Whilst in Bulgaria ISCED 2-3 are more encouraged by their
employer that those at higher levels of education. We find no significant differences between
educational levels for other countries.
Adult learners were also asked whether they are not very motivated for this study programme
because of negative learning experience in the past. As ISCED level 2 learners were less positive
about lifelong learning or adult education in general then it is not surprising that they report more
often than others being influenced by the negative learning experience in the past. We could
again associate this with dropping out at a very early stage of education (because of problems
110
with some teachers for instance) or it might be due to different learning/teaching techniques at
lower levels of education. There are significant differences between ISCED groups in more than
half of the countries where adult learners at ISCED level 2 are more often motivated less for
currents studies because of their negative learning experience: Bulgaria, the Czech Republic,
England, Estonia, Lithuania, Russia, Scotland and Slovenia (mostly CEE countries).iv
4.5.7. Satisfaction with Learning Process and Outcome
‘Satisfaction comes when learners are allowed to practise using newly acquired knowledge and
skills and to receive feedback in a manner that leads to positive attitudes towards the learning
task. This also enables learners to receive reinforcement to maintain desirable learning
behaviours’ (Keller, 1987).
As a last step within the ARCS cycle of Keller, a good level of satisfaction counts as an
indispensability to avoid dropouts and to stimulate retention within a learning institution. In
addition, satisfaction among the participants could also be viewed as indicator of the quality of
the study programme.
Within SP3 questionnaire, we measured satisfaction based on five items containing elements on
the general progress, the general learning climate, the practical organisation, the new learned
knowledge or skills and the future perspectives after finishing the course. Descriptive statistics
are illustrated by the Figure 4.26 below. At an overall level, we can state that the adult learners
are rather satisfied with all five aspects and that differences between levels of the current course
are less dominant here than they were in regard to relevance and confidence.
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1
1,5
2
2,5
3
3,5
4
4,5
ISCED 1-2 ISCED 3 ISCED 4 ISCED 5-6
general progress of the entire study programme
general learning climate in the educational institution
practical organisation of the educational institution
what you have so far learned thanks to the course
what you can go on to do after completion of this course
Figure 4.26 Satisfaction with the study programme by the level of the current course
4.5.8. Country Level Differences in Satisfaction with Learning Process and Outcomes
General trend is that even though adult learners are mostly satisfied with their studies, still those
at highest level of education tend to be little less satisfied than others with the progress and
outcome of the current studies. It could be that at higher levels of education learners are more
aware of their own needs and have therefore higher demands and expectations to educational
institutions. On average, adult learners are somewhat less satisfied with ‘the general practical
organisation of the educational institution’ and ‘the general progress of the entire study
programme’. In case of the latter we find diverging results only for Hungary, where tertiary level
students are together with ISCED level 2 students less satisfied with the progress of the entire
study programme (Table 4.22.A, Appendix). Otherwise, when differences between ISCED levels
are significant (Belgium, Bulgaria and Ireland), results are in line with the general trend – ISCED
level 2 are most satisfied or ISCED level 5 least satisfied. There are more significant differences
among educational groups when it comes to practical organisation of the educational institution.
Only in England, Estonia, Norway and Slovenia adult learners do not differ significantly in their
opinions about practical organisation of the educational institution. Otherwise, those at higher
levels of education are clearly less satisfied with this aspect of learning process. Somewhat
exceptional is the case of Lithuania, were ISCED level 4 learners are significantly more satisfied
with practical organisation of their school than others. Another peculiarity comes from
Norwegian survey. If in all other countries vast majority of adult learners were roughly satisfied
112
with their study programme and educational institution, then in Norway almost 80% of learners
showed dissatisfaction with the general progress of the entire study programme. A clear majority
was also dissatisfied with the general practical organisation of the educational institution (63-
78%). It seems that Norwegian adult learners are very critical of their learning environment and
know what they need from educational institutions, since compared to educational systems in
other countries Norwegian system could hardly be described as worse or poorly performing.
From the measures of learning process, adult learners give higher assessment to ‘the general
learning climate of the entire study programme’. Yet also here, learners at tertiary level of
education are slightly more reserved, while mostly there are no differences between opinions of
ISCED level 2-4 learners. Learners at highest educational level differ significantly from others in
Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Hungary and Ireland. In Belgium it is the ISCED level 2 learners
who are significantly more satisfied with learning climate than others. For Russia we observe
somewhat different results: ISCED level 5 and 2 learners are significantly less satisfied with the
learning climate than learners at ISCED 3 and 4.
There are fewer differences between ISCED levels in regard to satisfaction with learning
outcomes. Adult learners are most satisfied with what they can go on to do after completion of
the current studies. Whereby, ISCED 4 learners are more satisfied and ISCED 5 learners once
again slightly less. There are significant differences between educational levels in four countries:
in Belgium ISCED 2 are the most satisfied; in England and Scotland ISCED 4; and in Bulgaria
both ISCED 4 and 3 are the most satisfied with what they can do after completing current studies.
Finally, ISCED 4 learners are also more satisfied with what they have so far learned thanks to the
course, and ISCED 5 learners are slightly less satisfied with this too. Where differences by
educational level are significant, we find only in case of Belgium divergent results, here learners
at primary and lower secondary level are more satisfied with what they have learned so far than
those at higher levels. Returning to Norwegian case, despite of being dissatisfied with the process
aspects of learning, majority of adult learners (84-91%) are satisfied with that they have learned
so far. Norwegian results are thus inconsistent in regard to satisfaction with learning process and
outcomes, which partly might be due to a low quality of the survey. In addition, for reasons of
anonymity it was not possible to detect on individual level to find out exactly why respondents
are so inconsistent in their answers. v
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5. THE EFFECTS OF MICRO, MESO AND MACRO LEVEL CHARACTERISTICS ON PERCEPTIONS AND EXPERIENCES OF ADULT LEARNERS
Results of the descriptive analysis indicated that the adult learners group studied in LLL2010
project countries is rather heterogeneous (e.g. socio-demographic and socio-economic
indicators). Partly this is due to a very diverse way that adult formal education is organised and
understood nation-wide. Nevertheless, on an overall level patterns related to experiences of adult
learners are not too different, especially if taking into account prior noted differences. Table 5.1
(see also Table 5.1.A, Appendix) shows that more pronounced differences between countries,
according to educational levels, appear in regard to extrinsic motivation (or in other words
socially triggered relevance) and experienced barriers. Country differences are on average more
present at lower levels of current education (ISCED 1-213).
Table 5.1 Country differences in ARCS’s, classroom environment and barriers by educational level,
between group variance (intraclass correlations)
ISCED 2 ISCED 3 ISCED 4 ISCED 5 Total
Extrinsic motivation .61 .23 .28 .26 .29
Barriers .48 .22 .12 .27 .23
Classroom
environment .13 .11 .11 .12 .09
Attitude .22 .09 .05 .09 .08
Intrinsic motivation .09 .06 .13 .06 .06
Satisfaction .08 .05 .04 .07 .05
Confidence .03 .03 .03 .04 .02
While according to classroom environment, attitude, intrinsic motivation, satisfaction and
confidence variation patterns are less evident: vast majority of adult learners express positive
attitude towards lifelong learning; are to a fairly equal degree influenced by intrinsic motives; are
generally satisfied with their learning; and confident in successfully finishing current studies.
13 Further in the text referred to as ISCED 2 and ISCED level 5-6 will be referred to as ISCED 5, as those were
prevalent groups in the sample.
114
5.1. COUNTRY DIFFERENCES IN ADULT LEARNERS’ EXPERIENCES AND PERCEPTIONS OF FORMAL ADULT EDUCATION BY EDUCATIONAL LEVELS
5.1.1. Country Differences in Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motives
Next we study country differences by summarised ARCS and classroom environment variables
and total barriers by educational level of the current course. From Table 5.1 we could conclude
that countries vary the most in regard to adult learners’ extrinsic reasons for continuing their
studies. To go in further detail (Table 5.2) it appears that on the overall level (total ISCED)
extrinsic motives are more prevalent among Central and Eastern European countries (incl.
Russia). In Bulgaria there are more adult learners continuing their studies due to extrinsic
motives than in other countries. Bulgaria is followed by Lithuania and Hungary. In Russia and
the Czech Republic extrinsic motives are less apparent than in prior countries. From CEE
countries Slovenian and Estonian adult learners are the least motivated by extrinsic reasons to
study, while from Western European countries Belgian learners stand out as the least extrinsically
motivated. Scottish students on the other hand are more motivated by extrinsic reasons when
compared to their counterparts in other Western European countries. Bulgaria and Belgium are
outliers throughout different educational levels as well.
Country differences are more apparent at ISCED level 2 where CEE countries together with
Austria and Scotland compose a large group of rather extrinsically motivated adult learners. In
Ireland and England adult learners at low educational level are less extrinsically motivated, but
more so than in Belgium. As was indicated in the descriptive analysis chapter, adult learners in
Belgium constitute a specific group, especially in comparison to CEE countries. Hence, Belgian
learners at lower educational levels are more likely to have obtained higher initial education.
