USAID/PERU 118/119 TROPICAL FOREST AND

USAID/PERU 118/119 TROPICAL FORESTAND BIODIVERSITY ANALYSIS

Report authors: Juan Carlos Riveros, Maina Martir-Torres, César Ipenza, Patricia Tello

September, 2019

DISCLAIMER: The author’s views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the United States Agency for International Development or the United States Government.

DIEGO PÉREZ

USAID/PERU 118/119TROPICAL FOREST ANDBIODIVERSITY ANALYSIS

September, 2019

Prepared with technical support from US Forest Service International Programs

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Summary of Main Threats and Drivers of Biodiversity and Tropical Forest Loss in Tropical Forests and Marine Ecosystems

Figure 2Forest Loss in Peru

Figure 3 Species Richness of Select Taxonomic Groups in Peru

Figure 4Number of Threatened Plant Species

Figure 5 Number of Threatened Animal Species

Figure A5 1 Forest Loss in Selected Regions

LIST OF MAPS

Map 1Official Ecosystems Map of Peru

Map 2Forest Loss in the Peruvian Amazon Between 2001-2017

Map 3National Natural Protected Areas Managed by SERNANP

Map 4Forest Use Designations

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Actions Necessary to Conserve Biodiversity (Tropical Forests and Marine Ecosystems)

Table 2Policies and Other Legal Instruments Relevant for Biodiversity and Tropical Forest Conservation

Table 3Actions Necessary to Conserve Biodiversity (Tropical Forests and Marine Ecosystems)

Table 4Extent to which the Mission Meets the Identified Actions Conservation

Table 5 Recommendations

Table A2 1Weekly Activities and Milestones

Table A5 1Ecosystem Categories

Table A5 2National Natural Protected Areas

Table A5 3CITES Listed Animal Species

Table A5 4CITES Listed Plant Species

Table A5 5Classification of Ecosystem Services

Table A7 1 Conservation Initiatives

LABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

ACT ADS AIDER

AIDESEP

ASGMBEO BPP°C CAF CBDCDCS

CEPLANCIAMCINCIA

cmCO2 COFOPRI

CONCYTEC DEVIDA

DG DO e.g. EIA ENSOEU FAA FAO FSCFONDAM FTA

GMOsGDP GHG GIZ

GOP ha HCVA IBAs IBC IADB ibidIGP IIAP IIRSA

IMARPE INAIGEM

INDEPA

IR IUCN

IUUKfW Km Km2 LAC LAPOPLULUCF

m masl mmMAAP

MINAGRI MINAM

Amazon Basin Conservation AssociationAmazon Cooperation Treaty Automated Directive System Association for Research and Integral Development Interethnic Association for Development of the Peruvian Jungle Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold MiningBureau Environmental Officer Permanent Production ForestDegrees Celsius Development Bank of Latin America Convention on Biological DiversityCountry Development Cooperation StrategiesEconomic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean National Strategic Planning CenterInter-regional Amazonian Council Center for Amazonian Scientific InnovationConvention on the International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora CentimetersCarbon Dioxide Organization of Informal Property Formalization Confederation of Amazonian Ethnicities in Peru Council on Science and Technology National Commission for Development and Life without Drugs General Directorate Development Objective exempli gratia Environmental Impact Assessment El Niño Southern OscillationEuropean Union Foreign Assistance Act Food and Agriculture Organization Forest Stewardship CouncilFund of the Americas Free Trade Agreement

Genetically Modified OrganismsGross Domestic Product Greenhouse Gas German Society for International Cooperation Government of Peru Hectares High Conservation Value Areas Important Bird Areas Institute for the Common Good Inter-American Development Bank Refer to previous referenceGeophysical Institute of Peru Peruvian Amazon Research Institute Initiative for the Integration of the Regional Infrastructure of South America Sea Institute of Peru National Institute for Research on Glaciers and Mountain EcosystemsNational Institute for the Development of Andean, Amazonian and Afro-Peruvian Peoples National Institute for Statistics and Computing Information Intergovernmental Panel on Climate ChangeIntermediate Result International Union for Conservation of Nature Ilegal, unreported, unregulated fishingGerman Development Bank Kilometers Square kilometers Latin America & Caribbean Latin American Public Opinion ProjectLand use, land-use change, and forestryMeters Meters above sea level Millimeters Monitoring of the Andean Amazon ProjectMinistry of Agriculture and Irrigation Ministry of Environment

MINCETUR

MINCULMINEM MoDef MRV MTMW NASA

n.d. NEP NFCCS

NGO No.NORAD

NRM SEIA

NTFP OECD OEFA

OSINERGMIN

OSINFOR

PA PCM PeMAR PESs PNCB

PRODUCE RAISG

Ramsar

RCA REA

SACSEA SENACE

SENAMHI

SERFOR SERNANP

SERVIR SERVIR

SINANPE

SNIFFS

SNP sp. SPDA SPDEspp. TNC UN UNDP UNDRIP

UNEP UNESCO

UNFCCC

US USAID

USD USG VCS WB WCSWWFZEE

Ministry of International Commerce and Tourism Ministry of CultureMinistry of Energy and MinesMinistry of Defense Monitoring, Reporting and Verification Metric TonsMegawatt National Aeronautics and Space Administration National Biodiversity Strategy and Action PlanNo Date National Environmental Policy National Forestry and Climate Change StrategyNon-Governmental Organization Number Norwegian Agency for Development CooperationNatural Resource Management National System of Environmental Impact Assessment Non-timber Forest Product Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Environmental Oversight and Evaluation Agency Supervisory Agency of Investment of Energy and Mining of PeruForest and Faunal Resources Supervisory Agency Protected Area Presidency of the Council of Ministers Marine Diversity Barcoding ProjectPayment for Ecosystem Services National Forests Conservation ProgramMinistry of Production Amazon Network of Georeferenced Socio-environmental Information Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Regional Conservation Area Regional Environmental Authorities

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation Closed Anonymous SocietyStrategic Environmental Assessment National Service for Environmental Certification National Hydrological and Meteorological Service National Service of Forests and Wildlife National Service of Natural Protected Areas by the State National Public Service LawActivity led by NASA and USAID to monitor climate and ecosystemsNational System of Protected Natural Areas by the State National Forestry and Wildlife Information SystemNational Fisheries Society Species Peruvian Society for Environmental Law Peruvian Society for Ecodevelopment Various Species The Nature Conservancy United Nations United Nations Development Program United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People United Nations Environment Program United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change United Nations Office on Drugs and CrimeUnited States United States Agency for International Development United States Dollar United States Government Voluntary Carbon Standard World Bank Wildlife Conservation Society World Wildlife Fund Economic and Ecological Zoning

TROPICAL FOREST AND BIODIVERSITY ANALYSIS8

TABLE OFCONTENT

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

COUNTRY CONTEXT

LOCATION AND COUNTRY CONTEXTBIOPHYSICAL SETTINGS

STATUS OF THE COUNTRY’S BIODIVERSITY

MAJOR ECOSYSTEM TYPES AND STATUSSTATUS OF TROPICAL FORESTSSTATUS OF MARINE RESOURCES

VALUE AND ECONOMIC POTENTIAL

VALUE OF BIODIVERSITYECOSYSTEM GOODS AND SERVICES

LEGAL FRAMEWORK AFFECTING CONSERVATION

NATIONAL LAWS, POLICIES, AND STRATEGIESINTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTSGOVERNMENT AGENCIESCONSERVATION INITIATIVES: GAP ANALYSIS

2.12.22.3

1.11.2

3.13.2

4.14.24.34.4

262829

30323746

505253

5658646565

STATUS OF THE COUNTRY’S BIODIVERSITY 9

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FORESTS

CLIMATE CHANGE: A DIRECT THREAT AND DRIVER THAT EXACERBATES OTHER THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FORESTSDIRECT THREATS TO TROPICAL FORESTS ECOSYSTEMSDRIVERS OF THREATS TO TROPICAL FORESTS ECOSYSTEMS

ACTIONS NECESSARY TO CONSERVE BIODIVERSITY INCLUDING TROPICAL FORESTS AND MARINE RESOURCES

EXTENT TO WHICH THE MISSION MEETS THE IDENTIFIED ACTIONS NEEDED

RECOMMENDATIONS

ANNEXES

EXECUTIVE SUMARY

The Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (FAA) recognizes the fundamental role that tropical forests and biodiversity play in supporting countries as they progress along the journey to self-reliance. Sections 118(e) and 119(d) of the FAA of 1961 place a high priority on conservation and sustainable management of tropical forests and biodiversity as an important objective of U.S. development assistance. In accordance with USAID’s Program Cycle Operational Policy (Automated Directive System 201), USAID/Peru commissioned this Assessment to inform the development of the 2020-2025 Country Development Cooperation Strategy for Peru. The objectives of the Analysis were to:

1. Describe the current status of Peru’s tropical forests and biodiversity to include emerging issues, threats, and trends.

