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Recap
• Considered at the social construction of families and motherhood
• Considered the concepts of ‘good motherhood’ and ‘un/respectable’ users of contraception
• Considered the debates around ARTs and prenatal screening and disability
Outline
• Examine the history of adoption and its relationship to the ‘family’
• Examine the context of adoption today
• Examine the meanings of surrogacy
Early adoption
• The transferring of children between families has a long history
• Some due to economic factors, others due to high rates of mortality
• The types of adoption have changed in
relation to understanding about ‘family’ and inheritance
Early adoption
• Infertile couples in Ancient Greece and Rome would adopt ‘heirs’
• Europe in the middle–ages rejected adopting ‘heirs’, but wealthier families would ‘take-in’ children to use as servants or labourers
• Families would also care for orphanedrelatives
• Most of these arrangements were made through informal ties
Early adoption
• In the 19th century, these informal arrangements began to be codified in law
• Also saw rise in urban orphans
with no family or connections
• Foundling hospitals and workhouses began to be overwhelmed
19th Century dilemma
• Increase in the number of children needing homes
• Decline in adoptionas a solution
• The available children were not of the right ‘stock’ and therefore unsuitable for ‘good’ middle-class homes
20th century changes
• During the 20th increasing numbers of children were born outside marriage
• The ideal of the nuclear family meant that infertility was a social problem
• As ideas of ‘bad blood’ declined adoption became to be seen as the solution
20th century changes
• 1960s proved to be the peak of adoption in the UK and US
• Developments in contraceptive
technologies reduced numbers
of pregnancies
• Declining social stigma of unwed mothers led to a sharp decline in children available for adoption
20th century changes
• Also during this time, potential parents began to be the subject of scrutiny
• ‘Good’ parents needed to conform to middle-class ideals (if not income)
• Single, cohabiting, gay and lesbian potential parents have only recently been considered.
UK adoption today
• In the UK today there are 4 main areas of adoption:– Adoption of step-children– Babies and children with disabilities – Children who have been removed from their
families– Babies and young children from overseas
Overseas adoption
• Adoption of babies and/or young children from overseas has grown significantly
• Large numbers of children are living in desperate poverty and/or unsuitable orphanages
• Adoption by western parents may give children access to better health,
housing and education
Buying babies?
• Opponents of overseas adoption understand it as ‘buying babies’– Prices reflect the perceived desirability
• Money should be invested in improving conditions for all children
• The trade exists because of the desperate poverty created by the west.
• Is overseas adoption a benevolent move uniting the desperate-to-be parents with children in need?
• Or is it a form of exploitation whereby the rich developed world benefits from the poverty of the developing nations?
Surrogacy
• Like adoption, surrogacy has a long history but rarely openly discussed
• During late 20th century surrogacy became a public matter through custody cases
• Began to be linked to the rise of ARTs
Types of surrogacy
• Traditional Surrogacy– The mother is both a biological parent and the
carrying mother.
• Gestational Surrogacy– The carrying mother is not biologically
related to the foetus
• Altruistic surrogacy– The surrogacy as a kind gesture
• Commercial surrogacy – A contract for money (technically illegal in the UK)
• Why do we call women who have children for other people ‘surrogate mothers’?
• What does this name tell you about their status?
Baby M
• In 1986, Mary Beth Whitehead gave birth to Sara following artificial insemination
• She had agreed a contract with William Stern – $10,000 plus medical expenses
• Mary Beth changed her mind, and told Stern he could keep his money.
• At 5 weeks old a court ordered her to give up Sara to William and Elizabeth Stern– Sara became Melissa
Baby M
• The Judge decided that the case was a custody case, rather than a surrogacy case.
• William Stern had a right to the baby as a biological father.
• Mary Beth was deemed an unfit mother – her other children were never taken into care.
• Later the court of appeal overruled this decision, reinstating Mary Beth as the baby's legal mother
• But decided it was in Melissa’s best interest to say with the Sterns
Baby Johnson
• In 1990, Anna Johnson, a Black mother, gave birth to a white baby boy following gestational surrogacy contract
• Anna argued that had she bonded with the foetus and that the Calverts had breached the surrogacy contract.
• In court, Anna too was portrayed as an unfit mother. – It was also claimed in court, that Anna wanted to keep the baby
because it was white.
• The court found that the intention to become pregnant and the genetic link were the most important issues.
• What do you think about the decisions in these 2 cases?
• What should be thought about when deciding the outcome?
Class and racial politics
• Both cases they were poor women with other children to support
• Life with them was judged as undesirable– in contrast to the middle-class homes
• They were not 'unfit' mothers, but just not good enough given the alternatives
– white, middle-class parenthood
Class and racial politics
• Despite poverty, having a child for money meant they were ‘unnatural’ mothers
• Yet the need to ‘buy’ and parent a genetically-related child was 'natural'.
• So ideas about ‘good motherhood’ are deemed to be more important than a biological relationship
Surrogacy in the UK
• In the UK, commercial surrogacy is outlawed. • It is a crime to arrange or advertise a surrogacy
contract • Birth mother is the legal mother, until she
relinquishes that role• Transfer arrangements to move parental
responsibility from a surrogate mother to commissioning parents are possible– Parental Orders (Human Fertilisation and
Embryology) Regulations 1994
Surrogacy in the US
• Growing industry connected to ARTs
• Runs alongside trade in human eggs
• Prices linked to type of surrogacy and ‘desirability’ of the woman– College educated
get more money
Dilemmas of surrogacy
• Many surrogate mothers feel a sense of achievement
• Some women go through the surrogate process time and time again
• They also benefit from the money and/or expenses
• They assist people to have a child of their own
Dilemmas of surrogacy
• Surrogates take on the health risks associated with ARTs and/or pregnancy
• Exploitation of poor women by the rich– Few surrogates would exist without the financial
incentive
• Growing international trade much less regulated thanadoption
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