Therefore on average they are also more experienced and older adult learners, who probably have
clear vision of their aims and feel more the inner need to study or continue one’s educational
career. At ISCED 3 it is adult learners in Bulgaria, Hungary, Lithuania and the Czech Republic
who express more extrinsic reasons for learning than do learners in Slovenia, Estonia, Russia, but
also in Scotland, Ireland and England. Austrian adult learners at ISCED 3 seem to learn less due
to extrinsic reasons, whereas Belgian learners are again the least motivated by extrinsic reasons to
continue their studies. Also at ISCED level 4 we see that CEE and Western countries are not
homogenous groups in regard to extrinsic motivation. After Bulgaria, more extrinsically
motivated are Lithuanian, Hungarian and Russian learners. Estonian and Slovenian adult learners
are quite similar to learners in Ireland, Austria, England and Scotland in their reasons for
continuing studies. Country differences are less prevalent at the highest level of education. Here
it is only Bulgaria on one end (more extrinsically motivated) and Austria and Belgium (less
extrinsically motivated) on the other that are significantly different from other countries.
According to intrinsic reasons for continuing studies it appears that significant differences
between countries exist only at ISCED level 5 where Czech adult learners are less intrinsically
motivated (Table 5.2.A, Appendix). At ISCED levels 2 and 3, however, it seems that in Ireland
and Scotland adult learners feel more inner need to study, even though country differences are
not statistically significant. Out of CEE countries we could regard learners in Lithuania, Bulgaria
and Estonia to be somewhat more intrinsically motivated.
115
Table 5.2 Country mean differences in EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION by educational level
COUNTRIES
Total (F=336,980; df=11) BG – LT / HU – RU / CZ – EE / SI – SC – IE / EN / AU – BE
ISCED 2 (F=188,182; df=10) BG – HU / RU / LT / SI / AU / SC / EE – IE / EN – BE
ISCED 3 (F=71,466; df=11) BG / HU / LT / CZ – SI / EE / RU / SC / IE / EN – AU – BE
ISCED 4 (F=98,729; df=10) BG – LT / HU / RU – EE / SI / IE / AU / EN / SC – BE
ISCED 5 (F=87,657: df=11) BG – LT / HU / RU / CZ / EE / SC / SI / EN / IE – AU / BE
Note: * Means presented from highest to lowest mean
** / = no significant difference between means; – = significant difference between means
*** Not enough variables in case of Norway
**** In the Czech Republic only ISCED level 3 and 5 adult learners were interviewed
5.1.2. Country Differences in Barriers and Classroom Environment
Adult learners of Central and Eastern European countries tend to experience more barriers while
studying in formal adult education, but also adult learners in Norway and Austria report more
problems than those in other Western European countries (Table 5.3). Interestingly, Bulgarian
adult learners experience significantly less problems than their counterparts from other CEE
countries. At ISCED level 2 Russian, Slovenian, Estonian and Austrian learners report problems
the most. They are followed by Norway and Lithuania and Hungary. Adult learners at low level
of education in the UK, Ireland, Bulgaria and Belgium report problems the least. At upper
secondary and postsecondary education there are no significant country level differences in
experiencing barriers, although at ISCED level 3 Western countries (excl. Norway) are at the
lower end of the sequence, that is, adult learners in those countries face somewhat less problems
during their studies. At ISCED level 5 only adult learners in the UK report significantly fewer
problems than learners in other countries.
Table 5.3 Country mean differences in BARRIERS by educational level
COUNTRIES
Total (F94,045; df=12) NO / RU / EE / SI / HU – LT / CZ / AU – BE – BG / IE – SC – EN
ISCED 2 (F=54,330; df=11) RU / SI / EE / AU – NO – LT / HU – SC / IE / BG / BE / EN
ISCED 3 (F=26,794; df=12) NO / SI / HU / EE / RU / LT / BG / CZ / AU / IE / BE / SC / EN
ISCED 4 (F=13,965; df=11) NO / EE / RU / SI / IE / AU / HU / BG / LT / SC / EN / BE
ISCED 5 (F=28,004; df=12) EE / LT / NO / RU / AU / CZ / HU / SI / BE / IE / BG – SC / EN
Note: * Means presented from highest to lowest mean
** / = no significant difference between means; – = significant difference between means
In regard to classroom environment we do not observe many substantial differences between
countries, although in general adult learners in Western countries tend to perceive classroom
settings more positively. At lower ISCED levels (2 and 3) there appear to be no significant
differences in perceptions of one’s classroom milieu. At ISCED level 4 only Slovenian adult
116
learners experience their classroom less positively. Country variations are more evident at ISCED
level 5 where adult learners in England are most positive about their classroom environment;
learners in Scotland, Estonia, Austria, Lithuania, Ireland and Russia stand amidst; while learners
in other countries perceive classroom less positively. In Norway some statements regarding
classroom environment were not asked and therefore results are not presented in Table 5.4. Yet
when studying statements that were included in the Norwegian questionnaire we observe very
high agreement with almost all statements (all means on a 5-point scale 4 and above).
Table 5.4 Country mean differences in CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT by educational level
COUNTRIES
Total (F=86,349; df=11) EN / IE / SC / AU / RU / BE / EE / BG / LT – HU – SI / CZ
ISCED 2 (F=30,412; df=10) AU / IE / BE / EN / SC / BG / HU / EE / RU / LT / SI
ISCED 3 (F=28,557; df=11) IE / AU / SC / RU / EN / HU / BG / BE / LT / EE / CZ / SI
ISCED 4 (F=27,698; df=10) EN / IE / SC / EE / RU / LT / BG / BE / HU / AU – SI
ISCED 5 (F=38,766; df=11) EN – SC / EE / AU / LT / IE / RU – BE / BG / SI / CZ / HU
Note: * Means presented from highest to lowest mean
** / = no significant difference between means; – = significant difference between means
*** Not enough variables in case of Norway
5.1.3. Country Differences in Attitudes
In regard to one’s attitude towards adult education or lifelong learning in general we do not
observe distinct differences between CEE and Western European countries (Table 5.5). However,
adult learners in Norway appear to have most positive attitude towards adult education at all
educational levels. In general, learners in Slovenia and Bulgaria, followed by Russia and the
Czech Republic have the least positive attitude towards adult education. At ISCED level 2
Norwegian and Austrian adult learners are most affirmative to adult education, while this
tendency is quite the opposite in case of Russian learners. All other countries remain in-between.
At ISCED level 3 adult learners in the Czech Republic are significantly less positive in regard to
adult education, whereas at ISCED level 4 and 5 only Norwegian learners stand out as the most
positive towards learning as an adult.
Table 5.5 Country mean differences in ATTITUDES by educational level
COUNTRIES
Total (F=133,712; df=12) NO – AU / IE / EE / HU / EN / SC / BE / LT – SI / BG – RU / CZ
ISCED 2 (F=65,387; df=11) NO / AU – IE / BE / HU / EE / LT / EN / SI / SC / BG – RU
ISCED 3 (F=40,313; df=12) NO – AU / IE / HU / SC / EN / EE / BE / RU / LT / SI / BG – CZ
ISCED 4 (F=23,942; df=11) NO – EE / IE / SC / EN / AU / HU / LT / BG / BE / SI / RU
ISCED 5 (F=47,810; df=12) NO – AU / EE / IE / EN / LT / SC / HU / RU / SI / BE / BG / CZ
Note: * Means presented from highest to lowest mean
** / = no significant difference between means; – = significant difference between means
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5.1.4. Country Differences in Satisfaction and Confidence
Adult learners in formal education do not differ much according to satisfaction with the progress
and outcome of their current studies (Table 5.3.A, Appendix). Significant differences appear
again only at ISCED level 5, where we see that Hungarian adult learners are less satisfied with
their studies when compared to other countries. Yet again we observe that at all ISCED levels
learners in Western countries are slightly more satisfied with their studies (no statistically
significant results). From post-socialist countries it is Russian adult learners who seem to be a bit
more satisfied with their studies throughout all educational levels.
Hungary is exceptional in regard to confidence as well, thus on an overall level and at ISCED
level 4 Hungarian adult learners are notably less confident in successfully completing current
studies (Table 5.4.A, Appendix). Norwegian (excl. ISCED 5) and at some educational levels also
Austrian learners are more confident than others, however these country differences are not
statistically significant.
5.2. MICRO, MESO AND MACRO LEVEL CHARACTERISTICS AFFECTING PERCEPTIONS AND EXPERIENCES OF ADULT LEARNERS
We observe the effect of macro, meso and micro characteristics to ARCS variables and barriers
via Pearson’s correlations. Correlations with categorical variables are calculated according to
Field (2000: 95). There is a separate analysis by all ISCED levels and ISCED level 2, as one of
the aims of LLL2010 is to study how adult learners at lower levels of education fare in formal
education in comparison to those studying at higher levels. This analysis is followed by
regression models revealing which individual and institutional aspects are most relevant in
explaining differences in adult learners’ perceptions and experiences.