2. Identify actions necessary to conserve tropical forests and biodiversity, and the extent to which the Mission is supporting such actions necessary; and

3. Develop recommendations that will guide the Mission in developing the new CDCS.

Building on the 2016 Tropical Forests and Biodiversity Assessment, this Analysis was based on interviews conducted with over 50 stakeholders from government, academia, civil society and the private sector; review of secondary sources; and two site visits. The Analysis was conducted by a team of local consultants hired by the United States Forest Service under the activity Forest Oversight and Resource Strengthening (USAID/USFS/FOREST).

Peru’s diverse geomorphology and climatic conditions make it one of the ten most diverse countries worldwide. By 2021, the Peruvian population will reach 33 million and 39 million by 2050 (INEI, 2019). Peru has three major natural regions: coast, andean highlands, and the amazon jungle. Peru has a vast cultural heritage, with 51 ethnic groups from the amazon jungle and four from the andean highlands (MINCUL, 2019). Native communities located mainly in the amazon jungle manage about 80,464 km2 of land (6.3 percent of the county), while campesino communities, located mainly in the highlands, manage about 198,882 km2 of land (15.5 percent of the country). Indigenous territories are vulnerable to land use rights conflicts. Given disparities in access to services and economic opportunities, most Peruvians live in coastal cities such as Lima. The population in the highlands is declining due to migration to coastal areas and to the amazon, putting more pressure on tropical forests and biodiversity.

In 2018, the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) grew 4.0 percent, an increase compared to 2017 when the economy grew at a rate of 2.5 percent due to the negative impact of the El Niño phenomenon in the northern part of the country and the crisis of confidence and paralysis of projects generated by corruption cases. Peru’s average GDP has been 4.4 percent since 2009 (BCRP, 2018). The primary productive sectors are agriculture, fishing, metal mining, hydrocarbons, and primary manufacturing. The non-primary productive sectors are non-primary manufacturing, electricity and water, construction, and commerce and services.

INTRODUCTION

COUNTRY CONTEXT

11EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Peru’s megadiversity results from its diverse geomorphology and climatic conditions. Peru has more than 20,553 species of flora, 559 mammals, 1,859 birds, 469 reptiles and 2,231 fish (MINAM, 2018). Peru is an important center for agrobiodiversity and plant domestication. Peru’s rich cultural heritage and biodiversity have received international recognition, with two natural World Heritage sites, two mixed natural-cultural World Heritage sites and 13 Ramsar sites (spanning across 6.7 million ha).

Peru has over 68 million ha of forest classified into 14 ecosystem types (MINAM, 2019). Amazonian forest types such as the montane, terraces, floodplains and swamps represent 53 percent of the continental surface of Peru and are biodiversity hotspots. The conservation status of these ecosystems and the species is directly related to the loss of vegetation cover. As of 2014, 389 animals and 685 plants are considered threatened in Peru (MINAM, 2018c). According to MINAM’s GEOBOSQUES database, the area deforested in 2017 was 155,914 ha for a total of 2,130,122 ha in the period 2001-2017, and an annual average deforestation rate of 125,301 ha. Preliminary data shows that in 2018, 129,485 ha were deforested, a reduction as compared to previous years. Peru’s goal is to reduce deforestation rates by 5 percent by 2021 as stated in the National Biodiversity Conservation Strategy has been challenging to achieve (MINAM, 2019).

As of early 2019, protected areas managed by SERNANP corresponded to 16.9 percent of the continental territory (MINAM, 2019b), with less than 5 percent of the protected area’s surface affected by anthropic activity. Amazonian forest ecosystems are well represented in the current system with values greater than 17 percent of their original extent (MINAM, 2018). In general, deforestation within protected areas is very low and biodiversity protection is effective (MINAM, 2019b).

The level of representativeness of marine protected areas in the national system of natural areas protected by the state (SINANPE) is about 0.4 percent of the maritime domain. This level of representation is far from the goal of 10 percent by 2021, which Peru committed to under the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Sustainable Development Goals.

MINAM estimates that the goods and services provided by ecosystems contribute more than 14 percent of Peru’s GDP (MINAM, 2019). Amazonian forests play a key role in regional climate regulation due to carbon accumulation, improved air quality and their participation in nutrient cycles (Charity et al., 2016). The Amazon forest has an estimated carbon storage stock of 8,874 billion metric tons of carbon (MINAM, 2019b). Natural ecosystems also provide aesthetic and recreational environmental services. In the last decade, tourism activity doubled to more than four million international visitors (INEI, 2018b) representing a total of 4.5 billion dollars. The main destination of these visitors are archeological sites and protected natural areas.

STATUS OF THE COUNTRY’S BIODIVERSITY

Peru has a robust legal framework and is signatory to most international treaties that relate to the environment and natural resources. Over the past five years, Peru has continued to strengthen its legal framework and made progress towards the implementation of laws and regulations. Notably, the Congress approved the Framework Law on Climate Change in April 2018. This law will empower regional and municipal governments to take action to mitigate the impacts of climate change. Other important instruments include the approval of the National Strategy for Biological Diversity and its Action Plan (2014), National Wetlands Strategy (2015), and the Forests and Climate Change Strategy (2016). Progress has also been made to enforce environmental laws and regulations with the opening of the first specialized court on environmental affairs in Madre de Dios in 2018 and the processing of emblematic cases linked to illegal mining and illegal logging.

Despite these advances, the implementation of the legal framework and national level strategies continue to be a challenge. Inadequate institutional capacity, limited access to information and environmental justice mechanisms, and corruption exacerbate impacts on the environment and reduce civil society participation.

LEGAL FRAMEWORK AFFECTING CONSERVATION

The Assessment Team identified twelve direct biodiversity threats to the forest ecosystems and nine to the marine and coastal ecosystems (Figure 1). Based on scope, severity and irreversibility, the most significant threats to tropical forests and biodiversity were found to be climate change, illegal logging, illegal mining, small scale and shifting agriculture, species overexploitation and poaching, unplanned rural roads and the expansion of illegal crops. The main pressures generated by these threats are deforestation, degradation, and pollution. In the case of marine ecosystems, the main threats identified were climatic variability and El Niño Southern Oscillation, habitat conversion, illegal fishing and overfishing followed by pollution from land-based sources and oil and gas developments.

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY AND DRIVERS

Figure 1Summary of Main Threats and Drivers of Biodiversity and Tropical Forest Loss in Tropical Forests and Marine Ecosystems

El Niño and climatic variabilityHabitat conversionIllegal fishingOverfishing industrial fishing fleet

Lack of solid waste managementContamination by oil/gas developmentsBycatchUnreated sewage

MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

Climate changeIllegal loggingIllegal miningSmall scale and shi�ing agricultureSpecies overexplotationUnderplanned rural roads

Illegal cropsProvoked and natural firesLarge road infrastructureLarge extractive industriesAgribusiness projectsIntroduced species

TROPICAL FOREST

TROPICAL FORESTSAND MARINE BIODIVERSITYCONSERVATION

Inadequatetechnical capacity

Institutionalarrangements

Inadequatemanagement capacity

Economicfactors

Socio-politicalfactors

Climatechange

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The Assessment team found similar patterns in terms of the main drivers of the threats to tropical forests and marine ecosystems. Below is a summary of the main drivers.

