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GREAT BOOK FOR ESPERANTO LEARNERS komencantoj
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ProjectGutenberg'sACompleteGrammarofEsperanto,byIvyKellermanReed
ThiseBookisfortheuseofanyoneanywhereatnocostandwithalmostnorestrictionswhatsoever.Youmaycopyit,giveitawayorreuseitunderthetermsoftheProjectGutenbergLicenseincludedwiththiseBookoronlineatwww.gutenberg.net
Title:ACompleteGrammarofEsperanto
Author:IvyKellermanReed
PostingDate:December4,2010[EBook#7787]ReleaseDate:March,2005FirstPosted:May25,2003LastUpdated:November13,2004
Language:English
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***STARTOFTHISPROJECTGUTENBERGEBOOKACOMPLETEGRAMMAROFESPERANTO***
ProducedbyWilliamW.Patterson,CarloTraverso,CharlesFranksandtheOnlineDistributedProofreadingTeam.WethanktheCaseWesternReserveUniversityLibraryPreservationDepartmentthathasgivenustheimagefileswithwhichthepresentebookhasbeenprepared.
TRANSCRIBER'SNOTE:
TheEsperantoalphabetcontains28characters.ThesearethecharactersofEnglish,butwith"q","w","x",and"y"removed,andsixdiacriticallettersadded.Thediacriticallettersare"c","g","h","j"and"s"withcircumflexes(or"hats",asEsperantistsfondlycallthem),and"u"withabreve.Zamenhofhimselfsuggestedthatwherethediacriticalletterscauseddifficulty,onecouldinsteaduse"ch","gh","hh","jh","sh"and"u".AplainASCIIfileisonesuchplace;therearenoASCIIcodesforEsperanto'sspecialletters.
However,therearetwoproblemswithZamenhof's"hmethod".Thereisnodifferencebetween"u"and"u"withabreve,andthereisnowaytodetermine(withoutpriorknowledgeoftheword(s)involved,andsometimesabitofcontext)whetheran"h"followingoneofthoseotherfivelettersisreallythesecondhalfofadiacriticalpair,orjustan"h"thathappenedtofinditselfnexttooneofthem.Consequentlyother,unambiguous,methodshavebeenusedovertheyears.Oneisthe"xmethod",whichusesthedigraphs"cx",
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"gx","hx","jx","sx"and"ux"torepresentthespecialletters.Thereisnoambiguitybecausetheletter"x"isnotanEsperantoletter,andeachdiacriticalletterhasauniquetransliteration.ThisisthemethodusedinthisProjectGutenbergetext.
ACOMPLETE
GRAMMAROFESPERANTO
THEINTERNATIONALLANGUAGE
WITHGRADEDEXERCISESFORREADINGANDTRANSLATION
TOGETHERWITHFULLVOCABULARIES
BYIVYKELLERMAN,A.M.,PH.D.
MEMBEROFTHEEXECUTIVECOMMITTEEANDCHAIRMANOFEXAMINATIONSFORTHEESPERANTOASSOCIATIONOFNORTHAMERICA,MEMBER
OFTHEINTERNATIONALLINGVAKOMITATO
TO
DR.L.L.ZAMENHOF
THEAUTHOROFESPERANTO
PREFACE.
Thisvolumehasbeenpreparedtomeetatwofoldneed.AnadequatepresentationoftheInternationalLanguagehasbecomeanimperativenecessity.Suchpresentation,includingfullandaccurategrammaticalexplanations,suitablygradedreadinglessons,andsimilarlygradedmaterialfortranslationfromEnglish,hasnotheretoforebeenaccessiblewithinthecompassofasinglevolume,orinfactwithinthecompassofanytwoorthreevolumes.
Thecombinationofgrammarandreaderhereofferedisthereforeunique.ItistofurnishnotmerelyanintroductiontoEsperanto,orasuperficialacquaintancewithit,butagenuineunderstandingofthelanguageandmasteryofitsusewithoutrecoursetoadditionaltextbooks,readers,etc.Inotherwords,thisonevolumeaffordsascompleteaknowledgeofEsperantoasseveralyears'studyofagrammarand
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variousreaderswillaccomplishforanynationallanguage.Inflection,wordformationandsyntaxarepresentedclearlyandconcisely,yetwithadegreeofcompletenessandinasystematicorderthatconstituteanewfeature.Otherpointsworthyofnotearethefollowing:
Thereasonsforsyntacticalusagesaregiven,insteadofmerestatementsthatsuchusagesexist.Forexample,clausesofpurposeandofresultarereallyexplained,insteadofbeingdismissedwiththeunsatisfactoryremarkthat"theimperativefollowsporke,"orthe"useoftiel...keandtia...kemustbedistinguishedfromthatoftiel...kielandtia...kia,"etc.,withbutlittleintimationofwhenandwhyporke,tiel...keandtia...kearelikelytooccur.
Affixesarenotmentioneduntilsomefamiliaritywiththegeneralcharacterofthelanguageisassured,aswellasthepossessionofafairvocabulary.Theyareintroducedgradually,withadequateexplanationandillustration.Ofimportanceinconnectionwithwordformationisanelementdistinctlynewtheexplanationandclassificationofcompoundwords.Suchwords,likeaffixes,arewithhelduntiltheuseofsimplewordsisfamiliar.
Anothernewfeatureisthegradualintroductionofcorrelativewordsintheirlogicalorder,andintheirpropergrammaticalcategories,beforetheyarecalled"correlatives,"ortabulated.Thetabulationfinallypresentedisarealclassification,withregardtothemeaningandgrammaticalcharacterofthewords,notmerelyanarbitraryalphabeticalarrangement.Theuseofprimaryadverbsprecedestheexplanationofadverbderivationprepositions,especiallyde,da,je,etc.,receivecarefulattention,alsotheverbsystem,andthedifferentiationofwordswhoseEnglishequivalentsareambiguous.
Ageneralcharacteristicofobviousadvantageisthatalmostwithoutexceptionnewformsandconstructionsareillustratedbymeansofwordsorrootsalreadyfamiliar.Likewise,thenewwordsorrootsofeachlessonrecuratleastonceinthenextlesson,andusuallyinsomelessonthereafteraswell.Eachreadingexercisegivesnotonlyathoroughapplicationofthegrammaticalprinciplesofthelesson,butareviewofthoseintheprecedinglesson,andnouseismadeofwordsorconstructionsnotyetexplained.Thecomparativeeaseofthelanguage,andthelackofnecessityforrecitingparadigms,permitthereadingexercisestobelongenoughforthestudenttofeelthathehasreallymasteredsomething.Theseexercisesarefurtherunique,inthateachafterthefifthisacoherentnarrative,andnearlyeveryoneisastoryofgenuineinterestinitself.Thesestories,ifboundseparately,wouldaloneconstituteareaderequivalenttothoseusedinfirstandsecondyearworkinnationallanguages.(Forlistoftitles,seeTableofContents.)
ThesecondelementofthetwofoldneedwhichthisvolumemeetsisthenecessityforapresentationofEsperanto,notasathingapart,butinthatformwhichwillmakeitmostserviceableasanintroductiontonationaltongues.Asteppingstonetobothancientandmodernlanguages,Esperantomayrenderinvaluableaid,andpavethewayforsurmountingthemanydifficultiesconfrontingbothstudentandteacher.ThroughEsperanto,thelaborintheacquirementoftheselanguagesmaybereducedinthesameproportioninwhichthepleasureandthoroughnessofsuchacquirementareincreased.Forthisreason,thegrammaticalconstructionsofEsperantoarehereexplainedasconsistentlyaspossibleinaccordancewiththeusageofnationallanguages,especiallythoseintheschoolcurriculum,andprecisenamesareassignedtothem.Suchmattersascontrarytofactconditions,indirectquotations,clausesofpurposeandofresult,accusativesoftimeandmeasure,expressionsofseparation,reference,etc.,thusbecomefamiliartothestudent,longbeforehemeetstheminthemoredifficultgarbofanationaltongue,whoseexceptionsseemtooutnumberitsrules,andwhoseidiomsprovemorepuzzlingthanitsexceptions,unlessapproachedbythesmoothandgradualascentoftheInternationalLanguage,Esperanto.
IVYKELLERMAN.
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WASHINGTON,D.C.,August3,1910.
TABLEOFCONTENTS.
LESSON
I. Alphabet.Vowels.Consonants.NamesoftheLetters.Diphthongs.CombinationsofConsonants.Syllables.Accent.
II. Nouns.TheArticle.Adjectives.AttributiveAdjectives.PresentTenseoftheVerb
III. ThePluralNumber.PredicateAdjectiveandNoun
IV. TransitiveVerbs.TheAccusativeCase.TheConjunctionKaj.TheNegativeNe.
V. TheComplementaryInfinitive.Interrogation.TheConjunctionNek.
VI. PersonalPronouns.AgreementwithPronouns.ConjugationoftheVerb.
VII. ThePastTense.Prepositions.AccusativeCaseofPersonalPronouns.
VIII. ReflexivePronouns.ReflexiveVerbs.
IX. LimitationoftheThirdPersonalPronoun.PossessiveAdjectives.PronominalUseofPossessiveAdjectives.LaKatokajlaPasero.
X. TheAccusativeofDirection.TheArticleforthePossessiveAdjective.Apposition.LaArabokajlaKamelo.
XI. PossessiveCaseofNouns.ImpersonalVerbs.VerbsPrecedingtheirSubjects.CoordinatingConjunctions.LaAraboenlaDezerto.
XII. IndirectStatements.TheIndefinitePersonalPronounOni.TheFutureTense.LaVentoflago.
XIII. TheDemonstrativePronounTiu.TensesinIndirectQuotations.FormationofFeminineNouns.EnlaParko.
XIV. TheDemonstrativePronounitiu.PossessiveFormoftheDemonstrativePronoun.TheSuffixIl.TheExpressionofMeansorInstrumentality.LaMano.
XV. TheDemonstrativeAdjective.AdverbsDefinedandClassified.FormationofOpposites.LaRuzaJunaViro.
XVI. TheDemonstrativeAdverbofPlace.Accompaniment.TheAdverbFor.TheMeaningofPovi.MalamikojenlaDezerto.
XVII. TheDemonstrativeTemporalAdverb.ComparisonofAdjectives.MannerandCharacteristic.Diri,ParoliandRakonti.FrederikoGrandakajlaJunaServisto.
XVIII. TheDemonstrativeAdverbofMotiveorReason.DerivationofAdverbs.ComparisonofWordsExpressingQuantity.ComparisonsContainingOl.CausalClauses.PrilaSezonoj.
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XIX. JuandDesinComparisons.ThePrepositionInter.ThePrepositionPro.PrepositionswithAdverbsandOtherPrepositions.LaAtunokajlaVintro.
XX. TheDemonstrativeAdverbofMannerandDegree.PrepositionsExpressingTimeRelations.EnSeptembro.
XXI. TheAccusativeofTime.AdverbsandtheAccusativeofTime.ThePrepositionPor.LaSezonojkajlaMondo.
XXII. ClausesExpressingDurationofTime.ClausesExpressingAnticipation.TheInfinitivewithAnstata,Por,Antaol.TheExpressionofaPartoftheWhole.DiogenokajAleksandroGranda.
XXIII. AdverbsExpressingaPartoftheWhole.TheDemonstrativeAdverbofQuantity.ResultClauses.EnlaButiko.
XXIV. TheInterrogativePronoun.ThePresentActiveParticiple.CompoundTenses.TheProgressivePresentTense.TheSuffixEj.EnNiaDomo.
XXV. TheInterrogativeAdjective.TheImperfectTense.SalutationsandExclamations.WordFormation.KoniandScii.LaNepoVizitaslaAvinon.
XXVI. TheInterrogativeAdverbofPlace.ThePastActiveParticiple.AdverbDerivationfromPrepositions.AdverbsExpressingDirectionofMotion.TheSuffixEg.LaPluvego.
XXVII. TheInterrogativeTemporalAdverb.ThePerfectTense.ThePrepositione.TheSuffixAr.TempoandFojo.TheOrthographyofProperNames.RobertoBrucekajlaAraneo.
XXVIII. TheInterrogativeAdverbofMotiveorReason.TheInfinitiveasSubject.PresentActionwithPastInception.TheSuffixUl.LoiandVivi.PrilaAvokajlaAvino.
XXIX. TheInterrogativeAdverbofMannerandDegree.ThePluperfectTense.CardinalNumbers.TheAccusativeofMeasure.NiaFamilio.
XXX. TheInterrogativeAdverbofQuantity.ModifiersofImpersonallyUsedVerbs.FormationofCardinalNumerals.TheSuffixAn.LecionoPriAritmetiko.
XXXI. TheRelativePronoun.TheFuturePerfectTense.OrdinalNumerals.AlfredoGrandakajlaLibro.
XXXII. KiaasaRelativeAdjective.KieasaRelativeAdverb.TheFutureActiveParticiple.ThePeriphrasticFutureTenses.TheSuffixInd.AlfredoGrandakajlaKukoj.
XXXIII. KiamasaRelativeAdverb.KielasaRelativeAdverb.NumeralNounsandAdverbs.WordDerivationfromPrepositions.LaInvito.
XXXIV. PrepositionsasPrefixes.TheSuffixEbl.ExpressionoftheHighestDegreePossible.TitlesandTermsofAddress.elaFesto.
XXXV. KiomasaRelativeAdverb.ThePresentPassiveParticiple.Fractions.DescriptiveCompounds.Lainoj.
XXXVI. ThePresentPassiveTense.TheUseofDetoExpressAgency.TheGeneralMeaningofDe.WordDerivationfromPrimaryAdverbs.TheSuffixIst.AntikvaRespubliko.
XXXVII. TheDistributivePronoun.ThePrepositionPo.DependentCompounds.LaapelosurlaStango.
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XXXVIII. TheDistributiveAdjective.TheImperfectPassiveTense.CompoundTensesofImpersonalVerbs.ReciprocalExpressions.TheSuffixUj.VilhelmoTellkajlaPomo.