Results indicate (Tables 5.5.A and 5.6.A, Appendix) that in case of all educational levels macro
level characteristics tend to have significant effect mainly on one’s extrinsic motivation. Thus,
GDP per capita; public expenditure on education; percentage of people with higher education;
percentage of upper secondary students enrolled in vocational education; but also trade union
density and collective bargaining coverage; expenditures on active and passive labour market
measures are in negative correlation with extrinsic motivation. On the other hand, ratio of
employees with low occupations into employees with low education and percentage of
population with at least upper secondary education are in positive correlation with the overall
extrinsic motivation variables. So we might assume that in wealthier countries which contribute
more to educational system, have higher percentage of population with higher education, with
active unionism and generous labour market policies extrinsic motivations tend to be less
prevalent. The same tendencies are observable in case of separate analysis for ISCED level 2
adult learners.
On the macro level we see that national legislation setting statutory minimum wages is in positive
correlation with one’s attitude towards adult education, this is so for all educational levels and for
ISCED 2 separately as well. At lower educational level also public expenditure on training of
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unemployed and GDP per capita tend to have a positive association with attitude towards adult
education.
Correlations of macro level variables with ARCS and barriers are in part difficult to interpret, as
at the country or institutional level macro variables compose certain internally congruent
‘packages’. Therefore separate correlation results (by each macro indicator) might not give us
relevant information. Hence in the final subchapter we conduct cluster analysis on the macro
indicators by countries.
At the meso level it appears that classroom environment variables have significant positive
correlation with one’s attitude, confidence and especially so with satisfaction at all educational
levels and separately at ISCED 2 as well. Here we do not consider meso level effects on intrinsic
and extrinsic motives, as those are shaped predominantly before entering formal adult education
system (see also discussion in Chapter 5.2.1). Attitude to adult education measures the views of
adult learners in present, thus we assume attitude is influenced by the immediate experience of
participation in formal education system. However, we can not exclude the possibility that one’s
attitude is rather stable over time. Motives or reasons for participation, on the other hand, were
measured retrospectively – adult learners were asked to recall why they decided to continue
educational path. Although present learning experience might alter the recollection, we still
assume that the direct effect on attitude and on confidence and satisfaction in particular to be
more relevant.
Although variables composing classroom environment made up a coherent factor variable, we are
further interested which classroom environment components have most important effect on one’s
attitude, confidence and satisfaction. As introduced in the descriptive chapter of the current report
(Chapter 4, p. 85), based on the scale of Darkenwald & Valentine (1986) and work of O’Fathaigh
(1997), we composed seven classroom environment measures: relationship between students;
teacher support; task orientation; personal goal attainment; organisation and clarity of the
course/programme; student influence; and active involvement of students14. For one’s attitude
towards adult education (see Table 5.6) it appears that most influential aspects of classroom
environment are students’ active involvement, teacher support and organisation/clarity of the
study course. Confidence in successfully completing current studies is mainly affected by
organisation of learning, teacher support and again active involvement of students. We find
highest correlation coefficients in regard to satisfaction with the learning process and outcome;
here main components of classroom environment are the same as in case of attitude and
confidence with addition of relationships between learners. Thus we can conclude that most
14 Classroom environment indicators are composed as follows: *Relationship between students – ‘the study programme provides opportunities for making new friends; ‘the students in the study
programme enjoy working together’
*Active involvement of students – ‘students often ask the teacher questions’; most students enjoy the study programme’
*Student influence – ‘the teacher insists that you do things his/her way’; ‘students feel free to question study programme
requirements’; ‘participants in the training discuss real-life examples based on their personal experience’
*Teacher support – ‘the teacher makes every effort to help students succeed’; ‘the teacher respects students as individuals’
*Organisation of learning – ‘the study programme is well organised’; the study programme has a clear sense of direction’
*Task orientation – ‘activities not related to the study programme are kept to a minimum’; ‘getting work done is very important in
the study programme’
*Organisation of learning – ‘the study programme is well organised’; the study programme has a clear sense of direction’
*Goal attainment – ‘students can select assignments that are of personal interest to them’; most students in the study programme
achieve their personal learning goals
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relevant aspect of classroom environment in shaping adult learners’ perceptions and experiences
of learning is active involvement of learners. Other significant indicators are organisation of
learning, teacher support and relationships among learners. Similar conclusions have been drawn
for instance in a study of learning experiences and perspectives of adults from working class
background (Tobias, 1998). There it was found that key factors of a supportive learning
environment involve: social connections with other learners; the relevance of the learning to
one’s immediate life; respectful staff/teachers/tutors; and in some cases one especially supportive
key person.
Table 5.6 Classroom environment indicators impacting adult learners’ attitude, confidence and
satisfaction, correlations
Classroom environment
indicators Attitude Confidence Satisfaction
Relationships between students .295 .242 .377
Active involvement of students .350 .251 .477
Student influence .214 .150 .263
Teacher support .320 .247 .495
Organisation of leaning .317 .252 .553
Task orientation .236 .191 .331
Goal attainment .161 .148 .340
Note: * All correlations statistically significant at the 0.01 level (2-sided)
**Green colour marks stronger associations
In regard to different barriers we could note some but rather weak associations with attitude,
confidence and satisfaction. Thus, as expected, on the overall level (for all educational groups)
studies scheduled at an inconvenient time, too little time for studying and lack of preparation for
the study programme decrease one’s satisfaction with current studies. While difficulties in
competing with younger students, has somewhat negative effect on confidence in successfully
completing currents studies. Separately for adult learners studying at lower educational levels
(ISCED 2) we do not find significant correlations between barriers and attitude, confidence or
satisfaction.
For micro level socio-economic variables we observe notably more significant correlations
precisely in case of ISCED 2 adult learners. Still, at the overall level (Table 5.5.A, Appendix) it
appears that adult learners belonging to older age groups and those with high completed
education are less motivated by extrinsic reasons to continue their studies. This is so for ISCED 2
learners as well. In addition, at lower levels of education men, those younger than 25 years of age
and people with low completed education are more motivated by extrinsic reasons to continue
studies. In general, older adult learners (65+) report less extrinsic reasons for learning and seem
to perceive fewer barriers while studying. Moreover, older adult learners at ISCED 2 have more
positive attitude towards adult education, express intrinsic motives for learning, are more
confident in successfully completing current studies and are more satisfied with the process and
outcome of learning. Adult learners in age group 41-65 are more satisfied with current studies
too. In Subproject 3 survey sample there are only about 1% of adult learners older than 65 years
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of age, thus we need to be careful in interpreting findings that regard this age group. However,
we could assume that middle-aged and older learners have given more thought into why they are
continuing formal learning studies and hence have chosen programmes more suitable form them.
This leads to having positive attitude towards lifelong learning, being more satisfied, intrinsically
motivated and confident in finishing studies. There might also be the issue of selectivity at place,
as only those older adult learners manage to continue learning who already overcame many
barriers on their way and now are able to dedicate to learning (their children are mature enough,
have found their place in labour market and society in a wider sense, are willing to change career,
etc).
When analysing barriers as a dependent variable (last column of Table 5.5.A and 5.6.A,
Appendix) we see that at all educational levels correlations with macro level variables are weak.
At ISCED level 2 there is a positive correlation between the percentage of population with at
least upper secondary education and barriers. At meso level there appears to be positive
correlation between distance teaching and barriers, thus we might assume that those studying via
distance teaching have chosen this mode of studying to mitigate some of their problems or they
did not see any other option. At ISCED level 2 also weekend classes and modular based studies
are in positive correlation with problems. Furthermore, adult learners with low completed
education studying at ISCED 2 encounter more problems, while those with high completed
education have fewer problems. Again we observe significant results in regard to older adult
learners. On the overall level and only at ISCED 2 they seem to face fewer barriers to continue
studies. Perhaps there is a question of selection here, as not many older learners break through to
participate in adult education, so only those with less problems manage to succeed. But as noted
earlier, we should regard these results with certain caution due to small sample size of older adult
learners.
5.2.1. Most Relevant Micro and Meso Level Characteristics Affecting Adult Learners’ Perceptions and Experiences
By the means of linear regression models, comprised by country clusters/groups (composition of
which will be explained below), we aim to reveal which micro and meso level characteristics are
most important in explaining differences in confidence in successfully completing studies and
satisfaction with learning process and outcome. We focus on confidence and satisfaction as the
last two key variables in the ARCS model of Keller (1987, 1999). A lack of confidence and
satisfaction could lead to school drop-out, poor well-being and reduced learning results.
Therefore, we consider it as meaningful to gain insight in the main determinants of confidence
and satisfaction across the different countries in the LLL2010 project. Exploring separate
regressions by country-clusters enables us to see whether confidence and satisfaction are formed
in a different way even if the level of certain dependent variables is the same.
The ARCS cycle of Keller is based on expectancy value theory (Vroom, 1964). Accordingly,
attitude and relevance refer to ‘value’ and we can assume that construction of values is largely
developed before the actual participation in adult education. In other words, attitude towards
learning and learning motives are psychological constructs which are shaped in the family
situation and continue developing and changing in compulsory education, wider social
community and work life (Smith and Spurling, 2001). As such, it is comparable to Bourdieu’s
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habitus. Moreover, it has been stated that the desire or decision to continue with formal learning
are often a combination of personal, social and economic factors (Bowl, 2003; Davey, 2003).