CLIMATE CHANGEClimate change is a significant threat to biodiversity in tropical forests and marine ecosystems and exacerbates drivers of threats at different levels. Agroclimatic extreme events can impact global commodity prices (Chatzopoulos, et al., 2019). In the case of Peru, extreme climatic events such as El Niño are expected to become more frequent (Wang, et al., 2019). Reductions in river flow resulting from drought and deforestation can lead to unreliable levels for transportation, thus increasing pressure on the demand for more rural roads. Climate change can also lead to the expansion of the agricultural frontier to higher elevations.

INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTSWhile the Government of Peru has made progress in strengthening the environmental laws and regulations, conflicts over land tenure and land use rights coupled with weaknesses in environmental governance and law enforcement at the regional and local levels continue to be factors driving threats to biodiversity and tropical forests.

INADEQUATE MANAGEMENT CAPACITYTerritorial management in Peru is led at the regional and local level. Decentralization efforts, the transfer of such responsibilities from the national government, have taken years and for some regional and local governments human and financial resources are still insufficient to achieve sound management.

INADEQUATE TECHNICAL CAPACITIESMany farmers in the jungle region have limited capacity to increase productivity which contributes to the expansion of small scale and shifting agriculture. Inadequate technical capacities also contribute the environmental impacts caused by poorly planned roads, mining, land conversion and species overexploitation. Inadequate capacities, information and scientific evidence contribute to the undervaluation of biodiversity in tropical forests and marine ecosystems.

SOCIO-POLITICAL FACTORSWhile poverty rates in Peru have decreased steadily over the past ten years, inequality and informality continue to be prevalent. The 2017 Census found an increase in the population in the coast and jungle, and a decrease in the population in the highlands ( , 2018c). The increase in the population in the jungle coupled with weak environmental governance puts additional pressure on the local biodiversity and tropical forests. Weaknesses in public participation in environmental decision-making contribute to the lack of political will for the conservation and improved management of natural resources.

ECONOMIC FACTORSPeru’s primary productive sectors are agriculture, fishing, metal mining, hydrocarbons, and primary manufacturing. Global demand for metals and commodities impact Peru’s economy and given weaknesses in environmental governance, this demand drivers threats such as illegal mining, illegal logging, illegal fishing and overexploitation of wildlife.

DRIVERSACTIONS NEEDED TO CONSERVE BIODIVERSITY

IN TROPICAL FORESTS

CLIMATE CHANGE

Inadequate water levels and flow in rivers

• Promote the use of natural infrastructure to increase water storage for dry seasons; and reduce deforestation rates in sensitive areas.

Droughts and buildup of flammable organic material

• Develop a warning system for forest fire monitoring and prevention.

Increases in temperatures and changes in agricultural altitudinal frontier

• Boost technical capacity for implementing sustainable agricultural practices and extension services.

• Create financial and non-financial incentives for products that do not contribute to deforestation of biologically sensitive areas.

• Promote the implementation of ecological and economic zoning.

INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS

Lack of political will to implement a shared vision for sustainable development

• Promote efforts to strengthen political will.

Institutional weakness at the subnational level

• Consolidate decentralization efforts in the forest and environment sectors.

Land tenure and property rights conflicts

• Promote GOP inter-agency coordination and build capacities to streamline protocols.

• Consolidate efforts that promote the management of indigenous lands.

INADEQUATE MANAGEMENT CAPACITY

Inadequate inter-sectoral coordination

• Develop joint strategies and protocols to promote coordination at the national and subnational level.

• Strengthen Peru’s National Planning Center’s (CEPLAN) capacity to promote cross-sectoral coordination, participation, and accountability.

Inadequate coordination between national and subnational agencies

• Promote institutional mechanisms for policy dialogue and coordination.

Inadequate implementation of laws and regulations

• Develop joint intervention protocols for judiciary officials.

• Strengthen the services provided by the judiciary and enforcement system (specialized environmental courts; protection for environmental defenders; specialized teams with supranational jurisdiction).

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

IN TROPICAL FORESTS

Inadequate land use planning and management

• Strengthen capacities to assess and mitigate environmental impacts of agricultural, land use change and infrastructure projects.

• Strengthen the implementation of economic and ecological zoning at the subnational and local levels.

• Strengthen indigenous participation and capabilities for co-managing conservation areas.

High staff turnover• Promote implementation of the Civil Service Law

(SERVIR), and limit for the number of political appointees.

Corruption

• Promote implementation of the SERVIR law, and anti-bribery measures.

• Promote investigative journalism and transparency efforts.

INADEQUATE TECHNICAL CAPACITY

Inadequate promotion and implementation of sustainable agricultural practices

• Create incentives for economic activities and non-timber forest products that promote conservation and contribute to maintaining standing forest.

Inadequate technical assistance for the agriculture sector

• Build capacities among agricultural extension agents to minimize environmental impacts and promote biodiversity conservation.

• Promote initiatives to scale up agricultural extension services.

Inadequate adaptation to market demand for sustainable products

• Strengthen capacities to access relevant markets and financing.

• Promote research on alternative products with a view toward sustainability.

• Promote incentives for sustainable businesses.

Inadequate capacity for implementing incentives for sustainable businesses

• Promote private and financial sector involvement in developing incentives for conservation enterprises.

• Create incentives for private conservation initiatives (including financial incentives).

Inadequate capacity for implementing traceability, monitoring, and enforcement systems in the timber and gold mining sectors

• Implement the National Forest and Wildlife Information System (SNIFFS) at the national and regional level.

• Foster transparency and accountability in the forest and mining sectors.

• Promote formalization and oversight of artisanal and small-scale mining operations.

Undervaluation of biodiversity

• Promote research on biodiversity valuation, the dissemination of findings, and capacity-building at the sub-national level.

• Promote environmental education and democracy strengthening initiatives.

IN TROPICAL FORESTS

SOCIO-POLITICAL FACTORS

Lack of economic opportunities • Promote sustainable development efforts in areas with high poverty levels.

Migration • Strengthen regional and local governments’ land use planning and management capacity.

Lack of information and knowledge

• Build scientific capacity and use of evidence for decision-making at the subnational level.

• Foster coordination between academic institutions and the government.

ECONOMIC FACTORS

Demand for land

• Strengthen the implementation of ecological and economic zoning.

• Build political will and capacities to address land tenure and property rights issues.

Domestic and international demand for natural resources (gold, timber, species)

• Strengthen capacity for compliance with laws and regulations, including through the implementation of timber traceability efforts.

• Promote efforts to raise public awareness in order to prevent environmental crimes and demand for illegal products.

Illegal trafficking in natural resources

• Strengthen capacity for compliance with laws and regulations.

• Promote efforts to raise public awareness in order to prevent environmental crimes.

• Reinforce oversight and monitoring systems.

IN MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

CLIMATE CHANGE

El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and climatic variability

• Promote learning among adaptation initiatives.• Promote adaptation of artisanal fishing operation.

Uncoordinated and obsolete coastal marine policy

• Assess the current marine policy framework and identify needs for modernization.

Open access regime for artisanal fishing • Develop a system for exclusive fishing rights.

• Consolidate decentralization efforts and strengthen capacities at the regional and local government levels for the management of fisheries and marine resources.

Insufficient fishing rights • Modify usage rights rates to ensure resources cover management costs.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Inadequate fisheries management system

• Modernize management instruments to incorporate the use of evidence, transparency and stakeholder participation in management decisions.

• Develop joint strategies to align efforts, resources and technical capacity of the different institutions at national and sub-national level and across the different sectors.

• Strengthen CEPLAN’s capacity to promote coordination, participation, and accountability for intersectoral coordination.

• Develop joint intervention protocols for judiciary officials.

• Strengthen the services provided by the judiciary and enforcement system (specialized environmental courts; protection for environmental defenders; specialized teams with supranational jurisdiction).

Un-planned urban development

• Strengthen capacities at the regional and local government levels for the management of fisheries and marine resources.

Corruption

• Promote implementation of the SERVIR law, and anti-bribery measures.

• Promote investigative journalism and transparency efforts.

Inadequate capacity to implement best practices

• Promote the development and adoption of best practices and development of new technologies.