XXXIX. TheDistributiveAdverbofPlace.TheFuturePassiveTense.PossessiveCompounds.TheTimeofDay.TheSuffixObl.EnlaStacidomo.
XL. TheDistributiveTemporalAdverb.TheDistributiveAdverbial.ThePastPassiveParticiple.ThePerfectPassiveTense.ThePrepositionLa.TheSuffixEm.LaPerditaInfano.
XLI. TheDistributiveAdverbiel.TheDistributiveAdverbiom.ThePluperfectPassiveTense.TheFuturePerfectPassiveTense.TheExpressionofMaterial.TheSuffixEt.LaDonaco.
XLII. TheFuturePassiveParticiple.ThePassivePeriphrasticFutureTenses.TheGenericArticle.TheSuffixEc.SurlaVaporipo.
XLIII. TheIndefinitePronoun.ParticipialNouns.ThePrefixEk.TheSuffixId.LaNestosurlaTendo.
XLIV. TheIndefiniteAdjective.TheIndefiniteAdverbofPlace.PredicateNominatives.LaevalokajlaSonorilo.
XLV. TheIndefiniteTemporalAdverb.TheIndefiniteAdverbIal.CausativeVerbs.EmphasisbyMeansofJa.elaMalnovaPonto.
XLVI. TheIndefiniteAdverbIel.TheIndefiniteAdverbIom.TheSuffixAd.TheUseofMem.ArimedokajlaKronoj.
XLVII. TheNegativePronoun.TheAdverbialParticiple.ThePrefixRe.LaFilozofoArimedo.
XLVIII. TheNegativeAdjective.TheNegativeAdverbofPlace.TheNegativeTemporalAdverb.TheSuffixA.TheAdverbJen.DuArtkonkursoj.
XLIX. TheNegativeAdverbsNenial,Neniel,Neniom.TheSuffixI.LaKrepusko.
L. ThePronounsendinginO.CorrelativeWords.TheUseofAjn.TheSuffixIng.LaGordiaLigao.
LI. ThePronounAmba.FormationswithIgandI.FactualConditions.LaMonaojkajlaAzeno.
LII. TheConditionalMood.CompoundTensesoftheConditionalMood.LessVividConditions.IndependentUseoftheConditionalMood.ThePrefixDis.PrilaGravitado.
LIII. ConditionsContrarytoFact.TheVerbDevi.ThePrepositionSen.LaFilozofoSokrato.
LIV. SummaryofConditions.ClausesofImaginativeComparison.TheUseofAltoExpressReference.TheSuffixEstr.LaOstracismodeAristejdo.
LV. TheImperativeMood.ResolveandExhortation.CommandsandProhibitions.LessPeremptoryUsesoftheImperative.TheUseofMoto.LaGlavodeDamoklo.
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LVI. TheImperativeinSubordinateClauses.ThePrepositionJe.TheSuffixOp.LaMaradodelaDekmilGrekoj.
LVII. ClausesExpressingPurpose.FurtherUsesoftheAccusative.SynopsisoftheConjugationoftheVerb.TheSuffixUm.LaReiradodelaDekmilo.
LVIII. PermissionandPossibility.ThePrefixGe.TheSuffixA.Interjections.AleksandroGranda.
LIX. ThePositionofUnemphaticPronouns.SomeIntransitiveVerbs.TheSuffixEr.ThePrefixesBoandDuon.Correspondence.KelkajLeteroj.
LX. SomeTransitiveVerbs.Elision.ThePrefixEks.ThePrefixPra.TheSuffixesjandNj.WeightsandMeasures.TheInternationalMoneySystem.Abbreviations.PriLaKamero.
ESPERANTOENGLISHVOCABULARY.
ENGLISHESPERANTOVOCABULARY.
INDEX.
ACOMPLETEGRAMMAROFESPERANTO.
LESSONI.
ALPHABET.
1.TheEsperantoalphabetcontainsthefollowingletters:a,b,c,,d,e,f,g,,h,,i,j,,k,l,m,n,o,p,r,s,,t,u,,v,z.
VOWELS.
2.Thevowelsofthealphabetarepronouncedasfollows:
aasinfar.
easinfianc,likeainfate.
This"longa"soundinEnglishfrequentlyendswithavanish,abriefterminalsoundof,whichmakesthevowelslightlydiphthongal,asinday,aye.SuchavanishmustnotbegiventoanyoftheEsperantovowels.
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iasinmachine.
oasintoll,for.
uasinrude,rural.
CONSONANTS.
3.Theconsonantsb,d,f,h,k,l,m,n,p,t,v,z,arepronouncedasinEnglish,andtheremainingelevenasfollows:
cliketsinhats,tsetse.
likechinchin,much.
glikegingo,big.
likegingem,jinjar.
isproducedbyexpellingthebreathforcibly,withthethroatonlypartiallyopen.
AsinpronouncingGermanandScotchch,Spanishj,Irishgh,Russianx,ClassicalGreeketc.Thereareonlyafewwordscontainingthisconsonant.
jlikeyinyes,beyond.
likezinazure,sinvisual.
risslightlytrilledorrolled.
slikesinsee,basis.
likeshinshine,rash,chinmachine.
likeworconsonantalu.SeeDiphthongs,5.
NAMESOFTHELETTERS.
4.Thevowelsarenamedbytheirsounds,asgivenin2.Thenamesoftheconsonantsarebo,co,o,do,fo,go,o,ho,o,jo,o,ko,lo,mo,no,po,ro,so,o,to,o,vo,zo.Theseareusedinspeakingoftheletters,inpronouncingtheminabbreviations,askotopofork.t.p.(=etc.),andinspellingwords,asbo,i,ro,do,o,birdo.
DIPHTHONGS.
5.Diphthongsarecombinationsoftwovowelsutteredasasinglesound,byonebreathimpulse.ThediphthongsinEsperantocontainaniorusoundasthesecondelement,butinordertoavoidconfusionwithcombinationsofvowelsnotformingdiphthongs(asinnaiva,likeEnglishnave,etc.),theyare
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writtenwithjandinstead.Theirpronunciationisasfollows:
ajlikeaiinaisle.
ejlikeeiinvein,eyinthey.
ojlikeoiincoin,oyinboy.
ujlikeuiinruin,u(e)yingluey.
elikeaywinwayward,orlike(h)oopronouncedtogether.
alikeouinout,owinowl.
COMBINATIONSOFCONSONANTS.
6.Eachconsonant,inacombinationoftwoormoreconsonants,ispronouncedwithitsfullvalue,whetherwithinawordoratitsbeginning.Therearenosilentletters.
a.Thus,bothconsonantsareclearlysoundedinthegroupskn,kv,gv,sv,insuchwordsasknabo,kvin,gvidi,sviso.
b.Thecombinationkz,asinekzisti,ekzameno,mustnotbemodifiedtothegsorksrepresentedbyxinexist,execute.
c.Thecombinationsc,asinescepte,scias,isequivalenttothecombinationstsinlastsaid,firstsong,pronouncedtogetherrapidly.Thesinawordbeginningwithscmaybesoundedwiththeendoftheprecedingword,ifthatwordendsinavowel,asmisciasformiscias.
d.Thenandgarepronouncedseparatelyinthecombinationng,insuchwordsaslingvo,angulo,producingthesoundofngheardinlinger,notthatinsinger.
e.Eachoftwosimilarlettersisclearlysounded,asinterrilato,ellasi,likeinterrelate,welllaid.
SYLLABLES.
7.Eachwordcontainsasmanysyllablesasithasvowelsanddiphthongs.Thedivisionofsyllableswithinawordisasfollows:
a.Asingleconsonantgoeswiththefollowingvowel,aspano,bela,aero.
b.Aconsonantfollowedbylorr(whichareliquids)goeswiththelorr,asintablo,akra,agrabla.
c.Otherwise,thesyllabledivisionismadebeforethelastconsonantofthegroup,assuspekti,sankta,dekstra.
d.Prefixesareseparatedfromthewordstowhichtheyareattached,asdismeti,malakra,andcompoundwordsaredividedintotheircomponentparts,asefurbo,sunombrelo.
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ACCENT.
8.Wordsofmorethanonesyllableareaccenteduponthesyllablebeforethelast,astblo,agrbla,suspkti.
WORDSFORPRACTICE.
9.(Tobepronouncedaloud,andcorrectlyaccented)Afero,trairi,najbaro,aero,hodia,pacienco,centono,ielo,e,samideano,treege,obei,obeu,Eropo,gvidi,ojo,iujn,justa,uste,jui,ado,lingvo,knabo,lara,pagi,kvieteco,ekzemplo,ellerni,fojo,krajono,forrajdi,kuirejo,evalejo,sankteco,scio,nescio,edzo,meze,duobla,ipo,ari,poo,svingi,sklavo,palaj,afao,atmosfero,monao,geometrio,ladi,vasta,eksplodi,senesa,sensencao,malluma,arbaranoj,mano,frea,askulti,dari.
LESSONII.
NOUNS.
10.Wordswhicharethenamesofpersonsorthingsarecallednouns.Theending,orfinalletter,ofnounsinEsperantoiso:
knabo,boy.evalo,horse.
pomo,apple.tablo,table.
THEARTICLE.
11.Thedefinitearticleisla,the,aslaknabo,theboy,laevalo,thehorse,latablo,thetable,lapomo,theapple.InEnglishthereisanindefinitearticle"a,an"forthesingular,butnonefortheplural.Esperantohasnoindefinitearticleforeithersingularorplural.Thereforeknabomaymeanboy,oraboy,pomomaymeanappleoranapple.
ADJECTIVES
12.Awordusedwithanoun(expressedorunderstood)toexpressaqualityorcharacteristiciscalledanadjective.TheendingofadjectivesinEsperantoisa:
bela,beautiful.flava,yellow.
granda,large.forta,strong.
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ATTRIBUTIVEADJECTIVES.
13.Anadjectiveissaidtomodifyanounwhosequalityitexpresses.Whendirectlyprecedingorfollowingitsnoun,itiscalledanattributiveadjective:
lagrandaevalo,thelargehorse.belabirdo,abeautifulbird.floroflava,ayellowflower.fortaknabo,astrongboy.
PRESENTTENSEOFTHEVERB.
14.Wordswhichexpressactionorconditionarecalledverbs.Whenrepresentinganactorconditionasafact,anddealingwiththepresenttime,theyaresaidtobeinthepresenttense.TheendingofallEsperantoverbsinthepresenttenseisas:
kuras,runs,isrunning.flugas,flies,isflying.
brilas,shines,isshining.dormas,sleeps,issleeping.
15.Thepersonorthingwhoseactionorconditiontheverbexpressesiscalledthesubjectoftheverb:
Lasunobrilas,thesunshines(isshining),subject:suno.Knabokuras,aboyruns(isrunning),subject:knabo.
VOCABULARY.(Tobememorizedinthisandinallfollowinglessons.)
bela,beautiful.birdo,bird.blanka,white.bona,good.brilas,shines,isshining.evalo,horse.dormas,sleeps,issleeping.flava,yellow.floro,flower.flugas,flies,isflying.forta,strong,granda,large.
kaj,and.kantas,sings,issinging.knabo,boy.kuras,runs,isrunning.la,the.luno,moon.maras,walks,iswalking.pomo,apple.suno,sun.tablo,table.violo,violet.viro,man.
READINGLESSON.
1.Bonaviro.2.Lagrandatablo.3.Blankafloro.4.Flavabirdo.5.Labelabirdokantas.6.Fortaknabo
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kuras.7.Labonaviromaras.8.Labelaevalokuras.9.Lasunobrilas.10.Birdoflugaskajknabokuras.11.evaloblankamaras.12.Labelalunobrilas.13.Laknabokantaskajlavirodormas.14.Belagrandapomo.15.Labonaknabokantas.16.Lagrandaevalodormas.17.Lasunobrilaskajlalunobrilas.18.Grandafortatablo.19.Violoflava.20.Labonaflavapomo.
SENTENCESFORTRANSLATION.
1.Abeautifulflower.2.Agoodlargetable.3.Ayellowvioletandawhiteviolet.4.Themoonisshining(shines).5.Thegoodboyiswalking(walks).6.Thebeautifulyellowbirdisflying(flies).7.Thestrongmanissleeping(sleeps).8.Thewhitebirdissinging(sings).9.Astronghorseruns,andamanwalks.10.Thesunshines,andtheboyissinging(sings).11.Thelargeyellowapple.12.Anapplelargeandgood.
LESSONIII.
THEPLURALNUMBER.
16.Thepluralnumberofnouns,thatis,theformwhichindicatesmorethanonepersonorthing,ismadebyaddingjtothenoun,asviroj,men,fromviro,mantabloj,tables,fromtablo,table.
ojispronouncedlikeoyinboy.See5.
17.Anadjectivemodifyingapluralnounagreeswithitinnumber,beinggiventhepluralformbytheadditionoftheendingj.Anadjectivemodifyingtwoormorenounsusedtogetherisofcoursegiventhepluralform:
bonajviroj,goodmen.grandajevaloj,largehorses.belajbirdokajfloro(belabirdokajbelafloro),beautifulbirdand(beautiful)flower.
ajispronouncedlikeaiinaisle.See5.
18.Thearticleisinvariable,thatis,doesnotchangeinformwhenusedwithpluralnouns,aslaviro,theman,laviroj,themen.Theverbisalsoinvariableinform:
Lavirojmaras,themenwalk,themenarewalking.Lasunokajlalunobrilas,thesunandthemoonareshining.Laviroestas,themanis.Lavirojestas,themenare.
PREDICATEADJECTIVEANDNOUN.
19.Whentheadjectiveisapartofthatwhichistoldorpredicatedofthesubjectoftheverb,aswhenusedwiththeverbs"tobe,""toseem,"etc.,itiscalledapredicateadjective:
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Labirdoestasbela,thebirdisbeautiful.Laknaboajnasbona,theboyseemsgood.Lavirojestasfortaj,themenarestrong.