Expectancies, on the other hand, refer to an evaluation which will be made by the adult learner
during the learning participation process. A positive evaluation is comparable to a fulfilment of
the expectancies as internalised by the adult learner. Keller defines ‘satisfaction’ as the ultimate
evaluation of the educational process, resulting in drop-out or persistence. Also confidence is an
indicator involved in educational career discontinuation and partially shaped by the learning
process itself. This means that depending on the educational environment adult learners develop a
feeling of confidence in completing study programme. Hence, further analysis (regression
models) will concentrate on satisfaction and confidence. As our questionnaires were filled in by
actual adult learners who had not dropped out by the time of the interview, it is not surprising that
the overall satisfaction and even more so confidence in the sample is rather high.
Macro or country level institutional characteristics will not be included to regression models due
to considerable multicollinearity issues. Yet we do consider the effect of macro level
characteristics via country-clusters since they are composed on the basis of macro institutional
characteristics. Clustering countries according to macro characteristics enables us more
meaningful analysis, as we arrive at country groups with more or less similar and congruent
institutional ‘packages’ (Blossfeld, 2003).
According to cluster analysis we established four clusters which largely correspond to well-
known welfare state regimes (see also Figure 5.1):
1. Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Lithuania and Slovenia – Central and
Eastern European countries;
2. England, Scotland and Ireland – Anglo-Celtic countries;
3. Austria and Belgium – Continental countries;
4. Norway – Nordic country.
Although CEE countries fall under one cluster we would like to emphasise that we do not
consider all CEE countries to compose single coherent welfare regime as there are countries
which have developed their policies according to different welfare state regimes or have
occasionally combined measures from several types (for further discussions see Stark and Bruszt,
1998, Bohle and Greskovits, 2007, Nölke and Vliegenthart, 2009). Also according to Figure 5.1
we can observe that for instance the Czech Republic and Slovenia are somewhat farther from the
rest of CEE countries. Still against the backdrop of European countries included into the analysis
CEE are closer to each other than to any other cluster.
We were not able to include Russia into cluster analysis due to many missing macro
characteristic variables. However, in linear regression models Russia is introduced to the Central
and Eastern European cluster. One of the results of Subproject 4 Comparative Report ‘The
Qualifications-Supporting Company – The Significance of Formal Adult Education in Small and
Medium Enterprises’ (p. 57) is grouping LLL2010 partner countries on the basis of the degree of
diversification of the formal adult education system. In that typology Russia was also grouped
together with CEE countries, while the UK and Ireland were in one group with Belgium, and
Austria was grouped with Norway. After testing several regression analysis models we decided to
keep the so-called macro clusters (including Russia), yet due to missing of several dependent and
independent variables Norway is not included to the analysis.
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Figure 5.1 Hierarchical cluster analysis of countries by macro level characteristics
Note *Description of macro variables entered to the cluster analysis are presented in Table 5.7.A, Appendix
As independent variables to the regression model we introduce following sets of attributes: socio-
demographic and socio-economic background; characteristics of the learning institutions
(classroom environment, organisation of studies, didactical methods of teaching); barriers
associated with learning and the level of current course. Many studies (e.g. Desjardins, Milana,
Rubenson, 2006; Boeren, Nicaise, Baert, 2010) have indicated that adults belonging to less
advantaged socio-demographic and -economic groups have fewer opportunities to participate in
(adult) learning activities or they might be less successful in it. Within the current study we are
interested whether individuals with different background characteristics (at individual and
educational institution level) express different confidence and satisfaction when it comes to adult
learning.
Barriers associated with adult education are a central theme in some of the models that aim to
explain the decision-making process of participation (Cross, 1987; Darkenwald & Merriam,
1982; Rubenson & Desjardins, 2009). Moreover, it is known that barriers may also hinder the
learning process of those who already participate in adult education. Several problems that
learners encounter can prevent them from successfully finishing the course. Thus we analyse how
and which various problems affect ones confidence and satisfaction aspects of learning.
In addition to individual characteristics, Subproject 3 is interested in how learning process and
environment in the educational institutions is perceived. Previous research has shown that a
positive classroom environment leads to more effective and enjoyable learning process
(Darkenwald & Valentine, 1986; Keller, 1987, 1999). Classroom environment is an example of
the field theory of Lewin (1935) who states that behaviour is the result of our own characteristics
in interaction with the environment and the people around us giving support to achieve our goals.
Also Keller states that the classroom management, together with the learning design, is highly
important in achieving motivation. Furthermore, Schuetze & Slowey (2002) have argued that
organisational variables such as APL (accreditation of prior learning, diploma and certificate
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required), APEL (accreditation of prior experiential learning), teaching methods, module based
courses, etc. are important factors, for lifelong learning practice is gradually shifting towards
more flexible regimes.
In the following subchapters we will focus on relationships between variables if their statistical
significance expressed in p-value is less than or equal to 0.01 or 0.05. The sample size of 13
countries is large and therefore we would like to avoid overestimation of small
effects/associations between dependent and independent variables15.
Micro and meso level characteristics affecting confidence
Regression models by three country clusters composed for confidence in completing current
studies have rather low explanatory power. Accordingly, the regression of the Continental cluster
explains mere 4% of the variance, the Anglo-Celtic regression 13% and the CEE regression 16%
of the variance (Table 5.7)16. There are three characteristics having similar effect in all three
clusters on one’s confidence in successfully completing current studies. Classroom environment
has the strongest positive effect on confidence, so adults in well organised study programmes
who experience a positive autonomy-supporting learning environment and have good relations
with classmates and teachers are significantly more confident. Further, it appears that in all
country clusters age has a significant effect, namely those in the middle age group (25-40) are
more likely to express higher level of confidence than learners younger than 25 years of age. In
CEE cluster also adult learners over 40 years of age are more confident than their counterparts in
the youngest age group. We could assume that adults in older age groups overcome more barriers
when re-entering formal education system and thus after succeeding are also highly motivated
and confident in finishing their studies.
In the Anglo-Celtic and CEE countries, classes during weekends tend to increase one’s
confidence. While in Austria and Belgium module based courses and working in groups have the
positive effect on confidence. So more flexibly organised learning (weekend classes and module
courses) does have positive relation with confidence in completing one’s studies. In Anglo-Celtic
cluster we observe that paying him-/herself for the course has negative association with
confidence. Returning to CEE countries, many adult learners are learning and working or raising
a family at the same time, hence courses that last longer than a year seem to pose serious
challenges and decrease confidence in one’s ability to successfully complete studies.
15 All three clusters in the international pooled Subproject 3 dataset have been weighed to an equal size. 16 Full regression models are available in Table 5.8.A and 5.9.A, Appendix.
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Table 5.7 Micro and meso level variables influencing CONFIDENCE in successfully completing
current study programme (linear regression models)
CONFIDENCE
Austria – Belgium UK – Ireland Central-Eastern Europe
Socio-demographic and –economic characteristics
Males + Males –
25-40 year olds + 25-40 year olds + 25-40 year olds +
Over 40 years of age +
Educational institution characteristics
Classroom environment + Classroom environment + Classroom environment +
APL + Classes more than 3 times a week +
Entrance test/interview – Course duration > 1 year –
Module based courses + Paid for the course him-/herself –
Classes during weekends + Classes during weekends +
Working in groups + Whole-class teaching +
Barriers while participating in adult education system
Lack of preparation – Lack of preparation – Lack of preparation –
Age difference barrier –
Level of the current course
ISCED 3 current course +
Adjusted R-square .043 Adjusted R-square .134 Adjusted R-square .158
Note *Sig. ≤ 0,05 marked in bold; marked in italic are less significant relations
**Reference categories: Females; Younger than 25 years of age; Low level completed education;
Employed; ISCED 2 current course
***Variables duration of the course and module based courses not available in case of the UK, thus these
variables excluded from the Anglo-Celtic model; the Czech Republic and Hungary not included in the CEE
cluster due to missing variables (APL, time of the course, duration of the course)
From the barriers related to studies, in all country clusters learners who feel lack of preparation
for the current study programme are substantially less confident in completing the studies. In
CEE countries in addition to the lack of preparation also age difference barrier (difficulties in
competing with younger students) and taking courses that last longer than a year decrease
confidence in completing studies. As descriptive analysis showed, in CEE countries adult
learners are mostly rather young and therefore it is understandable that somewhat older learners
do not feel comfortable in this environment. On the societal level, widespread understanding
proposes that learning is foremost for young, although this view is slowly starting to change.