Ecosystem management approach and adaptive management

• Build capacities for the design and execution of adaptive management strategies in the fisheries sector.

Undervaluation of fisheries and marine resources

• Build technical capacity for biodiversity and blue carbon valuation in public accounts.

• Promote efforts to disseminate information and knowledge.

Inadequate capacities for planning and use of marine-coastal resources

• Build scientific capacity and dissemination of results at sub-national level.

Inadequate capacity to implement traceability, monitoring and control systems

• Improve traceability systems for effective enforcement along the fishing value chain.

Population growth • Build local capacities for land use planning, provision of state services and management.

Lack of economic opportunities • Strengthen capacities to promote economic opportunities and employment.

ECONOMIC FACTORS

Global demand for fish meal and oil

• Strengthen capacities for compliance with laws and regulations and implement effective traceability initiatives.

• Strengthen capacity for compliance with laws and regulations; and promote efforts to raise public awareness in order to prevent environmental crimes.

The Assessment Team found the following activities and adjustments that USAID/Peru can make within the constraints of its current strategy and projects.• Integrate efforts between DO1, DO2 and DO3 in order to strengthen forest governance,

promoting investment in alternative development activities while promoting forest conservation and biodiversity. Joint efforts could include:

Promote inter-institutional coordination platforms or spaces among USAID operators under DO1, DO2 and DO3 to resolve priority bottlenecks such as land tenure in permanent production forests and strengthen local territorial planning capacities.Integrate aspects of conservation and value chains for non-timber products with market potential in projects under DO1 and DO3.Strengthen local capacities to mitigate the impacts of roads in biologically sensitive areas. Strengthen capacities of government agencies for inter-institutional monitoring of deforestation due to expansion of small-scale agriculture and illicit crops in priority areas.

• Support relevant authorities to conduct environmental assessments to mitigate impacts of alternative development efforts.

• Promote coordination between transparency and anti-corruption activities with the environment, forestry, and agricultural sector.

• Support efforts to strengthen capacity of the Government of Peru to address land tenure and land use rights in priority areas.

• Support efforts specifically aimed at generating political will for the conservation of biodiversity and tropical forests at multiple levels of government.

• To address threats to marine ecosystems, USAID could consider expanding efforts to strengthen enforcement of environmental laws and regulations to include land conversion and illegal fishing; and include the management of marine ecosystems in transparency and anti-corruption initiatives.

RECOMMENDATIONS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

he Foreign Assistance Act (FAA) of 1961 recognizes the fundamental role that tropical forest and biodiversity play in supporting countries as they progress along the journey to self-reliance. Sections 118(e) and 119(d) of the FAA of 1961 place

a high priority on conservation and sustainable management of tropical forests and biodiversity as an important objective of U.S. development assistance. These sections direct USAID to conduct a country-specific analysis that describes (1) the actions necessary to achieve conservation and sustainable management of tropical forests and biodiversity and (2) the extent to which USAID is taking actions in any sector to achieve conservation and sustainable management of tropical forests and biodiversity. In accordance with USAID’s Program Cycle Operational Policy (Automated Directive System 201), USAID/Peru commissioned this Assessment to inform the development of the 2020-2025 Country Development Cooperation Strategy (CDCS) for Peru.

The primary purpose of this 118-119 Analysis is to provide USAID/Peru with information to inform decisions and strategies in the development of the new CDCS covering the period 2020-2025. Specifically, the Analysis has three objectives:1. Describe the current status of Peru’s tropical forests and biodiversity to include

emerging issues, threats, and trends. 2. Identify actions necessary to conserve tropical forests and biodiversity and the extent to

which the Mission is supporting such actions necessary; and 3. Develop recommendations that will guide the Mission in developing the new CDCS.

The Analysis builds on the previous Tropical Forest and Biodiversity Assessment published in 2016 (de Queiroz et al., 2014). The findings of the FAA 118/119 analysis will identify opportunities for leverage existing activities and new activity design to contribute to biodiversity conservation and tropical forest management.

PURPOSEAND OBJECTIVES

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE USAID PROGRAM

Peru has undergone a dramatic economic transformation to become a middle-income country. However, a variety of challenges undermine the country’s global integration and inclusive growth. USAID’s development assistance is accelerating Peru’s transition to a more inclusive, responsible partner with a market-based economy. Under USAID/Peru’s current 2013-2019 CDCS, USAID’s programs in Peru promote alternative development, strengthen natural resource management and biodiversity conservation in the Amazon, promote adaptation to climate change in the andean highlands, and strengthen governance and institutional capacities. The goal of the current CDCS is to help ensure that Peru’s stability and democracy are strengthened through increased social and economic inclusion and reductions in illicit coca cultivation and the illegal exploitation of natural resources. The CDCS results framework supports this goal through three development objectives (DO):DO-1: Alternatives to illicit coca cultivation increased in targeted regions.DO-2: Management and quality of public services improved in the Amazon Basin.DO-3: Natural resources sustainably managed in the Amazon Basin and glacier highlands.Programs under the current CDCS are expected to bridge into the new CDCS. Under DO1, USAID/Peru’s Alternative Development Program seeks to strengthen Peru’s capacity to transition farmers into a licit economy through the adoption of alternative crops such as coffee and cocoa in regions where areas of high biodiversity and tropical forests are also present. This successful model has lifted thousands of rural Peruvian families out of poverty and enabled them to move away from coca cultivation. Efforts under DO2 focus on strengthening institutions to promote transparency and human rights. Under DO3, USAID/Peru is currently implementing the five-year Amazonia Verde Project (2017-2022), which seeks to conserve Peru’s unique biodiversity and strengthen the sustainable management of forests. The Mission expects to use both sustainable landscapes and biodiversity funding for this project. The findings of the FAA 118/119 analysis will inform how new activity design can complement the Amazonia Verde Project.

METHODOLOGY

The Analysis was conducted by a team of local consultants with vast experience in biodiversity conservation and management of natural resources in the Peruvian Amazon and coastal areas. Biographical information and the Statement of Work used to conduct this Analysis can be found in page 143 and Aneexe 2, respectively.

DESKTOP REVIEWThe team reviewed relevant reports and documents including: previous 118/119 analyses, current CDCS and project documents, information available online (websites of government ministries and development partners) on biodiversity conservation and tropical forest conservation, project reports and evaluations, the National Biodiversity Strategy by 2021 and Action Plan (NBSAP), the VI National Biodiversity Report (2019), the National Forest and Climate Change Strategy by 2030 (NFCCS), the National Strategy to Reduce Wildlife Trafficking in 2017-2027, Master Plan of Natural Protected Areas, and Nationally Determined Contributions 2018.

CONSULTATIONSThe Analysis Team interviewed representatives from non-governmental organizations, government bodies, USAID’s private sector partners, and individuals who are knowledgeable about and/or implementing projects on environment, tropical forest and biodiversity conservation and other sectors relevant to tropical forest and biodiversity conservation, such as agriculture, economic growth, health and governance. The list of stakeholders interviewed during the consultation phase is included in Annex 3.

SITE VISITSThe Analysis team conducted two site visits to meet with key stakeholders and gather information about threats to biodiversity in areas of high biological significance. During the site visits, the team met with relevant stakeholders in Pucallpa, Ucayali; Yuyapichis, Huanuco; and Puerto Maldonado, Madre de Dios. These sites were selected in consultation with USAID given the high biological significance of the areas and the presence of threats such as illegal mining, illegal logging, and agricultural expansion (from licit and illicit crops). Site visits are described in Annex 2.

THREATS ASSESSMENTThe team analyzed and rank threats following the methodology described in the Developing Situation Models in USAID Biodiversity Programming How-to-Guide published in 2016 (Stem et al., 2016). Information gathered through the desktop review and interviews was used to complement and validate the direct threats analysis.

The current Analysis builds on the 2016 Peru Tropical Forest and Biodiversity Assessment, updating information on threats to tropical forests ecosystems, marine and coastal areas. While Peru’s diverse topography and climatic gradients generate a wide range of ecosystems, the focus of this Analysis was tropical forests and marine ecosystems. The Analysis team did not visit important ecosystems such as the marine and coastal highlands, andean highlands, desert landscapes or dry woodlands. Information on these ecosystems was included in the Analysis from secondary sources.

SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

andean highlands (MINCUL, 2019). The 2017 National Census surveyed 2,703 native communities, located in the jungle regions, and 6,682 rural or campesino communities located mainly in the sierra and coast regions. The native communities surveyed belong to 44 ethnic groups, and over 77 percent have land titles. Of the campesino communities surveyed, 64 percent belong to 20 ethnic groups. About 80 percent of the campesino communities have land titles. Land tenure conflicts are active in 30 percent of the native communities and 37 percent of the campesino communities (INEI, 2018c).

In 2018, the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) grew at a rate of 4.0 percent, an increase compared to 2017 when the economy grew at a rate of 2.5 percent due to the negative impact of the El Niño in the northern part of the country and the crisis of confidence and paralysis of projects generated by corruption cases. Peru has had an average GDP of 4.4 percent since 2009 (BCRP, 2018). The primary productive sectors are agriculture, fishing, metal mining, hydrocarbons, primary manufacturing. The non-primary productive sectors are: non-primary manufacturing, electricity and water, construction, commerce and services. The recovery of national demand in 2018 contributed to the increase in GDP, due to growth in non-primary sectors. In the case of primary sectors, the agricultural sector reported the highest growth rate in the last decade for agro-export products; and the fishing sector grew due to a higher fishing quota for anchovy. Mining activity contracted in 2018 due to lower extraction of copper and gold.

Peru is located on the western coast of South America, bordering the Eastern South Pacific Ocean, between Chile and Ecuador; with Brazil and Bolivia to the East and Colombia to the Northeast. Its territory occupies 1,285,215.60 square kilometers (km2), 1,279,996 km2 of land and 5,220 km2 of waters. Peru is divided into 25 first-level administrative units, consisting of 24 geographic regions and the autonomous Province of Callao. Regions are subdivided into 196 provinces, which are composed of 1,874 districts in total (INEI, 2018d).

By 2017 Peru’s population was 31,237,385 people, according to the National Census (INEI, 2018d), making Peru the fifth most populous country in Latin America. Peru’s National Statistics Institute (INEI) estimates that by 2021, the population will reach 33 million and by 2050 the population will reach 39 million (INEI, 2019). The average population growth rate in 2017 was 1.0 percent, a decrease of 0.6 percent since 2007, following a decreasing trend since the censuses of 1961 and 1972 (INEI, 2018c). The population growth rate in urban areas as 1.6 percent, while in rural areas population decreased at a rate of -2.1 percent. Over half of the population lives in coastal areas. The census population in the coast region was 17, 037, 297 people, (58.0 percent of the population); in the sierra 8,26,183 people (28.1 percent) and in the jungle 4,076, 404 people (13.9 percent). Poverty rates dropped from 33.5 percent in 2009 to 21.7 percent in 2017 (INEI, 2019). The poverty rate in rural areas (44.4 percent) was about three times higher than in urban areas (15.1 percent) with the coast, highlands and jungle showing poverty rates of 14.4 percent, 31.6 percent and 28.6 percent, respectively, in 2017. Inequality as measured by the Gini Index has improved slowly, from 0.47 in 2009 to 0.43 in 2017 (World Bank Data, 2019).

Peru has a vast cultural heritage, with 51 ethnic groups from the amazon jungle and four from the

1.1LOCATION AND COUNTRY CONTEXT

Peruvian territory occupies 1,285,215 km2

29COUNTRY CONTEXT

Peru has a rugged relief resulting from the presence of a mountainous system called the Andes Mountains, which runs through the country longitudinally from South to North and leads to the formation of three natural regions coast, highlands and jungle. Peru’s diverse geomorphology and climatic conditions make Peru one of the ten countries with the greatest diversity on the planet.

Peru’s coast extends 3,079.5 km (INEI, 2018d). It is a narrow longitudinal strip with a variable width between 50 and 100 km, covering 11 percent of the country’s total area. The Peruvian Sea, known as Mar de Grau, extends 200 nautical miles from the coast into the Pacific Ocean.

1.2BIOPHYSICAL SETTING

The Peruvian andean highlands are home to about 71 percent of the world’s tropical glaciers (Thorsten et al., 2018, Rabatel et al., 2013). This natural region has a heterogeneous topography with prominent peaks, deep gorges, narrow inter-andean valleys and wide plateaus. It covers an estimated area of 335,170 km2 that represents 26 percent of the national territory.

The amazon or jungle region is located east of the andes and covers around 63 percent of the national territory. Peru is the fourth country with the largest extent of tropical forest in the world, and second in Latin America, after Brazil. The jungle region is predominantly flat with two distinct zones: the Mountain Forest and the Amazonian Plain or Lowland Forest.

Due to its proximity to the Equator, the presence of the Andes mountain range, and the influence of cold marine currents, Peru is a megadiverse country. These factors generate differentiated climate conditions along altitudinal gradients that make Peru a complex mosaic of ecosystems. The official ecosystems map of Peru depicts 41 ecosystem types grouped into six categories: coastal marine, arid and semiarid, inland water, mountain, forest, and underground caves (Figure 2, MINAM, 2018). Below is a description of each ecosystem category and a summary of their main threats (additional details are provided in Annex 5). Coastal marine ecosystems are addressed in detail in section 3.3.

2.1MAJOR ECOSYSTEMS TYPES AND STATUS

Official Ecosystems Map of Peru by SERNANP

ARID AND SEMIARID ECOSYSTEMS: SCRUBLAND, LOMAS, AND COASTAL DESERTSThe scrubland ecosystem is characterized by the presence of shrubs and is found in both the coastal andean foothills and at higher altitude in the andean highlands. Lomas are the result of the condensation of sea mist on low coastal hills and are therefore a highly seasonal ecosystem appearing as small oases in the middle of the coastal desert. These ecosystems are known to have a high degree of endemism and unique adaptations to the limited availability of water (MINAM, 2018).

The main threat to these areas is the pressure from urban and agricultural land occupation and legal and illegal mining activity. Spurred by the current legal framework, agriculture has expanded into the desert, compromising water availability from underground aquifers (Muñoz, 2016).

INLAND FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS: RIVERS, LAKES AND LAGOONS, AND COASTAL WETLANDSThe country’s hydrographic network is dominated by the presence of the Andes, with most rivers (564) draining into the Amazon basin across 84 main watersheds. Rivers carry sediments and nutrients from the highlands to the Amazon lowlands, initially making a very rapid, steep descent and later becoming tributaries of larger but slower rivers. The hydrographic network in the Amazon is interconnected with forested areas. The rivers that drain into the Pacific Ocean (381) have shorter courses, and the vast majority have significant flow only during the short rainy season. These form 62 watersheds. In the highlands, the Lake Titicaca basin, shared with Bolivia, includes 62 rivers in 13 watersheds (INEI, 2018a). Approximately 1,200 species of freshwater fish have been identified in Peru, along with a great diversity of microorganisms, plants, and fungi. Particularly in the Amazon jungle, the larger rivers form barriers to the dispersion of wildlife and thereby contribute to generating biodiversity.

Over 27,390 lakes are registered in Peru, covering a surface area of about 5,000 square meters (MINAM, 2018). These include permanent lakes and lagoons, although in recent years, with the steady melting of andean glaciers, there are about 1,000 new glacial lagoons.

Coastal wetlands include various formations such as saltwater lagoons, mangroves, estuaries, oases, swamps, and deltas. Although small, they represent key habitats for biological processes such as reproduction and growth of major fishery species, as well as the seasonal migration of Neartic shore birds.

The rivers of the Pacific basin are experiencing threats resulting from higher population density; excessive water use for human consumption and farming, which has brought some aquifers to the brink of collapse (Damonte et al., 2016); and from the large volume of untreated waste water that is released from residential, agricultural, livestock, and industrial sources. Contamination from mining affects the upper watersheds of both Pacific- and Atlantic-bound waters. Dams for water storage and power generation in Pacific-and Atlantic-bound waters interrupt the longitudinal and lateral connectivity between different types of aquatic habitats and alters the sediment flows that are vital to triggering fish reproduction processes, even in the Amazonian plains. Additionally, the introduction of invasive species like trout or the Argentinian silverside for aquaculture and sport fishing purposes has led to the disappearance of native fish species (Cossios, 2010).