20.Anounmayalsobeusedaspartofthepredicate,andisthencalledapredicatenoun:
Violojestasfloroj,violetsareflowers.Lakolomboestasbirdo,thedoveisabird.
21.Predicatenounsandadjectivesagreeinnumberwiththewordorwordswithwhichtheyareinpredicaterelation:
Rozojestasbelaj,rosesarebeautiful.Laknabokajlaviroajnasfortaj,theboyandthemanseemstrong.
VOCABULARY.
alta,high,tall.arbo,tree.ambro,room.domo,house.en,in.estas,is,are.folio,leaf.frea,fresh.ardeno,garden.kampo,field.
kolombo,dove.kuas,lies,islying,lie.longa,long.rozo,rose.rua,red.seo,chair.sidas,sits,sit,issitting.sur,on.ajnas,seems,seem.verda,green.
READINGLESSON.
1.Laaltaviroestasenlaardeno.2.Blankaevaloestasenlakampo.3.Belajbirdojsidassurlaverdaarbo.4.Labonajknabojestasenladomo.5.Laambrojenlabeladomoestasgrandaj.6.Freajflorojkuassurlatablo.7.Laviolojenlakampoestasbelaj.8.Lalunokajlasunoajnasgrandaj.9.Lakolombojestasbelajbirdoj.10.Laknabojajnasfortaj.11.Ruajpomojestassurlatabloenlaambro.12.Lafortajvirojsidassurseojenlalongaambro.13.Laarbojestasaltajkajverdaj.14.Lakolombojsurlaarbojkantas.15.Fortajevalojmaraskajkurasenlaverdajkampoj.16.Laknabojdormasenlagrandadomo.17.Ruaj,flavaj,kajverdajfoliojestasenlaardeno.18.Longatabloestasenladomo.19.Belajbirdojflugaskajkantasenlakampo.20.Freajrozojajnasbelaj.21.Lafoliojestasverdajkajruaj.
SENTENCESFORTRANSLATION.
1.Thetreesinthegardenaretallandgreen.2.Theroomsinthehousearelong.3.Theflowersonthetablearered,yellowandwhite.4.Theleavesarelongandgreen.5.Themenaresitting(sit)onchairsinthegarden.6.Inthegardenareyellowroses.7.Thebirdsinthefieldaredoves.8.Theboysintheroominthehouseseemtall.9.Freshvioletsarebeautifulflowers.10.Thehorsesinthegreenfieldsseemstrong.11.Dovesaresinging(sing)inthegarden.12.Themeninthelargehousesleep.13.Thehouseis
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longandhigh,andtheroomsinthehousearelarge.14.Redandyellowappleslieonthebigtable.15.Greenleavesareonthetreesinthelargegarden.
LESSONIV.
TRANSITIVEVERBS.
22.Theverbssofargivenhavebeenintransitiveverbs,expressingastateoranactionlimitedtothesubject,andnotimmediatelyaffectinganyotherpersonorthing,aslaknabokuras,theboyruns.Ontheotherhandatransitiveverbexpressesanactofthesubjectuponsomepersonorthingas,laknabotrovas,theboyfinds.
THEACCUSATIVECASE.
23.Thepersonorthingacteduponiscalledthedirectobjectofatransitiveverb,andisgiventheendingn.Thisiscalledtheaccusativeendingandthewordtowhichitisattachedissaidtobeintheaccusativecase:
Lavirohavasseon,themanhasachair.Laknabotrovasflorojn,theboyfindsflowers.
Theendingnfollowstheendingj,ifthewordtobeputintheaccusativecaseisinthepluralnumber.
24.Anattributiveadjectivemodifyinganounintheaccusativecaseismadetoagreeincase,byadditionofthesameaccusativeendingn.Thispreventsanydoubtastowhichoftwoormorenounsinasentenceismodifiedbytheadjective,andpermitsofvariationintheorderofthewords:
Laknabotrovasbelanfloron,theboyfindsabeautifulflower.Florojnbelajnlavirohavas,themanhasbeautifulflowers.Lavirohavasgrandanseon,themanhasalargechair.Ruanrozonlaknabohavas,theboyhasaredrose.
25.Apredicateadjectiveornoun(19)isneverintheaccusativecase,noristheaccusativeendingeverattachedtothearticle,whichisinvariableasstatedin18.
THECONJUNCTIONKAJ.
26.Intheexpressionboth...and...,theconjunctionkajisusedforbothwords,beingmerelyrepeated:
Lavirokajmaraskajkuras,themanbothwalksandruns.Laevaloestaskajgrandakajforta,thehorseisbothlargeandstrong.Laknabohavaskajrozojnkajviolojn,theboyhasbothrosesandviolets.Kajlaknabokajlaviroestasaltaj,boththeboyandthemanaretall.
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THENEGATIVENE.
27.Thenegativewordmeaning"not"whenformingpartofasentence,and"no"whenusedasananswertoaquestion,isne.Whenusedasasentencenegative,itusuallyimmediatelyprecedestheverb.Foremphaticnegationofsomeotherwordthantheverb,nemayprecedethatword:
Violojneestasruaj,violetsarenotred.Lavirojnesidassurseoj,themenarenotsittingonchairs.Lakolombokantas,neflugas,thedoveissinging,notflying.Ladomoestasblanka,neverda,thehouseiswhite,notgreen.
VOCABULARY.
apud,near,inthevicinityof.benko,bench.brano,branch.diversa,various.felia,happy.frukto,fruit.havas,have,has.herbo,grass.ili,they.kolektas,gather,collect.
koloro,color.lara,wide,broad.manas,eat,eats.mola,soft.nigra,black.ne,not,no.rompas,break,breaks.sed,but.trovas,find,finds.vidas,see,sees.
READINGLESSON.
1.Laknabojneestasenlaambroenlablankadomo.2.Iliestasenlagrandaardeno.3.Laardenoajnaskajlongakajlara.4.Lafeliajknabojvidaslabelanardenon.5.Ilividasflorojnapudaltaarbo.6.Laflorojhavasdiversajnkolorojn.7.Laknabojkolektaskajruajnkajflavajnflorojn.8.Sedilinetrovasfruktojnenlaardeno.9.Florojnblankajnilinevidas.10.Laaltaarbohavasverdajnfoliojnsurlabranoj.11.Laknabojrompasbranon,kajkolektaslafruktojn.12.Ilividasflorojnsurlabranoj,sedlaflorojnilinekolektas.13.Laknabojnesidassurbenkojenlaardeno,sedkuassurlamolaherbo.14.Lakolombojsidassurlaarboj,kajiliestasfeliaj.15.Laknabojvidaslabelajnbirdojn.16.Fortajnigrajevalojmanaslaherbonenlakampo.17.Laknabojvidaslaevalojn,sedlaevalojnevidaslaknabojn.18.Laevalojnedormas,ilimanas.19.Lafreaherboestasverdakajmola.20.Feliajestaskajlaknabojkajlaevaloj.21.Lapomoestasbonafrukto.
SENTENCESFORTRANSLATION.
1.Greenleavesareonthetrees.2.Theboysbreakbranchesandgathertheapples.3.Theyarenearthetalltreeinthegarden.4.Theyfindleavesonthetree,buttheydonotseethefruit.5.Thehouseislong,broadandhigh.6.Theroomsinthehousearebothlongandwide.7.Themenhavestrongblackhorses.8.Thehorseseatthefreshgreengrassinthefield.9.Themensitonbenchesinthegarden.10.Theboysdonotsleep,buttheylieonthesoftgrass.11.Theyseeboththebirdsandtheflowers,andtheyseemhappy.12.Theflowershavevariouscolors,butthegrassisgreen.13.Thedovesarenotsittingonthetree,theyareflyingnearthetrees.14.Beautifulredrosesarelyingonthetableinthehouse.15.The
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largeredapplesareneartheyellowroses.
LESSONV.
THECOMPLEMENTARYINFINITIVE.
28.Theinfinitiveisaformoftheverbwhichexpressesmerelythegeneralideaoftheactionorconditionindicated,andhassomeofthecharacteristicsofanoun.Theendingoftheinfinitiveisi,askuri,torun,esti,tobe,havi,tohave.
29.Aninfinitiveusedtocompletethemeaningofanotherverb,servingasadirectobjecttoatransitiveverb,iscalledacomplementaryinfinitive.Ifthecomplementaryinfinitiveisfromatransitiveverb,itmayitselfhaveadirectobject:
Laknabovolaskuri,theboywishestorun.Birdojataskanti,birdsliketosing.Laknabovolashavievalon,theboywishestohaveahorse.Ilivolastroviflorojn,theywishtofindflowers.
INTERROGATION.
30.Aninterrogativesentenceisonewhichasksaquestion.Unlesssomedirectlyinterrogativeword(as"who,""when,""why,"etc.)isused,thesentenceisrenderedinterrogativebyuseofthewordu.Thisinterrogativeparticleisplacedatthebeginningofasentence,thewordsofwhichareleftinthesameorderasforastatement.Sincethereisnoinversionoforder,thereisnonecessityforawordlikeEnglish"do"or"does,"tointroducetheverb:
ulaknaboestasbona?Istheboygood?uilihavasflorojn?Havetheyflowers?ulakolombojkantas?Dothedovessing?(Arethedovessinging?)
THECONJUNCTIONNEK.
31.Intheexpressionneither...nor...,theconjunctionnekisusedforbothwords.Sinceanadjectivemodifieroftwoormorewordsconnectedbynekmustnecessarilymodifythemseparately,theadjectiveremainsinthesingularnumber:
Ilinekmarasnekkuras,theyneitherwalknorrun.Lavirohavasnekdomonnekardenon,themanhasneitherahousenoragarden.Neklarozoneklavioloestasverda,neithertherosenorthevioletisgreen.
VOCABULARY.(Verbswillhereafterbequotedintheinfinitiveform.)
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bruna,brown.erizo,cherry.u,(30).dola,sweet.gusto,taste.i,it.Gertrude,Gertrude.knabino,girl.
matura,ripe.Mario,Mary.nek,neither,nor.persiko,peach.jes,yes.preferi,toprefer.ati,tolike.voli,towish.
READINGLESSON.
1.upersikoestasrua?2.Jes,iestaskajruakajdola.3.uerizojestasbrunaj?4.Ne,iliestasnekbrunajneknigraj,sedflavaj.5.ulapomoestasfrukto?Jes,iestasbonafrukto.6.ulavirokajlaknabohavaspomojn?7.Ne,ilihavasnekpomojnnekpersikojn.8.uMariohavaslamaturanfrukton?9.MariokajGertrudohavaslafrukton.10.Iliestasenladomo,kajmanaslamaturanfrukton.11.Lapersikojhavasdolanguston.12.Laknabinojvolashaviflorojn,sedlaknabojpreferaskolektidiversajnfruktojn.13.Ilivolastrovimaturajnerizojnkajflavajnpersikojn.14.Laerizojhavasbelanruankoloron.15.Lapersikojajnasmolajkajbonaj.16.Mariorompasbranon,kajvidaserizojnsurlabranoj.17.Gertrudoestasfelia,kajvolashavilabelanfrukton.18.Gertrudoestasalta,belaknabino.19.Marioataserizojn.20.Laknabojkajknabinojsidassurlaverdaherbo,kajmanaslaerizojn.21.Ilinevolasmanipomojn,ilipreferasladolajnerizojn.22.Lafoliojapudlaerizojestasneklarajneklongaj.
SENTENCESFORTRANSLATION.
1.Havethegirlsbeautifulflowers?2.No,theyhavefreshfruit.3.Theboysdonotwishtogatherflowers.4.Theyprefertobreakthebranches,andfindthesweetcherries.5.Gertrudewishestoeatapples,butMaryhasneitherapplesnorpeaches.6.Dothegirlsliketositinthehouseandeatfruit?7.Yes,theyliketositinthehouse,buttheyprefertowalkinthefield.8.Areripepeachesbrown?9.No,theyareredandyellow.10.Hasthepeachasweettaste?11.Dothegirlsseethebeautifulblackhorsesinthefields?12.Yes,theyseethehorses,butthehorsesseemnottoseethegirls.13.Marysitsonthesoftgreengrass,andeatsripefruit.
LESSONVI.
PERSONALPRONOUNS.
32.Wordswhichstandintheplaceofnouns,as"you,""he,""who,""which,"arecalledpronouns.Pronounsreferringtothepersonspeaking(I,we),thepersonaddressed(you,thou),orthepersonorthingspokenof(he,she,it,they),arecalledpersonalpronouns.Theyareconsideredsingularorplural,accordingtowhethertheyrefertooneormorepersons.Sincethemeaningofsuchpronounsindicatesthenumber,nopluralendingiseverattachedtothem.Thepersonalpronounsare:
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Singular. Plural.
Firstperson: mi,I(me). ni,we(us).
Secondperson: vi,you. vi,you.
Thirdperson:li,he(him).i,she(her).i,it.
ili,they(them).
Thereisanotherpronounci,thou,forthesecondpersonsingular,usedinsolemnstyle,asintheBible,inpoetry,andalsoforintimateorfamiliaraddresswhendesired,likeGermandu,Frenchtu,etc.
AGREEMENTWITHPRONOUNS.
33.Nounsinpredicaterelationwithpronouns,oradjectivesmodifyingsuchpronouns,aremadetoagreewiththeminnumber:
Niestasbonajkajfeliaj,wearegoodandhappy.Rozojestasfloroj,illneestasfruktoj,rosesareflowers,theyarenotfruits.Gertrudo,viestasbona,Gertrude,youaregood.Knabinoj,uviestasfeliaj?Girls,areyouhappy?
CONJUGATIONOFTHEVERB.