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Micro and meso level characteristics affecting satisfaction
In regard to satisfaction with learning process and outcomes regression models for all country
clusters have much higher explanatory power, now about 40% of variance is explained (Table
5.8). Again we find that classroom environment has strong positive effect (explains 30% of the
variance) – adult learners with positive perception of the classroom milieu are more satisfied with
their learning process and outcomes in all country groups. Another common feature to all clusters
is that adult learners over 40 years of age are more satisfied than those younger than 25 years of
age. In Continental and Anglo-Celtic clusters learners in age group 25-40 are more satisfied as
well. Another similarity in those two clusters is the effect of highest completed education: adult
learners with high level education are less satisfied than those with low level education. In case of
the UK and Ireland learners with medium level education are also less satisfied. We might
suppose that learners with more extensive educational career have higher expectations towards
the system and are probably more aware of their further educational needs.
Table 5.8 Micro and meso level variables influencing SATISFACTION with learning process and
outcomes (linear regression models)
SATISFACTION
Austria – Belgium UK – Ireland Central-Eastern Europe
Socio-demographic and –economic characteristics
25-40 year olds + 25-40 year olds +
Over 40 years of age + Over 40 years of age + Over 40 years of age +
Medium level completed educ –
High level completed educ – High level completed educ –
Educational institution characteristics
Classroom environment + Classroom environment + Classroom environment +
Entrance test/interview + Entrance test/interview –
Module based courses – Classes more than 3 times a week +
Classes during weekends + Classes during weekends +
Working in groups + Whole-class teaching + Whole-class teaching +
Distance teaching + Individual teaching +
Barriers while participating in adult education system
Lack of preparation – Lack of preparation –
Studies inconveniently
scheduled –
Studies inconveniently scheduled –
Family problems – Family problems –
Adjusted R-square .427 Adjusted R-square .421 Adjusted R-square .397
Note *Sig. ≤ 0,05 marked in bold; marked in italic are less significant relations
**Reference categories: Females; Younger than 25 years of age; Low level completed education;
Employed; ISCED 2 current course
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***Variables duration of the course and module based courses not available in case of the UK, thus these
variables excluded from the Anglo-Celtic model; the Czech Republic and Hungary not included in the CEE
cluster due to missing variables (APL, time of the course, duration of the course)
It is interesting to note that in case of Austria and Belgium, entrance test/interview is in positive
relation with satisfaction. Accordingly we might conclude that having to pass an entrance test is
not merely limiting access to learning, but effective testing helps to select learners to courses
which suit them best. In the UK and Ireland on the other hand, entrance test has negative effect
on satisfaction.
From various teaching methods it appears that whole-class teaching is positively related to
satisfaction in Anglo-Celtic and CEE country groups; also classes during weekends have
positive, but weaker association with satisfaction. Adult learners in Continental cluster feel more
satisfied if distance teaching is applied. Classes during weekends and distance teaching are both
considered as flexible ways of learning. Furthermore, adult learners in CEE are more satisfied
with their studies when individual teaching is offered, while in Continental cluster we observe the
same (yet weaker) effect in case of working in groups.
Both in Anglo-Saxon and CEE countries lack of preparation for current studies has decreasing
effect on one’s satisfaction. This characteristic refers to the level of skills and/or knowledge
required for being able to follow the course successfully. Lack of preparation for current studies
may also measure the degree of differentiation in teaching. Where the prior knowledge
requirements do not affect satisfaction, it may be that learners in weak starting positions get more
support. Furthermore, both in Continental and CEE countries studies scheduled at an
inconvenient time and family problems affect satisfaction negatively. In the latter cluster also age
difference barrier is once again decreasing satisfaction, although relation between variables here
is less pronounced than it was in case of confidence. Hence we find that in CEE there are more
different problems or barriers to learning having a negative impact on satisfaction. Our results on
barriers are consistent with previous research which has indicated that lack of time and pressure
related to life-work-family balance are mentioned the most across different countries (Rubenson
& Schuetze, 2000).
5.3. DIFFERENCES IN ADULT LEARNERS’ EXPERIENCES AND PERCEPTIONS OF FORMAL ADULT EDUCATION BY COUNTRY CLUSTERS
Next we would like to elaborate more on country level differences in adult learners’ experiences
and perception of formal adult education. Individual country comparisons did not reveal many
significant differences between countries in learners’ motivational aspects, classroom
environment and barriers to learning. Yet we discovered some trends: extrinsic motives and
barriers are more prevalent in case of CEE countries; classroom environment is perceived more
positively and satisfaction with learning is higher in Anglo-Celtic countries. So further we
examine differences in experiences and perceptions of adult learners by country clusters, which
are composed on the basis of macro level institutional indicators (see Chapter 5.2.1).
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The first coloured line in the Table 5.9 signifies single country differences, while the second line
differences by clustered countries. Results indicate that country groups differ significantly by all
characteristics of motivation, classroom environment and barriers. Hence adult learners’ attitude
toward lifelong learning appears to be most affirmative in Norway followed by Continental and
Anglo-Celtic countries which do not differ from each other. In CEE countries on the other hand,
attitude to lifelong learning is significantly less positive when compared to Western Europe.
Examining reasons for participating in adult education, we see that learners in CEE countries are
more likely to be motivated extrinsically (e.g. to obtain a certificate, to get a job, to earn more,
because someone advised or required to do so). Continental European adult learners are the least
extrinsically motivated, while Anglo-Celtic learners are intermediate. Adult learners in the UK
and Ireland are markedly more motivated by internal reasons (e.g. to learn more on a subject of
interest, to learn knowledge/skills useful in daily life, to meet new people, to contribute more as a
citizen). Somewhat less intrinsically motivated are adult learners in CEE countries, whereas the
least intrinsically motivated are learners in Austria and Belgium.
Table 5.9 Adult learners’ experiences and perceptions of formal adult education by countries and
country clusters (comparison of means)
COUNTRIES
Attitude NO – AU / IE / EE / HU / EN / SC / BE / LT – SI / BG – RU / CZ
NO – CC / AC – CEE
Extrinsic motivation BG – LT / HU – RU / CZ – EE / SI – SC – IE / EN / AU – BE
CEE – AC – CC
Intrinsic motivation IE / SC / LT / BG / EE / RU / EN / BE / HU / SI / AU / CZ
AC– CEE – CC
Confidence NO / AU / SI / LT / IE / BG / BE / EE / RU / EN / CZ / SC – HU
NO – CC – CEE / AC
Satisfaction IE / EN / SC / AU / RU / BE / LT / BG / EE / SI / HU / CZ
AC – CC – CEE
Classroom environment EN / IE / SC / AU / RU / BE / EE / BG / LT – SI / CZ
AC – CC – CEE
Barriers NO / RU / EE / SI / HU – LT / CZ / AU – BE – BG / IE – SC – EN
NO – CEE – CC – AC
Note: * Means presented from highest to lowest mean
** / = no significant difference between means; – = significant difference between means
*** Country clusters’ colour codes: yellow – CEE (Central and Eastern Europe), green – AC (Anglo-
Celtic), pink – CC (Continental Europe), blue – NO (Norway)
Although we observed very high confidence level in all countries, still Norwegian adult learners
are most confident in successfully finishing their current studies. In comparison of country
clusters we see that learners in Continental countries are somewhat less confident and confidence
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level declines further in case of CEE and Anglo-Celtic countries. However, Anglo-Celtic learners
are most satisfied with the course of their learning. The least satisfied are adult learners in CEE
countries and Continental European learners are in-between.
High level of satisfaction of adult learners in Ireland and the UK could be explained by the fact
that they also perceive classroom environment (relationships with teachers and other learners,
learner engagement in the learning process, pursuing own study interests, task focus, organisation
of learning) most positively. Similarly, results in regard to satisfaction are reflected in classroom
environment perceptions of adult learners in Continental and CEE countries – former are in-
between while the latter perceive classroom environment least positively.
Coming to barriers we observe somewhat strikingly that in comparison to other country groups,
Norwegian adult learners recognise more different problems while studying in adult education
system. We would have expected that in Nordic welfare system adult learners struggle with fewer
barriers than learners in other countries. But it is evident that despite problems, adult learners in
Norway are successful in overcoming them in order to participate in adult education (see
Rubenson & Desjardins, 2009). Especially when keeping in mind that participation in lifelong
learning is highest among Nordic countries. Norwegian adult learners are followed by their
counterparts in Central and Eastern European countries, who also face many problems during
their studies. Learners in Belgium and Austria appear to have fewer barriers while learners in
Anglo-Celtic countries face different barriers the least.
In summation, results in Table 5.9 clearly indicate interconnection of macro and meso level:
certain learning environment or school characteristics can be linked to certain macro or country-
institutional types. Thus in CEE countries it appears that less generous welfare system (low level
of expenditure on education, training of unemployed, active labour market measures, etc and low
level of trade unionism) co-exists alongside more narrowly defined adult education. Moreover,
adult formal education is carried out under general formal education which often does not cater to
adult learners’ needs in regard to learning environment/process; and not enough attention is given
to barriers and problems adult learners face for instance due to their different phase in life cycle
when compared to ‘traditional learners’.