Overfishing is one of the main problems in the rivers of the Amazonian plain (García-Dávila et al., 2018), in addition to contamination from residential sources as well as oil spills, mainly north of the Amazon River (Orta-Martinez and Finer, 2010). In other parts of the Amazon, informal, illegal gold mining and primary processing of cocaine produce polluting effluents that adversely affect waterways and lakes (Del Olmo, 1998; Salisbury and Fagan, 2013; Kahhat et al., 2019).

Over 27,390 lakes are registered in Peru, covering a surface area of about 5,000 square meters. (MINAM, 2018)

Some of these effluents get magnified as they move along the food chain and eventually affect people who consume fish as part of their diet (Langeland et al., 2017). The coastal wetlands are threatened mainly by conversion due to urban encroachment and by contamination from residential waste (MINAM, 2018).

ANDEAN HIGHLANDS ECOSYSTEMS: JALCA, BOFEDAL, PUNA GRASSLAND, PÁRAMO, AND GLACIAL AND PERIGLACIAL ECOSYSTEMSPeru has 71 percent of the planet’s tropical glaciers, distributed across 18 mountain ranges throughout the country. These fragile ecosystems are the least studied in Peru, and few places have a species inventory, although high degrees of endemism have been found in several taxonomic groups (MINAM, 2018, Servat et al., 2017). Páramos and bofedales stand out for their ability to host diverse flora. Andean ecosystems in general have been key sources for the domestication of many species that are useful to humans. The puna grasslands sustain native and introduced livestock. The main threats to these ecosystems are the encroachment of mining (along with the environmental liabilities of legacy operations), conversion to agriculture and overgrazing (Rolando et al., 2017). The burning of grassland for agricultural expansion and hunting have caused the local extinction of some threatened species. Climate change is causing glacial ecosystems to steadily shrink (53.56 percent, INAIGEM, 2018) and is affecting the seasonality and distribution of some particularly sensitive taxa, such as amphibians and butterflies (MINAM, 2018).

FOREST ECOSYSTEMSThis group includes 23 types of forest ecosystems, of which 14 are in the Amazon and will be discussed in section 2.2. Among the non-Amazonian forest ecosystems are the seasonal dry forests, relict forests, and Pacific tropical forests.

Seasonal dry forests are interspersed with coastal desert and appear in fragments on the Marañón, Mantaro, and Apurímac river basins. Their patchwork distribution has facilitated the speciation and specialization of various taxa. Relict forests are the remnants of species such as Polylepis and Escallonia and their associated fauna, and are found in isolated parts of the upper Andes. The Pacific tropical forest is an evergreen forest characterized by intense seasonal rains and the presence of species unique for Peru, with the number of species recorded growing as it is studied more intensively (MINAM, 2018b). The seasonal dry forests are threatened by the encroaching agricultural frontier and by overharvesting for firewood and coal (Cuentas and Salazar, 2017), and so are recognized as one of the most threatened ecosystems in the Neotropics (Miles et al., 2006). In contrast, the Pacific tropical forest is entirely within the national system of protected areas, and its conservation status is nearly ideal.

UNDERGROUND CAVE ECOSYSTEMS This category includes small cavern systems of volcanic, marine, or karst origin. The few studies that exist about the biodiversity in these ecosystems have found endemic species and the occurrence of species new to science. At least 150 systems and individual caverns exist in Peru (Bermudez, 2016).

Peru has 71%of planet tropical glaciers, distributed across 18 mountain ranges throughout the country.

The most important and extensive of the 14 types of Amazonian forest ecosystems (MINAM, 2018) are the montane forest, terrace forests, alluvial flood forests, and swamp forests. These ecosystems represent 53 percent of the country’s mainland surface area and its principal source of biodiversity (MINAM, 2015).

2.2STATUS OF TROPICAL FORESTS

Montane forests cover about one-fourth of Peru and are found at altitudes of 150 to 800 masl. They are colonized the most, owing both to formal agriculture and livestock expansion and to transhumance. These forests were originally rich in highly prized timber species of the genera Cedrela, Cedrelinga, Terminaliae, and Iriartea. The

eastern yunga forests, also known as the highland forests (selva alta), are found across the Andes between 600 and 2,500 meters and have restricted distribution genera such as Podocarpus, Clusia, and Weinmannia. The non-flood terrace forests, though smaller in area, are important for human occupation and agricultural activities.

The highland forest is found

across the Andes between

600 and 2,500 masl.

The alluvial forests are subject to the rise-and-fall cycle of the large rivers of the Amazon. There are two types: white-water forests, whose rivers have their headwaters in the Andes and carry a high sediment load, and black-water forests, whose waterways originate in the Amazonian plain, which is why they are acidic and have a high organic matter content. The flood areas are nutrient-rich and well suited to the seasonal cultivation of various locally consumed products. The swamps in turn are home to several palm species that provide habitat for a variety of fauna and epiphytic flora. Additionally, some unique, smaller ecosystems have been identified, including wet palm savannas and white sand forests, which have significant levels of plant, amphibian, and bird endemism (Kratter, 1997).

The aquatic ecosystems of the Amazon support highly diverse wildlife, including the giant catfish whose life cycles include migration to the mouth of the Amazon River on the Atlantic, e.g. the gilded catfish (Brachyplatystoma rousseouxii) (Batista et al., 2006), as well as other large fish species such as the arapaima (Arapaima gigas), tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum), and pirapitinga (Piaractus brachypomus). As commercial fisheries have increased,

the share of the large species in landings has declined, and their stocks considered overfished (He et al., 2019). Aquaculture has increased 15 percent per year in the region owing to declining catches and fishing bans (García-Dávila et al., 2018), and today aquaculture production of some of these species is greater than the amount caught wild (PRODUCE, 2019).

The conservation status of tropical forests is directly related to the loss of vegetation cover. The Government of Peru closely monitors deforestation rate, and platforms such as GEOBOSQUES allow the public to access information and receive deforestation in selected areas. As shown in Figure 2 and Map 2, according to data published by MINAM and SERFOR, the amount of deforestation in 2017 was 155,914 ha, for a total of 2,130,123 ha and an average rate of 125,301 ha per year over the 2001-2017 period (MINAM and SEFOR, 2018). A preliminary update indicates that deforestation fell to 129,485 ha in 2018, continuing the downward trend of recent years (SERFOR, personal communication). Efforts to reduce the deforestation rate include the Joint Declaration of Intent on REDD+ signed by Peru, Norway, and Germany (MINAM, 2019c).

Figure 2Forest Loss in Peru

<1 1-5 5-50 50-500 >500

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

200,000

150,000

100,000

50,000

Forest Lossin the PeruvianAmazon Between2001 - 2017

2.2.1SPECIES DIVERSITY AND STATUSThe Government of Peru recently updated the country’s biodiversity profile as part of the Sixth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity. Figure 3 summarizes species richness for the main taxonomic groups found in Peru.

The report highlights that many taxonomic groups are understudied. Further, changes in number of species under each taxonomic group vary depending on the level of information available. In the case of plants, the Sixth National Biodiversity Report revealed a reduction in the number of species as compared to previous reports due to taxonomic rearrangements (MINAM, 2019).

Based on Peru’s national standards, there are 389 threatened plants, and 389 species of threatened fauna. The number of threatened fauna species reported in the 2014 assessment conducted by the Government of Peru is 54 percent higher than values reported in 2004. This change results from an increase in the taxonomic groups included in this assessment. The number of threated species reported is likely to continue changing as more information is available about the different taxonomic groups. Figures 4 and 5 summarize the number of threatened plants and fauna, and the number of species by threat category as reported in the Sixth National Report based on Peru’s standards.