34.Anypronounmayserveasthesubjectofaverb.Thecombinationoftheverbwitheachofthepersonalpronounsinsuccessionforitssubject,iscalledtheconjugationoftheverb.Followingistheconjugationofthepresenttenseofesti,andofvidi:
miestas,Iam.viestas,youare.li(i,i)estas,he(she,it)is.niestas,weare.viestas,you(plural)are.iliestas,theyare.
mividas,Isee.vividas,yousee.li(i,i)vidas,he(she,it)sees.nividas,wesee.vividas,you(plural)see.ilividas,theysee.
VOCABULARY.
al,to,toward.Arturo,Arthur.a,or(a..a..,either..or..)ar,because.doni,togive.
hodia,today.kudri,tosew.Roberto,Robert.skui,toshake.stari,tostand.
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fali,tofall.fenestro,window.
sub,under,beneath.virino,woman.
READINGLESSON.
1.Knaboj,uvivolassidienladomo,aenlaardeno?2.Nipreferassidihodiaenlaardeno,sublagrandaarbo.3.uvihavaspomojn,aerizojn?4.Nihavasnekpomojnnekerizojn,sednihavasdolajnpersikojn.5.Arturodonasalvilamaturajnpersikojn,arliataskolektifrukton.6.Arturo,uvirompaslabranojn?7.Ne,sedmiskuasbranon,kajlapersikojfalas.8.Mistarassublaarbo,kajkolektasladolanfrukton.9.LafruktonmidonasalMariokajGertrudo.10.MivolasdonipersikonalHeleno,sedhodiaiestasenladomo.11.isidasapudlafenestrokajkudras.12.ipreferaskudri,kajvolasnekmarineksidienlaardeno.13.Kajikajlavirinoapudivolaskudrihodia.14.Iliestasfeliaj,arilividaslabirdojnenlaarboapudlafenestro.15.Labirdojestaskolomboj,kajsidassurlaarbo.16.Sublaarbojenlakampostarasevaloj,kajilimanaslaverdanmolanherbon.17.Nidonaspomojnalili,ariliataspomojn.18.Niestasfeliaj,arnihavasbelajnpersikojnmaturajnkajbonajn.19.Roberto,viestasalta,sedvi,knabinoj,neestasaltaj.
SENTENCESFORTRANSLATION.
1.DoesArthurbreakthebranchandgathertheapples?2.No,heshakesthebranch,andtheapplesfall.3.Theyareripeandsweet.4.Robert,doyouwishtostandbeneaththetree?5.No,Idonotwishtostandunderit,butnearit.6.Iwishtogiveboththepeachesandtheapplestothewoman.7.Sheissittinginthehouse,nearthewindow.8.Maryissittingin(on)achairnearher.9.BothMaryandthewomanaresewing.10.Theyprefertosew,anddonotwishtowalkinthegardentoday.11.Theyarehappybecausetheyliketosew.12.Theydonotwishtogatherflowers,orwalk,orseethebirds.13.Theyhaveneitherapplesnorpeaches,buttheydonotwishtoeat.14.Theygivethefruittotheboysandgirls.
LESSONVII.
THEPASTTENSE.
35.Thepasttenseoftheverbexpressesanactionwhichtookplaceinpasttime,oraconditionwhichexistedinpasttime.Theendingofthistenseisis,askuris,ran,flugis,flew,brilis,shone.Theconjugationofestiandalsoofvidiinthepasttenseisasfollows:
miestis,Iwas.viestis,youwere.li(i,i)estis,he(she,it)was.niestis,wewere.viestis,you(plural)were.iliestis,theywere.
mividis,Isaw.vividis,yousaw.li(i,i)vidis,he(she,it)saw.nividis,wesaw.vividis,you(plural)saw.ilividis,theysaw.
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PREPOSITIONS.
36.Aprepositionisawordlike"in,""on,"placedbeforeanounorpronountoindicatesomerelationbetweenthisandanotherword.Theprepositionissaidtogovernthenounorpronoun,whichiscalleditscomplement.InEnglish,thecomplementofaprepositionseemstobeputintheaccusativecaseifitisapronoun,buttoremainunchangedinformifitisanoun.InEsperantotheprepositiondoesnotaffecttheformofthewordgoverned,whichremainsinthenominativecase:
Laarboestasenlaardeno,thetreeisinthegarden.Bonajpomojestassuri,goodapplesareonit.Midoniserizojnalli,Igavecherriestohim.Laknaboestasapudmi,theboyisnearme.Sublaarbostarisevalo,underthetreestoodahorse.
ACCUSATIVECASEOFPERSONALPRONOUNS.
37.Foruseastheobjectofaverb,anypronounmaybeputintheaccusativecasebyadditionoftheaccusativeendingn(23):
Lavirovidisvinkajmin,themansawyouandme.Lividisilinkajnin,hesawthemandus.Mividisneklinnekin,Isawneitherhimnorher.Nivolashaviin,wewishtohaveit.
VOCABULARY.
agrabla,pleasant,agreeable.bildo,picture.blua,blue.danki,tothank.de,from.diri,tosay.infano,child.interesa,interesting.
luma,light(notdark).muro,wall.nun,now.planko,floor.pordo,door.rigardi,tolook(at).tapio,carpet.tra,through.
READINGLESSON.
1.Hodialaknabojkajknabinojestasenlagrandadomo.2.Ilistarasapudlatablo,enagrablalumaambro.3.ihavasaltajnlarajnfenestrojn.4.Sublatablokajseoj,molatapiokuassurlaplanko.5.Latapiohavasbelajnkolorojn,ruan,bluan,flavan,kajverdan.6.Virinomaristralapordo,kajstarisapudlatablo.7.ihavisinteresajnbildojn,kajdonisilinallaknabojkajlaknabinoj.8.idiris"uvivolasrigardilabildojn?"9."Jes,nidankasvin,"dirislainfanoj,kajidonisalililabildojn.10.Grandabildofalisdelatablo,sedArturonunhavasin.11.LidonasinalMario,idankaslin,kajdonasinalRoberto.12.IlivolisdoniinalGertrudo,sedidiris"Ne,midankasvin,mineatasrigardibildojn."13.imarisdelatabloallafenestrokajdiris"Mipreferaskudri."14.ivolissidiengrandaseoapudlafenestro.15.Lavirinorigardisinkajdiris"Midonislabildojnalvi,knabojkajknabinoj,"ariliestas
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interesajbildoj.16.Gertrudodiris"Viestasbonaalni,sedmivolassidiapudlapordoalafenestro.17.Mikolektisdolajnviolojnenlaardeno,kajnunmivolasrigardiladolajnflorojn,kajkudri."
SENTENCESFORTRANSLATION.
1.Dotheboysandgirlswishtobegood?2.Theygatheredfreshflowersandgavethemtothewoman.3.Thehappychildrenwereinthegarden,butnowtheyareinthehouse.4.Theroomsinthehousearelight,becausetheyhavelargewidewindows.5.Thedoorsintheroomarewideandhigh.6.Thecarpetsonthefloorseemsoft,andhavevariousbeautifulcolors.7.Alargestrongtablestandsnearthedoor.8.Wecansitnearthetableandlookthroughthewindows.9.Gertrudeislookingatthevariouspictures.10.Shelooksatthem,andseemstobehappy.11.ShegaveapicturetomeandIthankedher.12.Helenwalkednearthetableandshookit.13.Arthurdidnotseethepicturesbecausetheywerelyingonthefloor.14.Helookedatthepicturesonthewall,buttheyareneitherinterestingnorbeautiful.15.Robertlookedthroughthewindow,andsawusinthepleasantgarden.
LESSONVIII.
REFLEXIVEPRONOUNS.
38.Apronounwhichreferstothesamepersonorthingasthesubjectoftheverbinthesentence,butisusedinsomeotherrelationthansubjectofthatverb,issaidtobeusedreflexively,ortobeareflexivepronoun.
39.Thefirstandsecondpersonalpronouns,mi,ni,andvi,(ci)areusedforthereflexivepronounsofthefirstandsecondpersons.Therecanbenoambiguity,sincewordssuchas"me,myself,us,ourselves,"canrefertonooneelsethanthepersonorpersonsspeakingwhilewordssuchas"you,yourself,yourselves(thee,thyself),"canrefertonooneelsethanthepersonorpersonsaddressed:
Mividasmin,Iseemyself.Midirisalmi,Isaidtomyself.Nihavastapionsubni,wehaveacarpetunderus.Niamuzisnin,weamusedourselves.(Citrovasdomonapudci,thoufindestahousenearthee.)Vidirasalvi,yousaytoyourself(yourselves).Viamuzasvin,youamuseyourself(yourselves).
40.Whentheverbisinthethirdperson,apronounofthethirdperson,usedotherwisethanasthesubject,mightormightnotrefertothesubjectofthatverb.Forexample,"Heseesabirdnearhim,"maymeanthatthesubjectseesabirdnearhimself,ornearanotherperson.Ifsuchapronounofthethirdpersonisintendedtorefertothesubjectoftheverb,Esperantousesaspecialreflexivepronounsi(accusativesin),whichmeanshim(self),her(self),it(self),them(selves),accordingtothegenderandnumberoftheverb:
Liamuzassin,heamuseshimself.Arturovidisbirdonapudsi,Arthursawabirdnearhim(self).
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itrovasfloronapudsi,shefindsaflowernearher(self).Mariotrovissinsurbluatapio,Maryfoundherselfonabluecarpet.Latapiohavasdiversajnkolorojnensi,thecarpethasvariouscolorsinit(self).Labirdokaassinsublafolioj,thebirdhidesitselfundertheleaves.Iliamuzassin,theyamusethemselves.Lavirojhavasseojnapudsi,themenhavechairsnearthem(selves).Lavirinojtrovasflorojnapudsi,thewomenfindflowersnearthem(selves).Laarbojhavaserizojnsursi,thetreeshavecherriesonthem(selves).Subsilainfanojtrovismolantapion,underthem(selves)thechildrenfoundasoftcarpet.
Fromtheveryfactthatsialwaysreferstothesubjectoftheverb,itisevidentthatsicanneveritselfbeusedassubjectorpartofthesubjectoftheverb.
REFLEXIVEVERBS.
41.Averbhavingareflexivepronounforitsdirectobjectissometimescalledareflexiveverb,fromthefactthatsomelanguageshavehadorstillhaveaspecialreflexiveormiddleformoftheverb,toexpressanactofthesubjectonorforitself,ortheyhavecertainverbswhoseuseischieflyorexclusivelyreflexive.Theconjugationofaverbreflexivelyisthereforeasfollows:
miamuzasmin(miminamuzas),Iamusemyself.viamuzasvin(vivinamuzas),youamuseyourself.li(i,i)amuzassin(sinamuzas),he(she,it)amuseshim(her,it)self.niamuzasnin(nininamuzas),weamuseourselves.viamuzasvin(vivinamuzas),youamuseyourselves.iliamuzassin(ilisinamuzas),theyamusethemselves.
AsGreek,theyturnedthemselvesLatinexerceor,Iexercisemyself,vescor,Ieat(Ifeedmyself)Germanichhtemich,Ibeware(Iguardmyself)Spanishmealegro,oralgrome,Irejoice(Igladdenmyself)Frenchils'arrte,hehalts(hestopshimself).
VOCABULARY.
Alfredo,Alfred.amuzi,toamuse.anta,before,infrontof.aparteni,tobelong.griza,gray.iri,togo.Johano,John.kai,tohide,toconceal.
komenci,tobegin.ladi,topraise.legi,toread.libro,book.perdi,tolose.skatolo,smallboxorcase.strato,street.si,himself,etc.(40).
READINGLESSON.
1.JohanokajAlfredoamuzissinenlaardeno.2.Johanokaissin,kajAlfredotrovisJohanon.3.Alfredosinkaisenaltaarbo,kajJohanotrovisAlberton.4.MariokajGertrudosinkaisapudlafloroj,kajlaknabojtrovislaknabinojn.5.Laknabinojnevolasperdisinenlaagrablakampo.6.Johano
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komencisamuzisinenlumaambroenladomo.7.Lamurohavasinteresajnbildojnsursi.8.TralafenestroantasiJohanorigardaslavirojnkajlavirinojnsurlastrato.9.Lihavasmolangrizantapionsubsi,kajnevolasseon.10.LikajAlfredovolisiriallastratokajamuzisin.11.Ilimarisallapordo,kajtrovisruanskatolonantasi.12.Enlaskatoloestislibro,kajJohanodirisalsi"Lalibroneapartenasalmi."13.LidirisalAlfredo"arnitrovisin,mivolaslegilalibron."14.Virinoantapordokomencisrigardilaknabojn,kajilidirisali"ulalibroapartenasalvi?Nitrovisinenskatolo."15.Lavirinodiris"Jes,niperdisin,kajmidankasvin,arvidonasalmilaskatolonkajlalibron."16.iirisallastrato,kajlaknabojirisalladomo.
SENTENCESFORTRANSLATION.
1.Thebookinthegrayboxdoesnotbelongtome.2.Ifounditinfrontofme,nearthedoor.3.Youbegantopraiseyourselves,butIdonotpraisemyself.4.Theyhidthemselves,andIstoodnearthem.5.Thebirdssitonthetree,becauseithasripecherriesonit.6.Alfredamusedhimselfonthestreet,butweliketoamuseourselvesinthehouse.7.Thetreeshavegoodfruitonthem.8.Shefoundherselfinabeautifullightroom.9.Thecarpetonthefloorhadvariouscolorsinit,andthehighwallhadpicturesonit.10.Thepictureshadboysandgirlsinthem.11.Thebookbelongstoher,butitfellfromthebox.12.Thetablehasredandblueandyellowflowersonit.13.Didyouseethedovesneartheflowersinfrontof(before)you?14.Thebirdssawthefruitonthetreeinfrontofthem,andflewtothebranches.15.Isatonthebenchinthegarden,andbegantoreadaninterestingbook.16.Theyhidthemselvesintheleavesandbegantosing.17.Thechildisinapleasantroom.