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6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The aim of the project ‘Towards a Lifelong Learning Society in Europe: the Contribution of the
Education Systems’ (LLL2010) Subproject 3 ‘Adult Learners in Formal Adult Education:
Experiences and Perceptions’ is to study lifelong learning from three angles: (1) individuals –
adult learners, (2) educational institutions and (3) macroeconomic and institutional context of
countries. In other words, the study is concerned with the shaping of lifelong learning (here
specifically adult formal education) at micro, meso and macro levels. Our main assumption was
that those three levels are closely interrelated. Thus the focus of Subproject 3 is on how adult
learners’ experiences and perceptions while studying as adults are affected by their individual
background differences, by the educational institutions they are attending and by the country-
specific institutional environment in which learners and schools/universities are embedded.
Another substantive contribution of the current study is that it enables to focus on adult learners
in formal education, as most survey samples considering learning activities entail only a fraction
of formal adult learners, because on average there are just not that many of them in the
population. Moreover we were interested in gathering sufficient information on adult learners
studying at lower (primary and lower secondary) levels of education, so to enable us to
concentrate also on low-skilled adult learners. Although due to differences in formal adult
education systems, participation at lower levels of education does not necessarily equal to lower
skills; certainly not in case of Belgium (Flanders), Norway and the UK.
Participation in formal adult education varies significantly across European countries. Observing
LLL2010 countries we see that participation is highest in Western European countries, in
particular in Nordic countries and the UK, but also in Belgium, while participation is rather
moderate in Austria and Eastern part of the Europe (with the exception of Slovenia) (Eurostat
Adult Education Survey, 2007; for more details see Subproject 2 Comparative Report ‘Formal
adult education in Context – The View of European Statistics’). Surveys also indicate increasing
trend in adult education participation in many European countries.
Different participation patterns across Europe mirror diverse definitions, meanings, structure and
organisation of adult formal education in European countries (see also Chapter 4.2 of the current
report and Subproject 4 Comparative Report ‘The Qualification-Supporting Company – The
Significance of Formal Adult Education in Small and Medium Organisations’ and ‘Adults in
Formal Education…’ Eurydice, 2011). Formal adult education systems in CEE countries, but also
in Austria, for example do not include key skills or basic skills qualifications (for instance art or
language programmes); hence we might say that in aforementioned countries understanding and
definition of formal adult education (at lower educational levels in particular) is narrower than in
most other Western European countries, especially the UK and the Flemish Community of
Belgium. So the content and length of programmes, but also variety in institutions providing
formal adult education, is very different (see the level of diversification of formal adult education
system in Subproject 4 Comparative Report). Such variegated picture of formal adult education
systems makes the comparisons complicated, but can reflect real differences in the education
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systems. In addition, in CEE countries adult education is often carried out alongside ‘traditional’
or initial education, so specialisation towards adult learners (meeting their specific learning needs
and problems encountered during studies) is presumably lower than in Western European
countries. This partly explains why the attitude towards adult education in CEE countries is
somewhat less enthusiastic, adult learners are also less satisfied with studies and do not perceive
classroom environment that positively.
Another difference uncovered by this project is the marginal share of basic (primary and lower
secondary) adult education in most countries involved in the survey. Despite efforts to meet the
agreed sample quota for each level of (adult) education, only four national research teams were
able to reach 250 respondents at the lowest educational levels (ISCED 1-2). In many European
countries (both in CEE and in some of the Western European countries), formal second-chance
education for low-literate adults appears to be extremely scarce. Partly this reflects differences in
definition and thus organisation of formal adult education. In pos-socialist countries, for instance,
basic level adult education often occurs alongside initial education system. In addition, again
especially in CEE countries, at lower educational levels adult education is less prevalent due to
the low rate of adults with less than primary or lower secondary education, as ISCED level 2 is
compulsory education.
To study learners’ experiences and perceptions in adult education system, we proceeded from
Keller’s (1987, 1999) motivational aspects – attitude, relevance, confidence, satisfaction – which
are central dependent variables of the analysis. We treated barriers related to learning and
perception of classroom environment both as dependent and independent variables, since
descriptive analysis indicated significant educational level and country differences in those
matters.
Descriptive analysis of macro, meso and micro level indicators revealed that countries,
educational institutions and adult learners under analysis compose a rather heterogeneous
grouping. However, we did observe some systematic differences in motivation of adult learners'
at all three levels.
6.1. MICRO LEVEL – Learning Experiences and Perceptions of Adults with Different Background
Sample Composition
To start with more general results, overview of Subproject 3 ‘Adult Learners in Formal Adult
Education: Experiences and Perceptions’ survey sample (not representative of the whole
population of adult learners as defined by LLL2010) shows distinct differences in socio-
demographic and socio-economic composition of adult learners in Central-Eastern and Western
European countries. Adult learners in Western countries belong to somewhat older age groups
and during their currents studies at lower educational level have rather often attained high level
prior education. Different composition of adult learners largely indicates definition of formal
adult education system: in Western Europe formal adult education encompasses wider range of
courses than in CEE countries, which in turn means wider access and results in more
heterogonous group of participants. Thus the nature, meaning and objective of adult education,
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particularly at lower educational levels (ISCED 1-2), is different, as those who just currently
obtain primary or lower secondary education are disadvantaged, for instance in terms of labour
market position when compared to those with higher prior education.
While interpreting results it should also be kept in mind that in Subproject 3 sample there are
more women than men in adult education. This is especially the case in Anglo-Celtic countries,
but also in some of CEE countries (Estonia, Lithuania) and Belgium (Flanders). Yet for most
countries it is difficult to say about actual gender distribution in the population of adult learners,
when we proceed from the Subproject 3 definition – learners should have at least 2-year gap
between their current and previous studies. Eurostat Adult Education Survey 2007 (AES) defines
adult learner via age limit: 25-64 year olds participating in educational or training activity. Age
distribution in AES dataset also reveals that in general about 60% of adult learners in formal
education are women and similar to Subproject 3 sample, women are even more overrepresented
in Estonia, Lithuania and the UK.
Gender and age differences
Interestingly enough analysis did not reveal significant gender differences in adult learners’
experiences and perceptions. Nevertheless, in case of extrinsic motivation for learning it appears
that men continue their studies more due to extrinsic reasons than women (e.g. learning to obtain
certificate, to earn more, to do one’s job better, to get a job, because it was required or someone
had advised to). Women are also with somewhat more positive attitude towards adult education
and to a lesser extent express higher confidence in completing study programme and satisfaction
with learning process and outcomes.
Regarding age differences we found that compared to youngest adult learners (until 25 year olds)
those belonging to older age groups (24-40 and over 40 year olds) are more confident in
successfully completing current course and show higher satisfaction with the process and
outcomes of learning. Thus we can say that more experienced adult learners in some respect feel
better in adult education system. Perhaps this could be explained by more carefully thought out
decision to continue educational path, hence the aim of learning is more internalised.
Differences according to the highest completed education and the level of current studies
The level of one’s highest completed education also significantly affected experiences and
perceptions of adult education. Those with high level completed education (ISCED 5-6, prior to
current studies) are less satisfied with the process and outcomes of their current course. On the
other hand high educated adults continue studies less due to extrinsic reasons and this is
especially true in case of those currently learning at lower levels. At lower educational levels also
those with medium level completed education (upper secondary and post-secondary) are less
motivated by extrinsic reasons, while adult learners with low completed education are markedly
more extrinsically motivated. Being more intrinsically motivated, learners with longer
educational path are more aware of their needs and have more explicit expectations towards
educational system. This in turn makes them more critical of studies and hence somewhat less
satisfied with what is offered by schools/universities. Labour market status however did not
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affect one’s motivation for learning. Surprisingly, labour market position had no effect on
perceived barriers regarding learning activities as well.
According to current educational level results indicate significant differences in regard to all
motivational aspects – attitude, relevance, confidence and satisfaction. Yet those differences are
not too substantive. As estimated by hypotheses (Chapter 2.2, pp. 25-27), adult learners currently
studying at lower educational levels show slightly less affirmative attitude towards adult
education or lifelong learning ideas when compared to those at upper secondary and higher levels
(attitude is most positive at post-secondary level).
Differences in reasons for participation in adult education
In regard to participation reasons picture becomes more blurred. Learners at highest educational
level are very much keen to learn more on a subject that interest them, yet other aspects
categorised under ‘personal fulfilment’ reasons are valued more at low educational level (ISCED
1-2). Also ‘social capital’ reasons are more important for learners at primary and lower secondary
education. Most popular reasons here were meeting new people and contributing more as a
citizen. Consequently, least intrinsically motivated are learners at upper secondary education
(ISCED 3) followed by adults in higher education, whereas those at lowest and post secondary
level continue studies more due to intrinsic reasons. Still, our proposed hypothesis concerning
extrinsic motivation is confirmed – learners at primary and lower secondary level give higher
regard to extrinsic reasons when compared to other educational levels. For all adults most
important reason listed under ‘human capital’ is studying for obtaining a certificate. ‘Social
control’ motivated adults the least, but those reasons were chosen more by adults at low
educational level (for instance learning was continued because someone had advised to do so).
We surmise that reasons reflecting social control or continuing studies because one felt bored
might have been perceived as socially unacceptable or were not fully recognised and thus
learners perhaps felt uncomfortable to choose those reasons even in the anonymous
questionnaire.