Figure 3Species Richness of Select Taxonomic Groups in Peru

Source: MINAM, 2019

469reptiles

621amphibeans

1,857birds

31,775invertebrates

559mammals

909fungi

2,331fish

602marine algea

933lichens

20,533plants

Figure 4Number of Threatened Plant Species

Figure 5Number of Threatened Animal Species

Source: MINAM, 2019

12aracaceae

28malvaceae

194critical

64critical

122birds

92mammals

23invertebrates

120amphibians

32reptiles

THREAT LEVEL:

57solanaceae

301orchidaceae

15rosaceae

39cactaceae

73danger

122danger

138other

17fabaceae

51asteraceae

203vulnerable

2.2.2GENETIC DIVERSITYPeru is an important domestication site for plant species used in the global economy with about 182 domesticated species. Most of these species and their wild relatives are found in andean environments, as is the case of the potato, with 7 domesticated species, 98 wild species and over 4,000 cultivars. The gene pool of wild and domesticated species is considered a vital tool in the search for alternatives that can adapt to changing climate conditions (MINAM, 2016). In the Amazon, numerous native species (fruit, vegetables, meat, fish) are part of people’s nutritional diet (MINDES, 2009), and their inclusion in the country’s gastronomic supply chain is being explored, along with improvements in production and protection of their natural biodiversity (CONCYTEC, 2016). The National Forest and Wildlife Inventory identified 718 economically useful species of trees and palms (FAO and SERFOR, 2017). Although there are no extensive studies of the genetic diversity of commercial timber species, several studies have assessed the genetic diversity of some species such as mahogany (Andre et al., 2008), cedar (De La Torre, 2008) and bolaina (Coral et al., 2016). Law enforcement authorities could also use information on the biogeography of these species to determine the origin of fine wood in the international market (Degen, 2013). Efforts are underway to document the wild Amazonian fish gene pool (García Dávila et al., 2018b) as wild varieties are needed to develop regional aquaculture projects.

2.2.3 STATUS AND MANAGEMENT OF PROTECTED AREASThe National Natural Protected Areas System includes nine categories of protected areas managed by National Service for Protected Natural Areas (SERNANP). In addition to these areas, Peru has natural protected areas managed by regional governments and private conservation areas. Natural protected areas with transitory status are known as Reserved Areas. Map 3, shows natural protected areas in Peru. At the start of 2019, the protected areas managed by SERNANP amounted to 16.9 percent of Peru’s mainland area (MINAM, 2019b). About 5 percent of protected land is affected by anthropic activity (ibid.). All the Amazonian forest ecosystems are well represented in the current system of protected areas, with more than 17 percent of their original area protected (MINAM, 2018).

Some communal reserves are co-management by the government and indigenous organizations. An example is the co-management of the Amarakaeri Communal Reserve, which is now part of the IUCN Green List of Protected Areas. SERNANP and indigenous leaders co-manage the reserve under an administrative management contract. Multiple activities such as illegal mining, illegal logging, and road construction actively threated the area. As noted by the management leadership during the site visit to Madre de Dios, close communication and coordination with SERNANP have led to the successful co-management of the reserve.

Generally, deforestation within protected areas is minimal and biodiversity is protected effectively (MINAM, 2019b). Several factors conducive to conservation have been identified, such as presence of native communities (Gullison and Hardner, 2018) and the ability to obtain resources sustainably (Miranda et al., 2016). Even so, several protected areas are under threat due to the expansion of rural roads (Larrea et al., 2017), proximity to development projects (Vijay et al., 2018), expansion of illegal corps (mostly coca but also poppy and cannabis in the Yungas, and illegal small-scale gold mining in the lower Amazon.

Potatoes: 7 domesticated species, 98 wild species and over 4000 cultivars.

National NaturalProtected AreasManagedby SERNANP

2.2.4STATUS AND MANAGEMENT OF KEY NATURAL RESOURCES OUTSIDE THE NATIONAL NATURAL PROTECTED AREAS SYSTEMAs shown on Map 4, tropical forests in Peru have multiple land use designations. Native communities occupy 14 percent of the Amazon, though about 2,340,000 ha are still awaiting definitive titling. Additionally, five Territorial Reserves totaling 2,812,686 ha have been designated for the protection of indigenous peoples in voluntary isolation and initial contact. Counting the eight communal reserves under SERNANP as well, indigenous communities are involved in the management of some 20 percent of the Peruvian Amazon. Overall, land titling for native communities has contributed significantly to reducing and preventing deforestation (Blackman et al., 2017) and may be even more effective than protected areas in doing so (Schleicher et al., 2017). The forest sector and the designation of permanent production forests (BPP) are key factors in the process of land occupation and use in the Amazon. The current forest management system was designed to support forest concessions for revolving periods of up to 40 years. These were expected to be ecologically, economically, and socially sustainable (Sears and Pinedo-Vasquez, 2011), but various cultural, technological, and knowledge barriers found in the implementation process have led to discouraging results (Ibid., Anderson et al., 2019). The timber sector didn’t have good governance and the proposed legal reforms didn’t adequately consider the institutional arrangements supporting the timber industry at the local level. Most of the legal requirements were disconnected of the real capacities (technical and financial) of the people engaged in the activity creating conditions for extensive corruption and mismanagement of information. Even worse, the new regulations didn’t have a clear understanding of the geography and distribution of valuable timber stocks in the Amazon (Sears and Pinedo-Vasquez, 2011).

Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certification has a marginal better performance protecting the forest against deforestation agents but its efficacy is clearly connected to the spatial context (accessibility, neighboring land designations), as well as, capacities for monitoring and enforcement (Anderson et al., 2019). However, recent studies using passive acoustic monitoring found that certified forests can maintain similar levels of fauna biodiversity to those of forest in undisturbed areas (Campos-Cerqueira et al., 2019). Various portions of protected areas and forest concessions are participating in the voluntary carbon credit market under emissions offset initiatives associated with Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) projects (Hajek et al., 2014). The government, under the National Forest Conservation for Climate Change Mitigation Program, provides economic compensation to indigenous organizations based on native community forest conservation. The program enrolled 45 communities between 2011 and 2013 for the pilot phase totaling 558,997 ha and it has proven to be effective but still needs some fine-tuning (Börner et al., 2016; Giudice et al., 2019) especially considering the differential opportunity costs (those areas with higher accessibility also have a higher risk of deforestation) and the uncertainty of alternative land uses connected to crops price volatility.

Concessions granted for rubber latex (Hevea brasiliensis) and chestnuts, totaling about 880,000 ha, have contributed to forest conservation, but their effectiveness is limited (Oliveira et al., 2007). Private conservation and ecotourism concessions cover some 1,164,500 ha and are the most effective at preventing the loss of forest cover (Schleicher et al., 2017). The lack of incentives for private conservation areas, and threats from local pressures such as roads, illegal mining and illegal logging can generate challenges in the management of these areas.

Forest UseDesignations

Peru’s Exclusive Economic Zone spans 855,475 square kilometers. Despite its location in the tropics, the Peruvian sea is dominated by very nutrient-rich cold currents and only the northernmost part of the country has warm tropical waters. Multiple biological communities have developed along its 3,080-kilometer coastline, in contrast to the adjacent coastal desert ecosystem. Several underwater formations, including canyons and seamounts, have been identified and are also believed to contain a wealth of biological resources (Gutierrez, 2009).

2.3STATUS OF MARINE RESOURCES

2.3.1 SPECIES DIVERSITY AND STATUSPeru’s marine diversity can be categorized according to its distribution in two main zones: neritic (near the coast) or pelagic (open sea). These categories can be divided again based on the predominant water temperature—cold or tropical.

Peru has 22 main islands and isles, with an area of approximately 94,400 ha, which host varied and abundant wildlife (INEI, 2018d). These islands are inhabited by large seabird colonies that produce the natural fertilizer known as guano. They share their habitat with restricted distribution (endemic) and endangered bird species. The populations of these birds, as well as of other vertebrate species, experience major fluctuations owing to the oceanographic variability characteristic of El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), and most of them show a decreasing trend.

The cold-water ecosystem is characterized by abundant plankton and by being the marine system with the highest secondary productivity (Bakun, 2008). It is a complex system of four marine currents that run along the coast, among them the Humboldt or Peru Current (13 to 17 degrees Celsius), which maintain equilibrium and result in a pattern of nearly constant coastal upwelling (rise of nutrients from the sea floor) that supports the biological wealth of the Peruvian sea. During ENSO episodes, this equilibrium is upset and the warmer currents with a lower nutrient load move closer to the coast, decreasing the system’s productivity.