LESSONIX.
LIMITATIONOFTHETHIRDPERSONALPRONOUN.
42.Sincethereisaspecialreflexivepronounofthethirdperson,thethirdpersonalpronouns,li,i,i,ili,whenusedotherwisethanassubjects,neverrefertothesubjectoftheverb,butalwaystosomeotherpersonorthing:
Laknaboladaslin,theboypraiseshim(anotherperson).idonaspomojnali,shegivesapplestoher(toanotherperson).Labirdovidisin,thebirdsawit(somethingelsethanthebird).Laknabojkaisilin,theboyshidthem(otherpersonsorthings).Ilitrovisilinapudsi,theyfoundthem(otherpersonsorthings)nearthem(selves).Labirdojflugisalili,thebirdsflewtothem.
POSSESSIVEADJECTIVES.
43.Wordslike"my,""his,""your,"whichindicateownershiporsomepossessiverelation,arecalledpossessiveadjectives.Possessiveadjectivesareformedfromthepersonalpronounsbyaddingtheadjectiveendinga,asmia,my,via,your(cia,thy),lia,his,ia,her,ia,its,nia,our,via,your(plural),ilia,their.Thelimitationintheuseofthethirdpersonalpronouns(42)isalsotrueoftheadjectives
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derivedfromthem:
Miadomokajmiajardenojestasgrandaj,myhouseandmygardensarelarge.Johanosidassurviaseo,Johnissittinginyourchair.Lihavaslianevalon,hehashis(anotherperson's)horse.uvilegisiajnlibrojn?Didyoureadherbooks?
Sometimesthesewordsarecalledpossessivepronouns,althoughreallytheyarenotpronounsatall,butpronominaladjectiveswithapossessivemeaning.
44.Reflexivepossessiveadjectives,likethereflexivepronoun,refertothesubjectoftheverbinthesentence.Forthefirstandsecondpersons,theyarethesameasthepersonalpossessiveadjectives.Thereflexivepossessiveadjectiveofthethirdpersonissia,his,her,its,their,formedbyaddingtheendingatothereflexivepronounsi:
Mihavasmiajnlibrojnsurmiatablo,Ihavemybooksonmytable.Johanoperdissiajnlibrojn,Johnlosthis(John's)books.Marioestasensiaambro,Maryisinherroom.Labirdojflugisalsiaarbo,thebirdsflewtotheirtree.
PRONOMINALUSEOFPOSSESSIVEADJECTIVES.
45.Possessiveadjectivesmaybeusedpredicatively,as"thebookismine,"ormaymodifysomewordorwordsnotexpressed,as"minearelarge."Insteadofhavingspecialforms,likeEnglishmine,yours,hers,etc.,Esperantousestheregularpossessiveadjectivesprecededbythearticle:
Lagrandalibroestaslamia,thelargebookismine.Laviaestasgranda,lamiajestasbelaj,yoursislarge,minearebeautiful.Ilihavaslasian,sednelalian,theyhavetheirs,butnothis.Lailiajajnasestibonaj,theirsseemtobegood.
VOCABULARY.
diro,saying,remark.is,asfaras,upto,downto.hiera,yesterday.juna,young.kapti,tocatch,toseize.kato,cat.kolera,angry.lavi,towash.
mano,meal.nesto,nest.pasero,sparrow.patro,father.post,after,behind.surprizi,tosurprise.teni,tohold,tokeep.vizao,face.
READINGLESSON.
1.Hieramiperdismiangrizankaton.2.Iliakatokaptisnianbirdon.3.Viakoleradirosurprizismianpatron.4.ulagrandakampoapartenasaliapatro?5.Ne,ineestaslalia.6.Laliaestasbela,sedmipreferaslamian.7.uviatasvianlibronalailian?8.Lihavasneksiajnevalojnneklailiajn.9.La
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knabinojajnasestikoleraj.10.Ilikomencislegisiajnlibrojn.11.Lavirokaptiskajtenissiajnevalojn,sedlinetrovisiliajnevalojn.12.ialibrokuassurlaplanko,postiaseo.13.inetrovisilianlibron,sedlajunajinfanojtrovislanian.
LAKATOKAJLAPASERO.
Grizakatoirisdeladomoislastrato.ividispaseronantasi,kajvolismaniin.Lakatostarispostgrandaarbo,kajkaptislapaseron.Lapaserodiris"Bonakatolavassinantasiamano,sedvinelavisvianvizaon."Lainteresadirosurprizislakaton.Lakatonetenislapaseron,sedkomencislavisianvizaon.Lapaseroflugisdelakatoislaarbo.Lakolerakatodiris"Miperdismianmanon,armikomencislaviminantalamano!"Nunlakatojnelavassinantalamanoj.Ilihavassiajnmanojn,kajpostlamanojililavaslavizaojn.Lapaserojnesurprizasilinnun,sedilitenaslapaserojn.Lakatojestasfeliaj,sedlapaserojneestasfeliaj.Lajunajpaserojvolasflugiallanestojenlaarboj.
SENTENCESFORTRANSLATION.
1.Theboysarenotintheir(own)house,buttheyareinhis.2Isthelargebeautifulhouseyours?3.Thewomanwalkedthroughthedooroftheirhouse,asfarasherroom.4.Theroomhasinterestingpicturesonitswalls.5.Wepraisedtheirflowersyesterday,andtheygavethemtous.6.Theirbooksareintheir(thebooks')box.7.Theyareontheir(theboys')table.8.Thegraycatwasangrybecauseitdidnotholdthebird.9.Thesparrowsurprisedit,anditcommencedtowashitsface.10.Thesparrowwishedtoflyasfarasthetalltree,butthecatheldit.11.Thesparrowsaid"Agoodcatwashesitsface,butyouarenotagoodcat."12.Thesparrowwasangrybecausethecatseizeditandheldit.13.Thebirddidnotloseitsmeal,buttheangrycatlostitsmeal.14.Doyouseehiscatorhers?15.Iseebothhisandhers,butoursisnotinourgarden.16.Myfatherisatallstrongman.17.Iliketolookathim.18.Thechildrensawtheyoungbirdsinthenest.
LESSONX.
THEACCUSATIVEOFDIRECTION.
46.Whentheverbinasentenceexpressesmotion,thewordindicatingtheplace,personorthingtowardwhichthemotionisdirectedisgiventheaccusativeending.Thisisalsotrueifthewordisthecomplementofanyprepositionwhichdoesnotitselfsufficientlyindicatemotioninacertaindirection.(Theprepositionsal,to,toward,is,asfaras,tra,through,expressmotioninthedirectionoftheircomplements,andcouldnotwellbeusedexceptinasentencewhoseverbexpressesmotion.Consequentlytheaccusativeisnotusedafteranyofthesethree):
Liirisardenon,hewenttothegarden("gardenward").LaviroirosBostonon,themanwillgotoBoston("Bostonward").
Cf.English"hewenthome,""hewenthomeward,"etc.
Liestisenlaardeno,kajkurisenladomon,hewasinthegardenandranintothehouse.
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ineestassurlatablo,ifalissurlaplankon,itisnotonthetable,itfelluponthefloor.Ilifalissublatablonislaplanko,theyfellunderthetableasfarasthefloor(directionexpressedbywholeprepositionalphrase).Miiristraladomoenmianambron,Iwentthroughthehouseintomyroom.
THEARTICLEFORTHEPOSSESSIVEADJECTIVE.
47.Inmanysentenceswherethepossessorisalreadysufficientlyindicated,Englishneverthelessusesapossessiveadjective,asin"Iwashmyface,""heshakeshishead,"butontheotherhandomitsitentirelywithcertainwordsindicatingrelationship,asin"Brothergaveittome,"etc.InbothcasesEsperantousesthearticleinsteadofthepossessiveadjective,unlessthefactofpossessionistobeemphasized:
Milavaslavizaon,Iwashmyface.Liskuaslakapon,heshakeshishead.Lapatroestasalta,Fatheristall.Midonisinallapatro,IgaveittoFather.
APPOSITION.
48.Englishoftenusesthepreposition"of"betweentwowordswherenoideaofpossessionreallyexists,as"thecityofBoston."Sincenounsusedinappositionrefertothesamething,andareinthesamegrammaticalconstruction,Esperantodoesnotuseapreposition:
LaurboBostonoestasgranda,thecity(of)Bostonislarge.MiaamikoJohanoestasalta,myfriendJohnistall.uvinekonasmin,vianamikon?doyounotknowme,yourfriend?
VOCABULARY.
arabo,arab.balda,soon.Bostono,Boston.frato,brother.kamelo,camel.kapo,head.kolo,neck.korpo,body.
meti,toput,toplace.nazo,nose.nur,only,merely.pui,topush.trans,across.tuta,whole,entire,all.urbo,city.varma,warm.
LAARABOKAJLAKAMELO.
Arabosidisensiadomoenlaurbo.Apuddomotranslastratolividiskamelon.Lakameloiristranslastratonislapordo,kajdirisallaarabo,"Frato,mineestasvarma,mivolasmetinurlanazonenvianvarmandomon."Laaraboskuislakapon,sedlakamelometislanazontralapordoenlaambron.Lakamelokomencispuisiantutanvizaonenladomon.Baldalihavislakaponislakoloenladomo.Postlakapoirislakoloenin,kajbaldalatutakorpoestisenladomo.Laaraboestiskolera,arline
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volishavitutankamelonensiadomo.Likurisallakamelo,kaptislin,tenislin,kajdiris,"Frato,vivolismetinurlanazonenmiandomon.Laambroneestasgrandasediestaslamia,kajmipreferassidieni.""Viadiroestasbona,"dirislakamelo,"viadomoneestasgranda,sediestasvarma,kajmiatasstarieni.Mipreferasstarikajkuieni,kajmidonosalvimianarbontranslastrato.uvinevolasirisublaarbon?"Kajlakamelopuislaarabondeliadomoenlastratondelaurbo.Lakamelonuntrovissinenvarmaambro,sedlajunaarabostaristranslastratokajneestisvarma.
SENTENCESFORTRANSLATION.
1.Thecatranacrossthestreet.2.Acrossthestreetitfoundasparrow.3.Itcaughtthebird,butbegantowashitsface,andthesparrowflewtothenest.4.Iwentintothegardenasfarasthelargetree.5.Ididnotholdmybook,anditfelluponthefloor.6.Itbegantofallunderthetable,butIseizedit.7.Mybrotherpushedthebooksintotheirbox,andputitonthetable.8.WewenttothecityofBostonyesterdayandintoabeautifulhouse.9.Thearabshookhisheadandsaid,"No."10.Butthecamelcommencedtogothroughthedoor.11.Hisremarkdidnotseemtosurprisethecamel.12.Thecamelpusheditsheadandneck,andsoonitswholebodyintothewarmhouse.13.Itwishedtoputmerelyitsnoseintoit.14.Thearabwasangry,becauseitpusheditselfintohishouse.15.Hesaid,"Brother,thehouseismine,andIdonotwishtohaveyouinit."16.Butsoonaftertheremark,thewholecamelwasinthehouse.17.Hepushedtheyoungarabintothestreet.18.Hewentacrossthestreetandstooduponthegrassunderatree.
LESSONXI.
POSSESSIVECASEOFNOUNS.
49.Theprepositiondeisusedtoexpresspossessionorconnection:
Lamurojdeladomo,thewallsofthehouse.Lakolorojdelafloroj,thecolorsoftheflowers.Lalibrodelaknabo,thebookoftheboy(theboy'sbook).Branodelaarbo,abranchofthetree.Laardenodelaviroj,thegardenofthemen(themen'sgarden).
IMPERSONALVERBS.
50.Verbswithanimpersonalorindeterminatesubject,as"itrains,""itissnowing,"arecalledimpersonal,becausethereisnoactualsubject,theword"it"servingmerelyasanintroductoryparticle.NosuchparticleisusedwithimpersonalverbsinEsperanto:
Pluvas,itrains,itisraining.Neishiera,itsnowedyesterday.
VERBSPRECEDINGTHEIRSUBJECTS.
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51.Whentheverbinasentenceprecedesitssubject,Englishoftenusesanintroductoryparticle,suchas"there,""it."InEsperantonosuchparticlesareneeded:
Estasflorojsurlatablo,thereareflowersonthetable.EstisJohano,neAlfredo,enlaardeno,itwasJohn,notAlfred,inthegarden.Estasdomoenlakampo,thereisahouseinthefield.Estismi,itwasI.
COORDINATINGCONJUNCTIONS.
52.Wordslikea,kaj,nek,sed,whichjoinwords,wordgroups,orsentencestogetherareconjunctions.Alltheconjunctionsgivensofarconnectwords,phrases,orsentencesofsimilarrankorkind.Thesearecalledcoordinatingconjunctions,andthewords,phrases,orsentencesconnectedbythemaresaidtobecoordinate:
uvimarasakuras?(Aconnectstheverbs.)
iiris,kajniestisfeliaj.(Kajconnectsthesentences.)
Nekvinekmividisin.(Thesecondnekconnectsthepronouns,thefirstbeingintroductoryandadverbial.)
Aliaiperdislalibron.(Thesecondaconnectsthepronouns,thefirstbeingintroductoryandadverbial.)
ifalissurlaseon,sednesurlaplankon.(Sedconnectsthephrases.)
Lineatisin.Tamenlitenisin.(Tamenconnectsthesentences.)
Aphraseisawordgroupforminganexpression,butnotcontainingaverb,as"throughthehouse,""oftheman,""beforeme,"etc.
Coordinatingconjunctionsmaybefurtherclassifiedaccordingtotheirmeaning:Aisdisjunctive,connectingalternates,andexpressingseparation.Kajiscopulative,expressingunion.Nekisdisjunctive,expressingseparationandalsonegation.Sedisadversative,expressingopposition,contrast,ormodificationofapreviousstatement.Tamenisadversative,affirmingsomethinginspiteofapreviousobjectionorconcession.Do,so,then,consequently,isargumentative,expressingalogicalinferenceorresultinasomewhatconversationalmanner.