Differences in confidence in completing studies and satisfaction with learning
Results confirm hypothesis also in regard to confidence – although overall confidence was very
high, adult learners at low educational level feel significantly less confident about successfully
completing current course. This is at least partly to do with the fact that learners at lower
educational levels admit their learning motivation to be hindered by previous negative learning
experiences.
Satisfaction with the learning process and outcomes indicated exactly reverse results to our
assumptions. Thus it is learners at higher educational levels who feel less satisfied with both
aspects of learning, whereas learners at primary and lower secondary level are most satisfied. We
again explain these results with higher demands and expectations to educational system by those
who are obtaining vocation or degree in a certain field. Majority of adults learning at higher
levels were active on the labour market, which also helps to gain better awareness of what the
educational system should offer.
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Differences in access to and organisation of adult education
Regarding educational institutions our hypothesis stated that learners at lower educational levels
are more likely than those at higher levels to be enrolled in schools offering flexible access,
flexible modes of study and various support mechanisms (financial assistance, child care,
counselling, etc). We found that, according to learners’ statements, previous qualification and
entrance test or interview was required to a lesser extent from adult learners at lower educational
level (primary and lower secondary). Consequently, accreditation of prior (experiential) learning
also applied to them less. Yet organisation of courses was often less flexible at lower levels of
education when compared to those acquiring higher education. Adult learners at lower level
mostly claim that courses are not organised in modules, thus traditional linear system prevails.
They also have classes much more often and for longer hours than those at higher educational
levels with the exception of learners in post-secondary education. Learners at low level also
participate somewhat less in distance education. In addition only few learners at ISCED 2
received financial support. Primary and lower secondary education is mostly offered without
participation fee, yet learners still have to bear certain costs: reduce in pay or not being able to
work, livelihood costs, transport to school, etc. Hence, learners at low educational level name
financial problems second after having too little time for studying. Our results also do not
confirm that adult learners at low educational level have more services available for them at
school. According to adult learners’ responses, most available services to about half of ISCED 2
learners were library, Internet access, study advice service and cafeteria, while this was so for
majority of post-secondary and higher level learners.
Differences in learning process, learning environment
Furthermore we were interested to see whether learners at lower educational levels are studying
in educational institutions practicing different learning processes than those where adult learners
at higher levels learn. Results indicate that learning process elements – relationships between
learners; learner engagement, pursuing own learning interests; support from teachers, task
orientation and organisation of learning (which we composed into one classroom environment
variable) – are one of the most important determinants of adult learners’ motivation. On the
overall level adult learners’ perception of the classroom is rather positive. Yet it appears that
learners at lower level of education experience more help from the teacher, feel more respected as
individuals, experience well organised programmes and enjoy study programme somewhat more
than their counterparts at higher levels of education.
6.2. MESO LEVEL – Educational Institution Characteristics Influencing Learning Experiences and Perceptions
At the meso level we were interested in whether more flexible and supportive educational
institutions have positive effect on adult learners’ attitude, confidence and satisfaction. We
studied the impact of educational institution characteristics (e.g. organisation of studies,
curriculum, financial assistance and support and services) and learning environment/process only
to attitude, confidence and satisfaction, as the direct impact on motivation (both extrinsic and
intrinsic) should be moderate if existent altogether. Motivation or reason to continue one’s
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educational path is likely to be shaped by several interconnected influences occurring prior to re-
entering educational system – family, peers, educational institution, work, wider community, etc.
Influence of perceptions of the learning environment
Interestingly, when not controlling for country differences, we did not find significant impact of
educational institution structural characteristics (entrance requirements, APEL/APL, organisation
of classes, didactical methods, etc) on attitude, confidence and satisfaction. Yet results clearly
indicate that learning environment, more precisely perception of the learning processes is most
important characteristic influencing attitude, confidence and satisfaction. Thus we observe that
classroom environment holds positive effect on attitude towards adult education or lifelong
learning in general; in addition this relation is slightly stronger in case of learners studying at
lower educational levels. The same applies to being confident in successfully completing current
studies. Classroom environment indicators influencing attitude and confidence the most are
active involvement of students, teacher support and organisation of learning. Perception of
classroom environment has strongest impact on one’s satisfaction with learning process and
outcomes. Hence learners perceiving classroom environment positively are substantially more
satisfied with their studies. Here however we find no differences between learners at lower and
higher educational levels. We also found that satisfaction is influenced by all classroom
environment indicators, only the impact of student influence aspect was low.
Influence of barriers hindering participation
In case of barriers or challenges which adult learners experience during their studies we observe
that on the overall level (all educational levels) learners engaged in distance teaching are
confronted with more different problems. We could assume that learners with several difficulties
actually choose distance teaching as to enable solving some of those issues. At lower educational
level also those learning via weekend classes and following modular based courses state having
more problems than others. Those two modes of study are too seen as flexible ways of organising
learning and thus we suppose that they help mitigate one’s problems in balancing studying with
other activities, for instance work, family, active citizenship. Interestingly, we did not detect
significant associations between different barriers to learning and attitude, confidence and
satisfaction. Yet following subchapter indicates that such associations are apparent when
observing country level differences.
6.3. MACRO LEVEL – Country Variations in Adult Learning Experiences and Perceptions
As mentioned beforehand, participation rates in adult formal education in European countries are
very diverse. Patterns of participation and previous studies discussed in the theoretical chapter
give us grounds to assume the impact of country macroeconomic and institutional context. So in
addition to influencing participation rates in adult formal education, we also believe that macro
indicators affect the way adult learners feel in educational system, which in turn is likely to be
expressed in participation rates. Thus our aim was to analyse whether indicators of broader
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economic and social context, labour market, welfare and educational system affect one’s
perceptions and experiences as an adult learner. Are certain macroeconomic and institutional
factors, or rather coherent ‘packages’ of those factors, inducing more positive attitude towards
learning, more intrinsic rather than extrinsic motives for learning, making learners more
confident about their ability to finish studies, increasing satisfaction with the learning process and
outcomes and/or reduce the amount of problems adult learners face while learning?
Typology of countries
When studying single effects of macro level variables we mainly observe associations with
extrinsic reasons to continue one’s educational career. These results were difficult to interpret,
because macro level variables are more meaningful to analyse as internally congruent ‘packages’.
Hence we constructed typology of countries on the bases of macro indicators (e.g. GDP per
capita; public expenditure on education, training of unemployed, active labour market measures;
percentage of employees with higher education; level of stratification of education system; trade
union density; EPL index; etc). We arrived at four country groups:
1. Central and Eastern European countries (Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary,
Lithuania, Russia and Slovenia)
2. Anglo-Celtic countries (Ireland and the UK)
3. Continental countries (Austria and Belgium)
4. Nordic country (Norway).
These country groups largely correspond with welfare state regimes. Although we do not
consider CEE countries to compose distinctly one coherent welfare regime type, they are
nevertheless more closely linked to each other when compared to other European countries
involved. After the collapse of communism and the fall of the Soviet Union, CEE countries
underwent major changes in all areas of politics, economy and society. Establishing economic
wealth in CEE has been difficult; accordingly life standard of majority of people has been rather
low in comparison to Western Europe. Lifelong learning is only recently gaining priority and
institutions are still in formation. Regardless of the similar past, CEE countries are developing
their macro institutional context/policies following different types of welfare regimes,
occasionally even combining measures from different types.
As described above, formal adult education systems in Europe are very different. In Anglo-Celtic
countries and Belgium due to high diversification of adult education system and in Norway due
to wide overall access to adult education, learners compose very heterogeneous group. For
instance, among those currently obtaining low level education many have medium or high level
prior education. Whereas in CEE countries and Austria majority of learners participating at low
level courses have attained primary level education. Accordingly we need to be careful in
considering country variations by keeping in mind the high variety in adult education systems
and non-representative sample of Subproject 3 survey.
Differences in formal learning perceptions and experiences by country types
All in all we observe more prevalent country variations in regard to extrinsic motives for
participation in adult formal education, experience of barriers/problems while studying, and to
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some extent by attitudes towards adult education. On average, there are more differences between
countries when comparing learners studying at lower courses (ISCED 1-2). Thus, on the overall
level adult learner in Central and Eastern European countries indicate more frequently studying
due to extrinsic motives, being therefore more influenced by job related reasons or more
sensitive to external pressure to continue studies. Yet at ISCED level 2 also Austria and Scotland
together with CEE countries compose extrinsically motivated group, whereas in Ireland, England
and Belgium (Flanders) learners are motivated by extrinsic reasons the least. There are practically
no country differences in intrinsic reasons for learning, but still adult learners in Ireland and
Scotland have indicated those reasons somewhat more often than learners in other countries.
In relation to attitude towards adult education we do not observe clear differences between CEE
and Western European countries. However, adult learners in Norway express most positive
attitude to learning, while the attitude is least positive in some of CEE countries – Slovenia,
Bulgaria, Russia and the Czech Republic. At lower educational level both Norwegian and
Austrian learners appear having most affirmative attitude, with Russia remaining at the other
extreme.
