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8/3/2019 A Brief History of Chemistry and Materials Science
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A Brief History of Chemistry
and Materials Science
Bernard A. BoukampInorganic Materials Science
AT colloquium, 14 October 2009 Rodin, le Penseur
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Serendipity!
The king of Serendippo had three sons,which he send out into the world …
The three princes of Serendip
They encountered a merchant who has lost a camel
They ask him:• Is he blind on one eye,
• Lame
• Missing a tooth
• Carrying a pregnant woman
• Bearing honey on one side
• And butter on the other side?
(which turns out to be all correct !)
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Our far removed
ancestors knew howto shape materials
and make tools.
Bronze age flintarrowhead
www.dartfordarchive.org.uk
Materials
‘Science’ …
Serendipity?
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www.suffolkcc.gov.uk
Hitting flint stone atan appropriate angleresults in a sharp,
„shell shaped‟ edge.
Technique!
Stone age ended 6000 – 2500 BC
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3000-800 BCtransition fromstone to bronzefor tools & arts
Turkey, 3000-2000 B.C.
N. Afghanistan, 2200-1800 B.C.
Bronze age
Bronze:Cu + SnT m 950°C
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Bronze age: not only bronzebut also gold and silver.
Why not iron?
More complexprocess,
Higher temperature> ~1200°C
Reduction of orewith charcoal
Obtaining charcoal
Iron is harder thanbronze, keeping itscutting edge.
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A-tomos
Democritus460-~370 BC
On philosophicalgrounds:
There must be asmallest indivisibleparticle.
Arrangement of differentparticles at micro-scaledetermine properties atmacro-scale.
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Aristoteles384-322 BC
fire
water
earthair
hotdry
wet cold
The four elements
from ancient times
It started
with …
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Aristoteles384-322 BC
Founder of Logic and Methodology as tools for
Science andPhilosophy
Science?
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Important discoveries:
1649 - Hennig Brand: Phosphorous
1766 – Cavendish: Hydrogen gas
1774 – Priestley: Oxygen
Known
elements
Elements recognized in the middle ages.Metals:
• Gold
• Silver• Iron• Tin• Mercury• Copper• Lead
Non metals:• Carbon
• Sulphur• Antimony
Alchemists:Lead least noble,through transformationsto be turned into gold ?
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Centuries of Materials Science
„Knowledge‟ transferred
from father to son,master to apprentice.
Damascener sword
1100-1700
The art of
materials
Combination of tough and hard
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Newton !(1643-1727)
Newton published in 1687:‘Philosphiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica’,
Origin of classicalmechanics
Gravitational force
Movement of theplanets
Newton(by Godfrey Kneller, 1689)
… while the alchemists were
still in the ‘dark ages’.
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Essai d'une théorie sur la structure des crystaux (1784)
Abbé René-Just Haüy (1743-1822)Grandfather of
crystallography
Dropped accidentally a calcite crystal.Saw the same arrangement of „side-planes‟ in the broken pieces.
Deduced from this:„molécules intégrates‟
as basic building bloc.
CaCO3
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Not a true five- fold symmetry!!
Pyrite or ‘Fools gold’
Steps =
smooth?
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In all flammable materials there ispresent phlogiston, a substance without color,odor, taste, or weight that is given off in burning.
“Phlogisticated” substances are those thatcontain phlogiston and, on being burned, are“dephlogisticated.”
The ash of the burned material is held to be the
true material.
J. J. Becher :
Denounced by A. L. Lavoisier (1743-94) through hisresearch. (But he accepted ‘calorium’ as element.)
F.W.J. Schelling (1803): „Ist Chemie als Wissenschaft möglich?‟
End of 17th century,begining of 18th: Flogiston?
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Lavoisier’s ‘calcination’ set-up Bring out
the sun!1743 – 1794 (beheaded by the Guillotine)Prominent tax collector in the ‘Ancient Régime’.
Antione Laurent LavoisierFather of modern chemistry
First to formulate conservationlaw for matter.
Observed that oxygen reacted
with Cavendish‟s „burning air‟to form a dew, which Priestlyproved to be water.
„Calcination experiments‟
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Dulong and Petit:Potential and kinetic energy
= ½ kT / degree of freedom
In solid 3 degrees of freedom
3kT energy per atom
It follows heat capacitance/mol
= 3k x N A = 3R = 25 J/mol.K
The power
of physicsAtomic weights early 1800?(trying to get order in the chaos)
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1814 1818 1826 Modern
O 16 16 16 16
S 32.16 32.19 32.19 32.07
P 26.80 31.88x2 31.38x2 30.98
M 22.33 22.82 -- --
Cl -- -- 35.41 35.46
C 11.99 12.05 12.23 12.01
H 1.062 0.995 0.998 1.008
M = „Murium‟, an unknown element that, together
with oxygen, forms „HCl‟ (muriatic acid, „HMO‟).
Berzelius!Atomic weights:more clarity with thehelp of physics.
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Sir Humphry Davy (1778-1829)
He used a „white hot gun barrel‟ and
a Zn/Ag „Volta pile‟ for the electrolysis
of potash, leading to the discovery of
Potassium (K)
Put electrons
to work!Used „electrochemistry‟ to
separate salts.He discovered the alkali metalsand many other compounds.
Became famous for inventingthe mineworkers lamp.