VOCABULARY.
akvo,water.amiko,friend.anka,also.bezoni,toneed.dezerto,desert.fidela,faithful.mono,money.
porti,tocarry.ria,rich,wealthy.sablo,sand.sako,sack,bag.seka,dry.tamen,nevertheless.trinki,todrink.
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nei,tosnow.pluvi,torain.
veni,tocome.vojo,road,way.
LAARABOENLADEZERTO.
Araboiristransgrandansekandezerton.Kamelo,liafidelaamiko,portislin.Lakameloankaportisbelajntapiojn,arlaaraboestisriaviro.Laarabohavisnenurtapiojn,sedankasakojn.Enlasakojestisakvo,arenladezertonekpluvasnekneas.Lavirotrinkisakvon,kajankadonisakvonalsiakamelo.Lakamelomariskajmaris,sednevenisalladomodelaarabo,ariliperdislavojon.Lasunobrilis,kajlasablodeladezertoajnisvarma.Laarabonetrovislavojon,kajbaldalinehavisakvon.Tamenlakamelomariskajmaris,kajbaldalaarabovidissakonantasi,surlasekasablo.Liestisfeliakajdirisalsi"uestasakvoeni?Mivolastrinki,kajvolasdoniakvonalmiafidelakamelo."Liankavolislavilatutanvizaonenlaakvo,arliestisvarma.Postsiadirolikaptislasakon,kajkomencisrigardienin.Limetislanazonenin,sednetrovisakvonenlasako.Neklinekliafidelakamelohavisakvon,arestisnurmonoenlasako.Laaraboestiskolera,arlinevolismonon,libezonisakvon.Lihavismononensiadomoenlaurbo,kajvolistroviakvon.ulitamenmetislasakontranslakolondesiakamelo?Ne,linevolismetiinsursiankamelon,arliestiskolera.Linetenislasakon,sedifalissurlasablon,kajkuisapudli.Lasakonunkuassurlasablodelagrandadezerto,kajlamonoestaseni.
SENTENCESFORTRANSLATION.
1.Todayitisraining,butyesterdayitwassnowing.2.DidyourfriendJohncarryhischairintothehouse?3.Isawyourgoodfriendsonthewaytothecity.4.Isthelargesackbehindthedoortheirs?5.Neithershenorherbrothersawthewholecity.6.TheywenttothecityofBostonandlosttheirway.7.Thereareinterestinghousesacrossthestreet.8.Thebodyofacamelislarge,anditsneckislong.9.Thecamelpusheditsheadintothehouseofthearab,andhewasangry.10.Onthesandinthedesertthereliesasack.11.Inthesackthereismoney.12.Thearabwaswarm,andwishedtodrinkwater.13.Healsowishedtogivewatertothefaithfulcamel.14.Nevertheless,hefoundonlymoneyinthesack.15.Hewasangry,anddidnotkeepthesack.16.Yesterdayhewishedtofindmoney,buttodayhepreferswater.17.Neverthelessthereisonlysandinthedesert.18.Hewishedtocomefromthedrydeserttothehouseofafaithfulfriend.19.Bothheandhisfriendsarerich.20.Theywenttohishouseyesterday,andcametotheirstoday.21.Theydonotneedmoney.
LESSONXII.
INDIRECTSTATEMENTS.
53.Astatementmadeindirectlybymeansofaclausedependentuponaverbmeaning"say,""think,""know,""believe,"orasimilarexpression,asin"Iknowthathecame,""Ihearthatheisgood,"iscalledanindirectstatement.(Thedirectstatementis"hecame,""heisgood.")Anindirectstatementisjoinedtothemainverborsentencebythesubordinatingconjunctionke,that.
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Midiraskeliestasbona,Isaythatheisgood.Johanodiraskevivenishiera,Johnsaysthatyoucameyesterday.iopiniaskeestasmonoenlasako,shethinksthatthereismoneyinthebag.Nividaskeneas,weseethatitissnowing.
Aclauseisagroupofwordsincludingaverb,whichisdependentuponorsubordinatetoamainverborsentence,as"thathecame,""whenhewent,""thatheisgood,"etc.
InEnglishthesubordinatingconjunctionmaysometimesbeomitted,either"Ithinkthatheisgood,"or"Ithinkheisgood,"beingusuallypermissible.ButinEsperantothereisnovariation,andtheconjunctionkeisneveromitted.
THEINDEFINITEPERSONALPRONOUNONI.
54.Whenanindefinitepersonalpronounisdesired,asintheexpressions"oneknows,""theysay,""peoplesay,""youcansee,"etc.,theindefinitepersonalpronounoniisused.Thispronounmayalsobeusedintranslatingsuchexpressionsas"itissaid,""Iamtold,"etc.:
Onidiraskeliestasria,theysay(onesays)thatheisrich.Onividaskeiliestasamikoj,oneseesthattheyarefriends.Miopiniaskeoniataslin,Ithinkthatpeoplelikehim(thatheisliked).Onidirisalmikeestassabloenladezerto,Iwastold(peoplesaidtome)thatthereissandinthedesert.Oniopiniaskeiestasfelia,itisthought(onethinks)thatsheishappy.uonividisninenlaardeno?Wereweseen(didpeopleseeus)inthegarden?Oniatasagrablajninfanojn,peoplelikeagreeablechildren(agreeablechildrenareliked).
THEFUTURETENSE.
55.Thefuturetenseoftheverbexpressesanactorstateasabouttotakeplace,orasonethatwilltakeplaceinfuturetime.Theendingofthistenseisos,askuros,willrun,flugos,willfly,brilos,willshine.Theconjugationofestiandalsoofvidiinthefuturetenseisasfollows:
miestos,Ishallbe.viestos,youwillbe.li(i,i)estos,he(she,it)willbe.niestos,weshallbe.viestos,you(plural)willbe.iliestos,theywillbe.
mividos,Ishallsee.vividos,youwillsee.li(i,i)vidos,he(she,it)willsee.nividos,weshallsee.vividos,you(plural)willsee.ilividos,theywillsee.
VOCABULARY.
adi,tohear.blovi,toblow.greno,grain(wheat,corn,etc.).ke,that(conjunction).kontra,against.
oni,(see54).opinii,tothink,toopine.orienta,east,eastern.pluvo,rain.suda,south,southern.
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montri,toshow,topointout.norda,north,northern.nova,new.okcidenta,west,western.
velki,towilt,towither.vento,wind.ventoflago,weathercock.vetero,weather.
LAVENTOFLAGO.
Estisvarmavetero,lasunobrilis,kajsudaventoblovis.Tamenlanovaventoflagosurladomodirisalsi,"Lasudanventonmineatas.Mipreferasorientanventon."Laventoorientaadisladironkajiveniskontralaventoflagon.Pluviskajpluvis,kajoniestiskolerakontralaventoflago,arimontrasorientanventon.idiris,"Pluvasnun,sedlagrenoenlakampojbezonossekanveteron.Oniestoskolerakontrami,armimontrasorientanventon."Laokcidentaventoadislaventoflagon,kajbaldavenis.ineestisforta,sediestissekakajagrablavento,kajneportispluvon.Laviroj,virinoj,kajjunajinfanojvolistrinki,sedilinehavisakvon.Lagrenokajlaflorojvelkis,kajlafruktoankafalis.Lanovaventoflagodiris,"Oniestoskolerakontrami,arnepluvas.Oniopinioske,armimontrasokcidentanventon,lafruktofalas,kajlagrenokajflorojvelkas.Miatasmontrinekokcidentannekorientanventon!"Nordaventoadiskajvenisallaventoflago.Laveteroneestisagrabla,kajlavirinojkajlajunajinfanojneestisvarmaj.Neis,kajoniestiskolera.Onidiris"Lagrenokajlafruktobezonasvarmanveteron,sedhodianeas.Nipreferaslasudanventon.Nihavisin,antalaorienta,laokcidenta,kajlanordaventoj.Laventoflagoneestasfidelaamikoalni.inemontrasbonajnventojn,kajnivolasrompiin!"Onikurisalladomo,kaptislanovanventoflagon,kajankarompisin.ifalis,kajkuissurlavojoantaladomo.
SENTENCESFORTRANSLATION.
1.Onecanseethattheweathercockpointsoutthewinds.2.Theysaythatthewestwindwillbeadrywind.3.Theweathercocknowshowsthatanagreeablesouthwindblows.4.Peoplewillbeangrywith(against)theweathercock,becauseitpointsoutanorthwind.5.Anorthwindisnotwarm,andthegrainandfruitwillneedawarmwind.6.Itsnowed,andtheyoungchildrenwerenotwarm,becausethenorthwindblew.7.Peoplewilllikeasouthwind,butaneastwindwillcarryrain.8.Canonefindmoneyinthedesert?9.Doyouthink(that)heisinthehouse?10.Heissaidtobe(theysaythatheis)onthestreet.11.Itisthought(peoplethink)thatthecamelisafaithfulfriend.12.Iamtold(peopletellme)thatthecamelhasalargebody,andalongneck.13.Onecanseethatitisnotbeautiful.14.Peopledonotliketodrinkwarmwater.15.Neverthelessweshalldrinkwarmwaterinthecity.16.Itwasbeautifulweatheryesterday,buttodayweshallhavegoodweatheralso.17.Ithinkthatawarmwindwillblowsoon.18.Myfriendhasabeautifulnewhouse.
LESSONXIII.
THEDEMONSTRATIVEPRONOUNTIU.
56.Thedemonstrativepronountiu,that,isusedtoindicateapersonoradefinitelyspecifiedthing.Thepluralistiuj,those:
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Tiuestaslavia,kajmivolastiun,thatisyours,andIwishthatone.Tiujestoskolerajkontravi,thosewillbeangrywithyou.Liadistiujn,heheardthose(persons,orthings).
57.Thedemonstrativepronountiuisalsousedasapronominaladjective,inagreementwithanoun:
Tiuventoestosvarma,thatwindwillbewarm.Mividastiunventoflagon,Iseethatweathercock.Tiujinfanojestasjunaj,thosechildrenareyoung.Mitrovostiujnlibrojn,Ishallfindthosebooks.
TENSESININDIRECTQUOTATIONS.
58.Theverbinanindirectstatement(53)oranindirectquestionremainsinthesametenseinwhichitwouldbeifthestatementorquestionweredirect.(InEnglishthisistrueonlyiftheintroductoryverbispresentorfuture,sinceafteranintroductorypasttensethetenseoftheindirectquotationischanged,andam,is,are,have,willbecomewas,were,had,would,etc.)
Mi diras ke li estas bona ,Isaythatheisgood." diris " " " " ,Isaidthathewasgood." diros " " " " ,Ishallsaythatheisgood.Li miras u mi adas ,hewonderswhetherIhear." miris " " " ,hewonderedwhetherIheard." miros " " " ,hewillwonderwhetherIhear.Miopiniiskeiestasbona, Ithoughtthatitwasgood(Ithought"itisgood").Onimirisulivenos, theywonderedwhetherhewouldcome(theywondered"willhecome?").
Anindirectquestionisintroducedbyu,whether,afterverbsmeaning"ask,""wonder,""know,"etc.:Mimirasulivenis,Iwonderwhetherhecame.Onidemandasuliestasria,peopleaskwhetherheisrich.
FORMATIONOFFEMININENOUNS.
59.Femininenounscorrespondingtodistinctlymasculinenounssuchasfrato,knabo,viro,maybeformedfromthesebyinsertingthesuffixinjustbeforethenounendingo:
fratino,sister(fromfrato,brother).knabino,girl(fromknabo,boy).
patrino,mother(frompatro,father).virino,woman(fromviro,man).
Cf.Englishnamessimilarlyformedfrommasculinenames,asPauline,Josephine,Ernestine,Geraldine,etc.,alsoGermanKnigin,queen,fromKnig,kingLwin,lioness,fromLwe,lion,etc.
VOCABULARY.
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almena,atleast.apelo,hat.ielo,sky,heaven.filo,son.konstrui,tobuild.miri,towonder.morga,tomorrow.nubo,cloud.ombrelo,umbrella.
paroli,totalk,tospeak.parko,park.preska,almost.pri,concerning,about.promeni,totakeawalk.super,above.timi,tofear,tobeafraid(of).tiu,that(56).zorga,careful.
ENLAPARKO.
Miajjunajamikokajamikino,kajankailiapatrino,irishieraallaparko.Lainfanojdirisallapatrinokelaparkoestasagrabla,kajkeilivolaspromenieni.Laknabinoparolisalsiafratoprilabelajfloroj.idirisallikelaflorojvelkas,kajkelaherboenpreskalatutaparkobezonaspluvon.Laknabodirishodiaalmikehieralikajliafratinoadislabirdojnenlaarbojsupersiajkapoj.Lidiriskelimirispritiujbirdoj,tamenliopiniaskelabirdojbaldakonstruossiajnnestojnentiujarboj.Lainfanojpromenis,kajbaldailividiskegrizajnubojvenassurlaielon,kajmiajunaamikinotimiskepluvos.iparolisallapatrinoprilanubojkajlapluvo,montrisalilagrizajnnubojn,kajdiriskesivolasirialladomo.Ilikomencismariallastrato,kajpreskakuris,arilinehavisombrelon.Tralafenestrojdeladomojonirigardisilin,kajlaknabomirisulikajliajpatrinokajfratinoamuzastiujnvirojnkajvirinojn.Tamenlapatrinodiriskeinetimaskeiamuzostiujn,sedkeitimaslapluvon.ikajlafilinovolasestizorgajprialmenalanovajapeloj.Lafilodirisalikeliankaestaszorga,sedkeliopiniaskenepluvos.Baldalapatrovenisalili,kajportisombrelojn,arliankatimislapluvon.Limirisulainfanojkajiliapatrinohavasombrelojn.Baldapluvis,sediliestissekaj,arilihavislaombrelojn.Morgailinepromenosenlaparko,sedirosallaurbo.