The CEE and Western European country divide is again apparent when we compare the amount
of problems adult learners face during their studies. Adult learners in Ireland, the UK and
Flanders experience fewest barriers to learning. In CEE countries, though also in Norway and
Austria adult learners report struggling with more challenges than their counterparts elsewhere.
Interestingly, learners in Bulgaria recognise significantly fewer problems than those in other CEE
countries. In regard to Bulgaria it should be emphasised that at primary and lower secondary
level interviews were conducted with learners in prisons, because generally adult education
courses are offered only at upper secondary and higher levels. This again reflects low
diversification of adult education in post-socialist countries – there are fewer courses regarded as
a part of formal adult education system.
We found summarised indicator of classroom environment to exert most substantive impact on
attitude, confidence and satisfaction, yet at the same time country differences in this regard are
moderate in comparison to those of motives and barriers. Still, in general adult learners in
Western countries perceive classroom environment somewhat more positively (especially in
Norway, followed by Ireland and the UK17), whilst at primary and secondary educational levels
differences between countries are nonexistent. On a general level we noticed that learners in CEE
countries agree less with the statements that most students enjoy the study programme; activities
not related to study programme objectives are kept to a minimum; and the study programme is
well organised. While learners in CEE, but also in Austria and Flanders do not entirely agree
feeling free to question study programme requirements.
Results of regression analyses show that in all country groups classroom environment is most
significant factor influencing one’s confidence in successfully completing studies and especially
satisfaction with learning process and outcomes. Other sets of independent variables add little to
the explanatory power. Thus individual background characteristics and barriers/problems
17 Partly more positive classroom environment perception by adult learners in Ireland and the UK could be due to
high percentage of females in those samples. Our analysis has indicated that in general females are prone to give
slightly more positive statements than males.
137
perceived while learning both explain only about 5% of the variance regarding satisfaction.
Indicators measuring educational institutions and courses offered (enrolment policies, didactical
methods, organisation of classes, etc) explain another 5% of satisfaction in case of the CEE and
Continental European countries, but have practically no effect in Anglo-Celtic cluster.
All in all country clusters are not that different in the way confidence and satisfaction of adult
learners is shaped. Still we observe that barriers or challenges learners experience (lack of
preparation for current studies, studies scheduled inconveniently, family problems and difficulties
in competing with younger students) effect more profoundly learners in Central and Eastern
European countries.
6.4. RECOMMENDATIONS
In the light of results presented here we can state that adult learners express rather homogeneous
positive attitude towards adult education or lifelong learning. Results are especially encouraging
in regard to confidence as vast majority of learners are very confident in completing the study
programme. Still, experience of learning, especially satisfaction with learning process and
outcomes, can be improved by focusing on improvement of classroom environment aspects.
Adult learners indicated more positive attitude towards adult education and higher level of
satisfaction when being actively involved in the learning process, having sufficient support and
respect from the teacher and when study programme was well organised and had a clear sense of
direction. All in all adult learners experienced somewhat less that they can select assignments
which are of personal interest to them. Other aspects of learning process that received lower
levels of recognition were: teacher insists on doing things his or her way; activities not related to
the study programme are kept to a minimum; and students feel free to question study programme
requirements.
Therefore we propose learners’ voices to be heard more in the teaching process, so that
they would have more autonomy and could enjoy learning more extensively. In turn this
will probably increase participation rates in adult education by increasing motivation to
continue education, since adult education will not be perceived as ‘going back to
school’.
Pedagogical (or andragogical) skills of teachers in adult education has a crucial role in
supporting learners and fostering their active involvement, hence it is important to
examine the competence profiles of teachers and exchange experiences in the field of
teacher training for adult education.
The issue of removal of barriers needs further attentions as well: a more flexible
organisation of courses (with flexible time schedules, a modular organisation of courses,
educational leave schemes, preparatory courses to remedy gaps in prior knowledge, etc)
may also contribute to stronger motivation and better performance.
In CEE countries adult education is incorporated into initial education system. This means that
teaching methods and overall learning process is rather traditional and not considering the needs
138
of adult learner. In most of Western European countries, where adult formal education system is
separate from initial education, learning environment is perceived more positively and learners
experience less difficulties while learning.
Adult formal education should constitute separate system taking into account particular
situation and needs of adult learner or ‘non-traditional’ learner, enabling learning for
those who are actively engaged in other life spheres as well (work, family, civil and
political activity, etc). Higher diversification of adult education system – increasing
variety of institutions providing adult education as well as increasing variety in the
length and content of programmes – would enable better/wider access to participation.
However, in cross-sectional study we are not able to estimate the effect of different organisations
of adult education in time. Thus we might assume that formal adult education system as separate
from initial education might also generate some counter outcomes. For instance via
stigmatisation of adult education, learners could reap lower benefits of learning on labour market
when compared to those in initial education. On the other hand, if adult education is strongly
linked to initial formal education system, then in the long run this might rise the quality of both:
the proportion of non-traditional learners will most likely rise, which will lead to the change of
system in regard to meet the needs of learners and at the same time offering highly qualified
instruction both to traditional and non-traditional learners. Considering experiences of adult
learners creates preconditions for adaptation of educational systems to the needs of knowledge
society.
Limitations of the Study
In summation we would like to stress, that although the attempt has been made to measure one’s
motivation to continue educational career, we are aware of the complex and subtle nature of
motivation as a concept. Many theories on motivation tend to take it for granted that individuals
have an inner need, motivation to learn (see overview by Ahl, 2006). Accordingly, if barriers
related to continuing educational path are identified and resolved and exact benefits of learning
are clear, then motivation will manifest and thus people will continue learning (lifelong, life-
wide). Yet some motivation scholars have argued that since motivation is a hypothetical
construct, it is problematic that one can identify, describe and measure motivation (Siebert,
1985). Researchers and policy makers should also be sensitised towards construction of an adult
learner and ‘unmotivated’ adult learner, as this evokes stigmatisation of those who are simply not
interested in adult formal education or prefer to commit themselves to other domains of life,
and/or engaging in non-formal and informal learning. Thus we face the task of ensuring open
opportunities to continue formal studies without pressuring people into learning, without
constructing lifelong learning as single legitimate way of existence in knowledge society.
139
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Notes regarding dependent variables in Chapter 5 analysis
i Set of 15 classroom environment items measures the classroom perceptions of the adult learners and is internally
consistent (alpha = .828).
ii Having described the descriptive statistics of all 9 items within the attitude scale, we ran principal component
analyses (PCA) for each level of the current course, but also for the totals. Taking into account the theoretical
fundaments of choosing the amount of components, like an eigenvalue higher than 1, minimum variance of 10% for
each component, clear interpretation of the components and loads higher than .40, we decided for each of the 5
PCA’s, to extract one attitudinal component. All items within the scale go together in a positive way. Differences
between the levels of the current course are rather small. These results give us the opportunity to work further with
one continuous attitude variable. The scale is internally consistent (alpha = .773).
iii In regard to motivational variables, principal components analyses on both levels of the current course and the
totals show a best fitting solution based on two clear components, Varimax rotated. At an overall level, the first
component incorporates a wide set of statements which can be labelled as ‘intrinsic curiosity and will for building
social relationships’. The social capital aspects and personal fulfilment are captured by this component. The second
component includes items on being forced to participate and on being afraid to loose one’s job or position within the
labour market and to avoid further reverses, incorporating thus human capital and social control statements. This
second component could be labelled as ‘work related aspects and additional external rewards’. As indicated within
the theoretical part of this report, these two concepts are known within the literature as “autonomous motivation” and
‘controlled motivation’. Both concepts are also internally consistent (autonomous motivation alpha = .793 /
controlled motivation alpha = .743). Within further parts of this research, we will use two motivational dimensions as
continuous dependent variables.
Taking a look at the PCA’s by level of the current course, we notice that the order of the 2 components differs for the
primary and lower secondary education level. The second general component is appearing here as the first
component, meaning that for this lowest level, the controlled motivation dimension is explaining more variance than
the autonomous motivation dimension.
iv For confidence in successfully completing the current course, principal component analyses on this small scale
shows that items 1 (‘My family supports me while I am studying’) till 3 (‘My friends encourage me to continue the
study programme’) can be grouped within one dimension. Only at the level of higher education, item 4 is included as
well. Within this scale, we can assume that items 4 (‘I am not very motivated for this study programme because of
my negative learning experiences in the past’) and 5 (‘My employer encourages me to continue the study
programme’) are not included in the confidence dimension as not all adult learners will belong to the group about
which is spoken. It is likely that not all adult learners have a negative learning past and not all students within our file
will be employed. In fact, these 2 items on employment and learning history will be taken into account as
independent variables within the analyses. The scale is also not internal consistent at all (alpha = .477). Taking these
problems into account, it is not possible to work further with this component.
v Principal component analyses for each of the levels of the current course and the totals clearly show that
satisfaction is measured within one single dimension. Component loads are high as well as the variance. Also the
internal reliability is high (alpha = .857). Within the multivariate analyses, we will work further with one continuous
dependent variable reflecting satisfaction.
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