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1817: Johann Dobereiner
(and others) noticedrelations between atomicweights of similar elements:
Mg = 12
Ca = 12 + 8 =20
Sr = 20 + 24 = 44
Ba = 44 + 24 = 68
Dumas (1851):
N = 14
P = 14+ 17 = 31
As = 14 + 17 + 44 =75
Sb = 14 + 17 + 88 = 119
Bi = 14 + 17 + 176 = 207
Li = 7
Na = 7 + 16 = 23
K = 23 + 16 = 39
Also „lateral relations‟ were
observed:
Cl - P = Br - As = I - Sb = 5
This led eventually to …
Triades !!!Regularities in atomic weights
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Mendeleev and simultaneouslyMeyers: ordening according to atomic
weights and similar properties.
Start of themodern
Periodic Table
Based on his system Mendeleevdid correct predictions of still
unknown, missing elements.
Mendeleèff
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The originalAtomic weights, not atomic numbers!
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Robert Wilhelm Bunsen and RobertGustav Kirchoff developed thespectrograph (1860), based on thecolourless (!) Bunsen burner.
Many new elements werediscovered based on theirunique emission spectra.
Within a few month cesiumand rubidium werediscovered.
The
Spectroscopists
R.W. Bunsen
Advances in understanding
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Emission spectrum of hydrogen
H-spectrum
S = ScharfP = PrinzpalD = Diffuse
F = Feinstruktuur
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Meanwhile demands of society onmaterials grew:
Bigger, larger, faster ….
But materials science was stilllargely empirical.
19th Century
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Factories, commerce, travel …
placed ever increasingdemands on iron
The “Firth of Forth” Bridge, 2.5 km. Built from 1883-1890.
Fundamentalknowledge ofiron & steel?
The era of
steam …
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Construction of the Eiffeltower.World exhibition 1889.
While in Paris
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On ‘theoretical’ grounds: Force to deform metals 100 – 1000
times higher than in practice!
Enigma?
Work hardening& strength.
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Vito Volterra, 1860-1940Mathematician / physicist1905: theory of dislocations in crystals.
Postulate:
dislocations!
Volterra‟s dislocation models
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Real
dislocations
Deformation by stepwisemoving of a half-plane
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Influence % carbon on brittleness.
„Liberty Ships‟
cracked in theNorthern Ice Sea
Lack of
understanding
Second World War (1940 - 1945)
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Radiation went straight through a closed,black carton, hitting a fluorescent screen.
Nobel prize1901
Invisible
rays
Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen
Discovered the „Röntgen‟ rays in
1895.Named these „X=rays‟.
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Red Beryl
Enigma: ‘X-rays’ could not be
diffracted by regular grids.
Max von Laue assumed the„X-ray‟ wavelength to be in the
order of atom-atom distances
in a crystal.
Nobel prize1914
Max von Laue
Modern „Laue diagram‟,
using „white radiation‟.
Beryl: Al2Be3Si6O18
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Sir William Henry Bragg:
He saw the shortcomings of the VonLaue method.
His solution: rotating single crystal.
The most important thing in science is not so much to obtain
new facts as to discover new ways of thinking about them.
2d nsin Conditions for reflection:
Nobleprize1915!
Bragg’s law
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Materials science became a real sciencedue to the development of modern analysis
and imaging techniques.Modern analysis and imaging techniquesbecome possible due to developments in
the materials science ……
Turn of the century
From art
to science
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1890-1900
• 1931 Max Knoll and Ernst Ruskabuild first electron microscope
• 1933 Ruska developes an EM withhigher resolution than an opticalmicroscope
• 1937 The first scanning electron
microscope is built
• 1939 Siemens brings the firstcommercial EM on the market
• 1965 First commercial SEM (Oatley)
Microscopes!
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Tremendous depth
of sharpness!
Impact of high resolutionmicroscopic images.
Beyond our
imagination
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Pauling visited in Europe:• Louis de Broglie• Erwin Schrödinger
• Wolfgang Pauli• Paul Dirac• Max Born• Walter Heitler
• Fritz London
Max Planck (1858-1947)quantum theory: E = h
1913 Niels Bohr „electron orbits‟,
Explanation of principal quantum numbers,n = 1, 2, 3 .. and lines prectrum of H and He+
Linus Pauling (Cal. Tech), on astudy tour in Europe, usedquantum mechanics to explainthe chemical bond:
„The Nature of the Chemical Bond ‟ (1939).
And chemistry became a
real science.
Enter the
physics!
Quantum mechanics provided a consistent theory
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23 December 1947.
Brattain and Bardeen’s pnppointcontact germanium transistorworkt as an 18-times amplifier!
Nobel prize 1956
Greatest impact from/onmaterials science?
Start of the
Silicon age!
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Electronics require ever smaller structures(Moore‟s law):
• more transistors, higher frequencies• new lithography techniques!
• self assembling structures
= nano !
Postulated in 1965 !
www.intel.com/research/silicon/mooreslaw.htm
Quest for
nano!
Where are we going now?
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Atoms become visible!
1982 - Scanning Tunneling Microscope
Gerd Binnig (IBM)
1986 - Atomic Force MicroscopeUses van der Waals ForceAll materials surfaces can be studied.
One can drag atoms across the surface,
Make new compounds,
Infinite possibilities!
Graphite
silicium
The ultimate
tool
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Conclusion
Expect the unexpected
Look for the details
Have an open mind
Science is still a great adventure
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