SENTENCESFORTRANSLATION.
1.Theeastwindisdryandthesouthwindwillbetoowarm.2.Awestwindblewagainsttheweathercock,butthegrainneededasouthwind.3AnorthwindisblowingandIthinkthatitwillsoonsnow.4.It(51)willbebeautifulweathertomorrow,becauseapleasantwindisnowblowing.5.Theflowerswillwitherbecausethosechildrengatheredthem.6.Theyaretalkingaboutthatpark,butIdonotwishtotakeawalk,becausetherearecloudsin(on)thesky.7.Atleastweshalltakeanumbrella,andmybrotherwillholditoverourheads.8.Mysistersaid"MotherandIareafraidthatitwillrain."9.Myyoungsisterwillbecarefulaboutthatnewumbrella.10.Iwonderwhethershewilltakeawalktomorrow.11.Thatparkispleasantandthegrassissoftandgreen.12.Thebirdsarebuildingtheirnestsnow,inthosebranchesaboveourheads.13.Theskyaboveusisblue,andawestwindisbeginningtoblow.14.Icanseethatweathercock,onthatlargehousenearthepark.15.Mothersaysthatmysisterwillhaveanewhattomorrow.16.Shewillbecarefulof(about)thathat.17.Myfather'sfriendisverycarefulofhisson.18.Oneseesthatheisnotastrongboy.
LESSONXIV.
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THEDEMONSTRATIVEPRONOUNITIU.
60.Thedemonstrativepronoun(andpronominaladjective)meaning"this"isformedbyusingwithtiu(56)thewordi,whichexpressesthegeneralideaofnearnessorproximity.(Consequentlytheliteralmeaningofitiuisthatonenearby,thatonehere.)Thewordimayeitherprecedeorfollowthepronoun:
itiuestaslamia,thisismine.Mividisitiun,Isawthisone.uvivolastiujni?Doyouwishthese?itiuknabinoestasmiafratino,thisgirlismysister.Mividisitiujnapelojn,Isawthesehats.itiujamikojpromenos,thesefriendswilltakeawalk.
61.Thewordstiuanditiumaybeusedtodistinguishbetweenpersonsorthingspreviouslymentionedandjustmentioned:
GertrudekajMarioestasenlaparko.Tiurigardaslaflorojn,itiukolektasilin.GertrudeandMaryareinthepark.Theformer(thatone)looksattheflowers,thelatter(thisone)gathersthem.
POSSESSIVEFORMOFTHEDEMONSTRATIVEPRONOUN.
62.Toexpresspossession,thedemonstrativepronounstiuanditiuhavethespecialpossessiveorgenitiveformsties,thatone's,andities,thisone's.Theuseoftiesanditiestomean"theformer"and"thelatter"issimilartotheuseoftiuanditiushownin61:
Miirisaltiesdomo,Iwenttothatone'shouse.itiesfilojestasjunaj,thisperson's(thisone's)sonsareyoung.Miatastieskoloron,sedpreferasitiunfloron,Ilikethatone'scolor,butpreferthisflower.Lapatrokajliaamikoparolasprisiajdomoj.Tiesestasnova,seditiesajnasbela,Fatherandhisfriendaretalkingabouttheirhouses.Theformer'sisnew,butthelatter'sseemsbeautiful.
THESUFFIXIL.
63.Namesofinstruments,toolsorutensilsmaybeformedbyaddingthesuffixil(followedbytheendingo)torootswhosemeaningpermits:
flugilo,wing(fromflugi,tofly).kaptilo,snare,trap(fromkapti,tocatch).kudrilo,needle(fromkudri,tosew).montrilo,indicator,(clock)hand(frommontri,topointout,show).tenilo,handle(fromteni,tohold).
Therootofawordisthatpartofitwhichcontainstheessentialmeaning,andtowhichtheverbendingsi,as,is,os,thenounendingo,theadjectiveendinga,etc.,areattached,whennosuffixintervenes.Thus,viristherootofviroandofvirinokuristherootofkuri,etc.
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THEEXPRESSIONOFMEANSORINSTRUMENTALITY.
64.Themeansorinstrumentalitythroughwhichanactisaccomplishedisexpressedbyuseoftheprepositionper:
Onikudrasperkudrilo,onesewsbymeansof(with)aneedle.Labirdojflugasperflugiloj,thebirdsflyby(with)wings.Liamuzassinpertiujbildoj,heamuseshimselfwith(by)thosepictures.Mitrovisinperviahelpo,Ifounditby(through)yourhelp.
VOCABULARY.
akra,sharp.buo,mouth.dekstra,right(notleft).i(see60).forko,fork.helpo,help.kafo,coffee.kulero,spoon.mano,hand.
najbaro,neighbour.per,bymeansof(64).supo,soup.telero,plate.terpomo,potato.ties,thatone's(62).trani,tocut.tre,very,exceedingly.viando,meat.
LAMANO.
Hieramimirisumihavosbonanmanonenladomodemiaamiko.Sedmiopiniiskemihavostrebonanmanon,armiaamikoatasdonibonajnmanojnalsiajamikoj.Onimetistrebonansuponantami,kajmimanistiunpergrandakulero.Postlasupomihavisviandon.itiunmitenisperforko,kajtranisperakratranilo.Laforko,tranilokajkuleroestasmaniloj.Mihavisnenurviandon,sedankanovajnterpomojn.Mitranistiujniperlatranilo,sedmimetisilinenlabuonperforko.Mitenislaforkonenladekstramano,kajmetislatranilontransmianteleron.Onibezonasakrantranilon,sedoninebezonastreakranforkon.Postlaviandokajlaterpomoj,onidonisalmifreajnmaturajnerizojn.Ilikuissurgrandatelero,kajhavisbelankoloron.Iliagustoestisankabona.Mipreskanediriskemiankahaviskafon.Miparolosmorgaalmiaamikopriliakafo,kajladosin.Postlamano,najbarodemiaamikovenisenitiesdomon,kajiliparolisalmiprisiajnovajdomoj.Perlahelpodesiapatro,miaamikokonstruosgrandandomon.Lianajbarovolaskonstruibelansednetregrandandomon.Tiesnovadomoestosbela,sedmiopiniaskemipreferositiesdomon.Miaamikovolisdonialmenakafonalsianajbaro,sedlidiriskelinevolastrinkikafon.Tamenlivolispersikon.Litenistiunenlamano,kajmanistiun.
SENTENCESFORTRANSLATION.
1.Thebirdshaveverystrongwingsontheirbodies,buttheydonothavehands.2.Theywillbuildtheirnests,andsingabouttheyoungbirds.3.Thosechildrenweretalkingtomeyesterdayabouttheircat.4.Theysaidthatitlikestocatchandeatsparrows.5.Tomorrowitwillhide(itself)behindatree,andwillcatchayoungsparrow.6.Thechildrenwillgatherpeachesinthatperson'sgarden,andwillputthemuponaplate.7.Theywillshakethewholetreebymeansofabranch.8.Thesweetfruitabovethemwill
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falluponthesoftgreengrass.9.Thechildrenwonderedwhetherthecherrieswereripe.10.Theyseemalmostripe,andtomorrowthechildrenwillpick(gather)them,withthehelpoftheirfather.11.Itissaid(54)thatthegraininthatman'sfieldvery[much]needsrain.12.Peoplealsothinkthattheflowerswillwither,for(because)itdidnotrainyesterdayortoday.13.Mycarefulyoungfriendwillcarryanumbrellainhishandtomorrow,becausehefearstherain.14.Heseesthosegraycloudsin(on)thesky.15.Heholdstheumbrellabyitshandle.16.Theweathercockisanindicatorconcerningtheweather.17.Oneeatsmeatwithafork,andsoupwithaspoon.18.Oneholdsthespoonintherighthand.19.Aknifeissharp,butonedoesnotneedasharpfork.20.Weshallhaveaverygoodmeal,andalsoverygoodcoffee.
LESSONXV.
THEDEMONSTRATIVEADJECTIVE.
65.Thedemonstrativeadjectiverelatedtothedemonstrativepronountiu(56)istia,thatkindof,thatsortof,such:
Tiafloroestasbela,thatkindofaflowerisbeautiful.Miatastianviandon,Ilikethatsortofmeat.Tiajnajbarojestasagrablaj,such(thatkindof)neighborsarepleasant.Mivolasaditiajnbirdojn,Iwishtohearsuchbirds.
ADVERBSDEFINEDANDCLASSIFIED.
66.Anadverbisawordwhichmodifiesthemeaningofaverb,adjective,anotheradverb,orphrase.Itmayexpressmanner,time,degree,negation,etc.Adverbsareeitherprimary,as"now,""almost,"orderived,as"gladly,""sweetly,"TheEsperantoprimaryadverbsgiveninthisandinprecedinglessonsmaybeclassifiedasfollows:
(a)TemporalAdverbs(expressingtime).
balda,soon.hiera,yesterday.hodia,today.
morga,tomorrow.nun,now.tuj,immediately.
(b)AdverbsofDegree.
almena,atleast.nur,merely.
preska,almost.tre,very,much.
(c)AdverbsExpressingOtherIdeas.
addition:anka,also.interrogation:u,(30).proximity:i,(60).
emphasis:e,even.affirmation:jes,yes.negation:ne,not,no,(27).
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a.Anadverbusuallyprecedes,butmayalsofollow,thewordorwordswhichitmodifies.Itmustbesoplacedastoleavenodoubtaboutwhichoftwowordsorwordgroupsitisintendedtomodify.Thus,mipreskavolishavitiunclearlymeansIalmostwishedtohavethatbutmivolispreskahavitiunmightmeaneither"Ialmostwishedtohavethat,"ormoreprobably"Iwishedalmosttohavethat."Anexampleofpermissiblevariationinthepositionofadverbsisshowninquestionstowhichanaffirmativeanswerisexpected.Suchquestionsmaybeputintheformofastatement,followedbyune(insteadofhavinguintroducethesentence,withneinitsnormalposition):
Livenos,une?Hewillcome,willhenot?Laveteroestasbela,une?Theweatherisbeautiful,isitnot?Viadistiundiron,une?Youheardthatremark,didyounot?
FORMATIONOFOPPOSITES.
67.Ifthemeaningofawordissuchthatitcanhaveadirectopposite,suchoppositemaybeformedfromitbyuseoftheprefixmal:
malalta,low,short(fromalta,high,tall).malamiko,enemy(fromamiko,friend).maldekstra,left(fromdekstra,right).malhelpi,tohinder(fromhelpi,tohelp).maljuna,aged,old(fromjuna,young).malnova,old,notnew(fromnova,new).
Cf.Englishmalcontent,"discontented,"maladroit,"clumsy."
VOCABULARY.
dum,during.e,even.gardi,toguard.helpi,tohelp,toaid.honti,tobeashamed.kara,dear.kontenta,satisfied.kuraa,courageous.nokto,night.
povi,tobeable.preni,totake.propono,proposal.respondi,toanswer.ruza,sly,cunning.teli,tosteal.tia,thatkindof(65).tuj,immediately.voo,voice.
LARUZAJUNAVIRO.
Ruzajunavirokajbonamaljunaviroiristransdezerton.Tiuhavisnigranevalon,itiuhavisblankanevalon."Vigardosniajnevalojndumlanokto,une?"dirislajunaviroperdolavooalsiaamiko,"ardumlanoktooninepovosvidimiannigranevalon,sedmalamikojpovostujvidivianblankanevalon.Onipovostelitianevalon,arviestasmaljunakajmalforta,kajnepovosmalhelpimalamikojn."Tiapropononeajnisagrablaallamaljunaviro.Lineestiskontenta,tamenlinevolisperdisianevalon,arliestismalria.Lidirisalsikelidonossianblankanevalonallajunaviro,kajprenostiesnigranevalon.Tujlidirisalitiu"Sedperviahelpomineperdosmianevalon:midonosla
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mianalvi,kajprenosvianevalon.Laviaestasmalbela,sediestasalmenanigravidonosinalmi,une?""Jes,"respondislaruzajunaviro,kajlidonissiannigranevalonaltiu,kajprenislablankanevalon."Nun,"dirislamaljunaviro,"Viestaskuraakajforta,kajvigardoslaevalojn,une?Vipovosmalhelpimalamikojnpertiugrandaakratranilo,kajoninepovostelivianblankanevalon."Laruzajunavironehontis.Lirespondis"Miakaraamiko,minundormos,aroninetelosblankanevalon.Mipovosviditianevalondumlanokto,kajmalhelpimalamikojn.Sedtiuevalovia(thathorseofyours)havaslakolorondelanokto,kajenunonipovasteliin."Lamalkontentamaljunavirodirisperkoleravoo"uvinehontaspritiapropono?"Tamenlaruzajunavirotujkomencisdormi,kajlamaljunavirogardislaevalojndumlatutanokto.
SENTENCESFORTRANSLATION.(Wordstobeformedwiththeprefixmalareitalicised.)
1.Doesoneeatpotatoesandmeatwithaforkoraspoon?2.Oneputssoupintothemouthbymeansofaspoon.3.Onecutsfruitwithaknife,andputsthefruituponaplate.4.Thecoffeewascold,andIwasmuchdissatisfied.5.Myknifewasdull,neverthelessIalmostimmediatelycutmy(the)lefthand.6.Iwasashamed,butIthinkthatthehandleofthatknifewasveryshort.7.Thegrassiswettoday,andIfearthatweshallnotbeabletotakeawalk,eveninthatsmallpark.8.Idisliketogowalkinguponthehardstreets.9.Thecourageousyoungmanandhisagedfriendtalkedabouttheirenemies.10.Theywishedtobecarefulabouttheirhorses.11.Theyoungmanwasverysly,andwishedtosleepduringthenight.12.Hesaidthatonecanstealablackhorseduringthedarknight.13.Hesaidthateither(a)heortheoldmanwouldguardthehorses.14.Theoldmanansweredthathewouldgivetohimhis[own]whitehorse.15.Hetookthatone'sblackhorse.16.Hewasashamed,andwasveryangryathisfaithlessfriend.17.Buthestayedawake,andguardedthehorses.
LESSONXVI.
THEDEMONSTRATIVEADVERBOFPLACE.
68.Thedemonstrativeadverbsofplacerelatedtothepronounstiuanditiuaretie,there,in(at)thatplace,anditie,here,in(at)thisplace:
Lateleroestastie,theplateisthere(inthatplace).Lalibrojkuasitie,thebooksliehere(inthisplace).Mitrovisvintiekajlintiei,Ifoundyouthereandhimhere.Tielaveteroajnastreagrabla,theretheweatherseemsverypleasant.
69.Iftheverbinthesentenceexpressesmotiontowardtheplaceindicatedbytieoritie,theendingnisaddedtotheadverb(46),formingtien,thither,there,anditien,hither,here:
Liirostien,hewillgothere(thither).Mivenisitien,Icamehere(hither).Niestistie,kajvenisitien,wewerethereandcamehere(hither).
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ACCOMPANIMENT.
70.Accompanimentorassociationisexpressedbytheprepositionkun,with,alongwith:
Laviroveniskunsiaamiko,themancamewithhisfriend.Mipromenoskunvi,Ishallgowalkingwithyou.Laknabokuntiuviroestasliafrato,theboywiththatmanishisbrother.
Kunmustnotbeconfusedwithper(64),whichexpressesinstrumentality,althoughpermayoftenbetranslatedbyEnglish"with."TheEnglishpreposition"with"maybesaidtohavethreeratherclearlydefineddifferentmeanings.Inthelinguistichistoryofthisword,theoriginalmeaningwas"against,"stillshowninfightwith,strivewith,contendwith,withstand,etc.(Cf.Germanwiderstreiten,tostrivewith,widerhalten,toresist,etc.)Graduallythisword"with"usurpedthemeaningoftheoriginalpreposition"mid,"expressingassociationoraccompaniment(cf.Germanmit,"with",whichitcrowdedoutofthelanguageexceptinoneunimportantcompound).Theword"by"wasalsoencroachingupon"mid"fromanotherdirection,andso"mid's"successor"with"cametobeinterchangeablewith"by"inexpressinginstrumentality.Thus,English"with"indicatesopposition,accompaniment,orinstrumentality,forwhichthreesensesEsperantohasthethreeprepositionskontra,kun,andper,respectively.
THEADVERBFOR.
71.Theadverbfor,away,maybeusedindependently,asLiirisfordemi,hewentawayfromme,butitismorefrequentlyusedasaprefixtogiveasenseofdeparture,lossorsomewhatforcibleremoval:
foriri,togoaway,todepart.forkuri,torunaway,toescape.forlasi,toleavealone,toabandon,todesert.formani,toeataway,toeatup.forpreni,totakeaway,toremove.fortrinki,todrinkaway,todrinkup.
Cf.theprefixforinEnglish"forfend,"tokeepaway,toavert,"forbid,"toexcludefrom,tocommandagainst,"forbear,"torefrainfrom,etc.
THEMEANINGOFPOVI.
72.Theverbpovi,tobeable,isusedtotranslateEnglishcan,whichisdefective,thatis,doesnotoccurinalloftheformsaverbmayhave:
Mipovasparoli,Iamabletotalk,Icantalk.Mipovisparoli,Iwasabletotalk,Icouldtalk.Mipovosparoli,Ishallbeabletotalk,.Mivolaspoviparoli,Iwishtobeabletotalk,.
VOCABULARY.
el,outof,out.irka,around,roundabout.
peli,todrive,tochase.poo,pocket.
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for,away(71).frua,early.glavo,sword.horo,hour.kun,with(70).lasi,toleave.
rajdi,toride.rapidi,tohasten.resti,toremain,tostay.saa,wise.tie,there(68).voki,tocall.
MALAMIKOJENLADEZERTO.
Junavirokajliasaapatrovolisiritransladezerton,kunsiajamikoj.Laamikojestisfortaj,kajlajunaviroestistrekuraa.Ilirestisenmalgrandaurbodumlanokto,kajforrajdiskuntiujamikoj.Lapatrokajlafiloopiniiskelaamikojkunilipovoshelpipersiajakrajglavoj.Iliopiniiskeilipovosforpelilamalamikojn.Eenladezertoonitrovasmalamikojn.Tiajmalamikojforprenaslamonondebonajviroj.Lajunaviroestiskontenta,arliestiskunlaamikoj.Lamaljunaviroestiskontentaarliestiskunsiafilo.Baldalanoktovenis.Estistremallumatieenladezerto,kajilipreskanepovisvidi.Dumlafruajhorojdelanoktolapatroadisvoojn,kajpreskatujlividislamalamikojn.Laruzajmalbonajvirojrapidistien,kajvokislamaljunanviron.Lamalkuraajamikojdelapatrokajfilonekrestistie,nekhelpisforpelilamalamikojn.Ilitujforkuris.Lamalamikojstarisirkalapatro,kajforpuislindeliaevalo.Lafilovolismalhelpiilin,sedlinepovis.Lipovisnurrestikunlapatro,kajgardilintiekontralaglavojdelamalamikoj.Baldalamalamikojkomencisforprenilamononellapoojdelasaamaljunaviro.Lakolerafilodirispermaldola(bitter)voo"uvinehontas?uvilasosalnineklaevalojnneknianmonon?"Sedlamalamikojrespondis"Ne,nilasosalvineklaevalojnneklamonon.Nineestasmalsaaj."Posttiudiroilitujforrapidis,kajpreniskunsilaevalojn.
SENTENCESFORTRANSLATION.
1.Thefoolishfriendsoftheyoungmanandhisagedfatherdidnotstaywiththem.2.Theydidnothelpthemwiththeirswords,butranawayatonce(tuj),andwerenotashamed.3.Theoldmanhearddisagreeablevoicesbehindhim,andsoonhesawtheenemy.4.Theenemycalledthem,andhastenedthere(69).5.Thoseslybadmentookthemoneyoutofthepocketsofthecourageousyoungman.6.Theystoodaroundhim,andalsoaroundhisfather.7.Thefatherandsoncouldnotevenguardtheirhorses.8.Theenemydidnotleave(to)thesetheirhorses,buttookboththehorsesandthemoney.9.Soontheenemyrodeaway,duringthelatehoursofthenight.10.Thefatherandsonwereangryanddissatisfied.11.Theysaid"Wefearanddislikesuchmen."12.Thefathersaid"Bythehelpofourneighborswecan(povos)findthosebadmen,anddrivethemaway,outofthedesert."13.Thesonreplied,"DearFather,suchaproposalseemsgood,andIwillhelpwithmylongsharpsword.14.Butwearenowinthedesert,andtheroadtothecityislong.15.Wecannotridethither,butwecanwalkthither.16.Canyounothasten,with(per)myhelp?"17.Thewiseoldmananswered,"Yes,myson,withsuchhelpIcanwalkthither."
LESSONXVII.
THEDEMONSTRATIVETEMPORALADVERB.
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73.Thedemonstrativetemporaladverbrelatedtothedemonstrativepronountiuistiam,then,atthattime:
Tiamlirajdosallaurbo,thenhewillridetothecity.Nuniliestassaaj,sedtiamiliestismalsaaj,nowtheyarewise,butatthattimetheywerefoolish.
COMPARISONOFADJECTIVES.
74.Anadjectivemayhavethreedegrees,positive,comparativeandsuperlative.Englishhasvariouswaysofformingthecomparativeandsuperlativedegrees(asbythesuffixeser,est,theadverbsmore,most,andirregularmethodsasingood,better,best,etc.).Esperantohasonlyonemethod,usingtheadverbspli,more,andplej,most:
Positive. Comparative. Superlative.
bela,beautiful plibela,morebeautiful plejbela,mostbeautiful.
bona,good plibona,better plejbona,best.
malbona,bad plimalbona,worse plejmalbona,worst.
saa,wise plisaa,wiser plejsaa,wisest.
75.Theprepositionelisusedwithwordsexpressingthegrouporclassoutofwhichasuperlativeisselectedandmentioned:
Liestaslaplejjunaeltiuj,heistheyoungestof(outof)those.Viestaslaplejfeliaelni,youarethehappiestofus.Tiuestislaplejruzaellaviroj,thatonewasthecraftiestofthemen.
MANNERANDCHARACTERISTIC.
76.Theactionsorfeelingswhichaccompanyanactorstate,orthecharacteristicwhichpermanentlyaccompaniesapersonorthing,maybeexpressedbyasubstantivewiththeprepositionkun:
Liprenisinkunlaplejgrandazorgo,hetookitwiththegreatestcare.Miadislinkuninteresokajplezuro,Iheardhimwithinterestandpleasure.iestasvirinokunbonagusto,sheisawomanwith(of)goodtaste.Mihavasevalonkunfortakorpo,Ihaveahorsewithastrongbody.
Sometimesthemannerofanactionmaybeexpressedbytheinstrumentofit,expressedbytheprepositionperwithasubstantivemodifiedbyanadjective:Likantisperdolavoo,hesangwith(bymeansof)asweetvoice.Vipuisminperfortamano,youpushedmewithastronghand.
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DIRI,PAROLIANDRAKONTI.
77.Theverbsdiri,tosay,paroli,totalk,tospeak,andrakonti,torelate,havingincommonthegeneralideaofspeechorexpression,mustnotbeconfusedinuse:
Midirisalvikepluvas,Isaidto(told)youthatitwasraining.Midirisinalvi,Isaidittoyou(Itoldyou).Miparolisalviprii,Italked(spoke)toyouaboutit.Mirakontisinalvi,Irelated(told)ittoyou.
VOCABULARY.
ami,tolove.ekster,outside(of).Frederiko,Frederick.gratuli,tocongratulate.intereso,interest.letero,letter.plej,most(74).plezuro,pleasure.
pli,more(74).plumo,pen.rakonti,torelate(77).reo,king.servisto,servant.skribi,towrite.tiam,then(73).zorgo,care.
FREDERIKOGRANDAKAJLAJUNASERVISTO.
HieramilegisinteresanlibronpriFrederikoGranda(theGreat).Enionirakontaskelareokunplezurolegisaskribispersiaplumo,dummalfruajhorojdelanokto.Agrablajunaknabo,laplejjunaellaservistoj,tiamrestiseksterlapordo.arlareolegisplejinteresannovanlibron,lineopiniiskelahoroestasmalfrua.Livokissianmalgrandanserviston,sedlaknabo,nekvenisnekrespondis.Lareoiristien,kajtrovislaknaboneksterlapordo.Lividiskelaknabodormassurmalaltaseo.TiamFrederikoGrandaneestiskolera,sedhontisarlivokislainfanon.LareoFrederikovidisleteronenlapoodelaknabo.Tujliprenislaleteronelliapoo,kajrigardisin.iestisleteroallaservisto,deliapatrino.ineestisriavirino,iajnisestitremalria.Enitiuleterolapatrinodirisperlaplumokeiamaslafilon.idankislinarliskribisalilonganleteron.iankadankislinarlidonisalimonon.Lareovolisestitrebonaaltiafilo.Kunlaplejgrandazorgolimetismononelsiapookunlaleterokajtiamlasislaleteronentiespoo.Tiamliformarisalsiaambro,kajvokislamalgrandanserviston.Laknabotujadis,kajrapidistralapordo.Likuristranslaambron,kajstarisantalareo."uvidormis?"dirisFrederikoGranda."Jes,mitimaskemipreskadormis,"respondislaknabo,"kajmitrehontas."Tiamlimetislamanonenlapoon,kajtrovislamonon.Liajnisplimalfeliakajdiriskungrandatimo"Malamikometisitiunmononenmianpoon!Oniopinioskemitelisin!Onimalamosmin,kajforpelosmin!"Frederikorespondis,"Ne,midonisinalvi,armiamasbonajnknabojn.Migratulasvianpatrinon,arihavastianfilon."
SENTENCESFORTRANSLATION.
1.Aninterestingstoryisrelated(54)aboutFredericktheGreat.2.Hisyoungestservantstayedoutsideofthedoor.3.Thekingcalledhim,andhehastenedthitherandstoodbeforehim.4.Yesterdayhedidnotheartheking.5.Thekingcalledhim,buthedidnotanswer.6.Thekingthoughtthattheboyhadgone
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awaywiththeolderservants,andhewasangry.7.Helefthisbookonthetable,andwenttothedoor.8.Thenhesawthatthelittleboywassleepingthere.9.Helookedathimwithgreaterinterest,andsawaletterinhispocket.10.Theletterwasfromtheboy'smother.11.Hehadwrittenalettertoher,withhispen,andhadgiven(to)hermoney,becauseshewaspoor.12.Hewrotelongerletterswithpleasure,becausehewasamostfaithfulson.13.Thekingcongratulatedthemotheroftheboy,concerningsuchason.14.(The)kingFrederickwishedtobekinder(plibona)totheboy.15.Heplacedhisbookuponthetable,nearhissword,andtalkedtothelittleservant.16.Thentheolderservantscame,andstoodaroundtheking.17.Theywalkedwithgreatcare,andtheyoungerservantdidnothearthem.18.Theylovedthelittleboy,andwishedtohelphim.
LESSONXVIII.
THEDEMONSTRATIVEADVERBOFMOTIVEORREASON.
78.Thedemonstrativeadverbofmotiveorreason,relatedtothedemonstrativepronountiu,istial,therefore,forthatreason,so:
Tiallaservistoforiris,thereforetheservantwentaway.Tialmigratulislin,forthatreasonIcongratulatedhim.Tialoniforpelislin,sotheydrovehimaway.
DERIVATIONOFADVERBS.
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