The key species in this system is the Peruvian anchoveta (Engraulis ringens), which is primarily responsible for the transfer of energy from photosynthetic organisms and zooplankton to other vertebrate species, including seabirds and marine mammals whose colonies help fertilize the sea with their waste. Other important commercial fish species include Pacific chub mackerel (Scomber japonicus), Chilean jack mackerel (Trachurus murphyi), Peruvian hake (Merluccius gayi peruanus), and yellow-fin tuna (Thunnus albacares). The most fished invertebrate is the jumbo or Humboldt squid (Dosidiscus gigas) (PRODUCE, 2019). There is also demand for sharks, including several CITES and threatened species (Gonzales-Pestana et al., 2014). The meat is mainly consumed locally, and the fins are exported to the Asian market (Oceana, 2019). Also present are endemic cold-water vertebrate species such as the Humboldt penguin (Spheniscus humboldi), Inca tern (Larosterna inca), Peruvian diving petrel (Pelecanoides garnotii), and several species of other petrels and albatross (Procellariformes). Starting at 5 degrees south, by Piura, the marine environment has a mix of tropical warm water (21 degrees Celsius) and cold water from the south. This transition zone, along with the warm northern waters, have much more diversity than the rest of the Peruvian sea, including such highly threatened species as sea turtles and cetaceans. In this region and further north as well, there are formations of mangrove trees (Rizophora spp) in the estuaries of major rivers such as the Tumbes, Zarumilla, Chira, and Piura, covering a total area of about 5,790 ha.

From the point of view of protection of fish species, PRODUCE prohibits the fishing of species such as the whale shark Rynchodon typhus, the giant ray Manta birostris; and commercial fishing for sailfish Istiophorus platypterus and merlin Makaira mazara, M. indica and Tetrapurus audax, and seahorse Hippocampus ingens. All cetaceans and marine species that reproduce on land such as turtles and sea lions are legally protected. SERFOR has the legal competencies to manage the species that reproduce on land, while PRODUCE manages species that reproduce in the aquatic environment. The lack of an official list of threatened marine and continental freshwater fish species hinders the adequate management of these resources (MINAM, 2019).

2.3.2 GENETIC DIVERSITY Knowledge of the genetic diversity of Peru’s marine hydrobiological resources is limited. The Marine Institute of Peru (IMARPE) is therefore leading a project (known as PeMAR) to build a marine biodiversity DNA bar code database. Individual studies have been done on the genetic diversity of some economically important species such as mahi mahi (Gozzer, 2015), hake (Oré, 2011), sharks (Velez-Zuazo et al., 2015); evaluations of species substitution; and supply chain mislabeling (Marín et al., 2018, Biffi et al., 2019). To date no estimates have been made of the genetic wealth of the sea. However, IMARPE launched recently a catalogue of

marine biodiversity (http://biodiversidadacuatica.imarpe.gob.pe) which complements the information published by the National Agricultural University La Molina through the InfoPes platform (http://tumi.lamolina.edu.pe/infopes).

2.3.3 STATUS AND MANAGEMENT OF PROTECTED AREAS Peru has no significant coverage in terms of marine ecosystems protection. The SINANPE only has three marine protected areas — the Paracas National Reserve, San Fernando National Reserve, and Guano Islands, Islets, and Capes National Reserve System — which cover approximately 0.48 percent of the country’s territorial waters (see Annex 5, summarizing SERNANP Protected Natural Areas). The Paracas Natural Reserve, together with the National Mangrove Sanctuary, are recognized as Ramsar sites because of their importance in the conservation of migratory birds and unique landscapes.

According to effective management criteria, these areas are well equipped and have sufficient management resources but have some limitations in terms of number and capabilities of field personnel. There are also some problems associated with resolving jurisdiction over the control and use of fishery resources within protected areas, especially regarding enforcement actions against illegal activities (SERNANP, personal communication).

A proposal to create a protected area in the northern tropical sea region has been discussed actively since 2015, but no designation has yet occurred, mainly because of opposition from the oil and gas industry. This marine protected area would increase the total marine area under protection by 0.14 percent to a total of 0.61 percent, far less than Peru’s neighbor countries and well below the Aichi target under the Convention on Biological Diversity, which calls for 10 percent of the country’s marine areas to be protected by 2020 (MINAM, 2019c).

In general, government initiatives aimed at identifying key areas for marine conservation are nascent. The Nature Conservancy led a spatial ranking process that identified 59 high-priority

areas for marine conservation (Nakandakari, 2012). Currently IMARPE and MINAM are assessing new proposals for submarine canyon and seamount conservation areas (Gutiérrez et al., 2009).

2.3.4 STATUS AND MANAGEMENT OF KEY NATURAL RESOURCES OUTSIDE PROTECTED AREASAll fishery resources in territorial waters are governed by provisions issued by the Ministry of Production (PRODUCE). Yet just 22 percent of the main fisheries are subject to three or more regulatory instruments and more than a third are completely unregulated.

Annual landings range from five to seven tons, although since 2014 the oceanographic disturbances associated with ENSO events have led to smaller catches. The most important fishery species is the Peruvian anchoveta, which accounts for about 80-90 percent of total landed volume (see Annex 5 for additional information). This fish is processed into meal and oil, mainly for export, as are most fishery resources.

The main tool for protecting habitats outside of protected areas is the fishing restriction on the first five miles from shore, where only the artisanal fleet may operate. This excludes industrial fishing, although the possibility of opening “windows” closer to the coast, particularly off southern Peru, where the continental shelf is narrower, is occasionally discussed (Paredes and Letona, 2013). This five-mile band is widely recognized as being a spawning and growth area for the country’s main fishery resources (IMARPE, 2010). Still, there is occasional use of gear that damages the sea floor, and in some places there have even been instances of fishing with explosives.

Additionally, PRODUCE grants concessions for areas to be used for aquaculture of marine species, but only scallop (Argopecten purpuratus) and shrimp (Penaeus spp. and Calinectes spp., among others) concessions have been successful. Attempts to farm seaweed and other species of mollusks have been unsuccessful, partly because of the impact of ENSO and because of marine contamination from different sources.

Efforts to assess the economic value of biodiversity in Peru started about two decades ago (Portilla, 2000; Glave and Pizarro (eds), 2001), with studies focusing on protected areas and natural spaces. Yet it wasn’t until 2010 that the National Strategy on Biological Diversity (MINAM, 2014) was revised to include the requirement to value ecosystem services and to recognize the contribution of native biodiversity to sustainable business. Since then, MINAM promotes the development of an environmental accounting system, to include them in the national accounts and thereby highlight the contribution of biodiversity to the country’s GDP. An environmental accounting pilot study was conducted in the region of San Martín with support from Conservation International (Conservation International, 2016). Currently, the National Institute of Statistics and Information (INEI) and MINAM are developing an environmental satellite account modeled on the United Nations System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (Robles, 2016).

3.1VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY

Among the efforts to improve biodiversity valuation was the creation, in 2013, of the National Crosscutting Program of Science, Technology, and Innovation in Biodiversity Valuation. The program has identified barriers to valuation (lack of scientific knowledge, low technology levels, and limited institutional capacity) and designed an improvement plan for the 2015-2021 period (CONCYTEC, 2016).

In parallel, various economic valuation studies have been conducted for specific ecosystems: Amazon forests, with regard to timber production (Rios, 2017; Ruiz, 2017) and carbon sequestration and storage (Sosa, 2016; Riofrío, 2017); production and value of marine fisheries (Christensen et al., 2014); hydrological ecosystem services (WWF Peru, 2016); and marine ecosystem services (Salgado et al., 2015); among others. Today, perceptions of biodiversity and its contribution to the economy have improved, though its value is still considered to be marginal and tied mainly to meeting local needs, such as

food, clothing, fibers, among others. Innovation is being promoted especially in the area of biotrade in new natural products such as ungurahui oil, pulp and chestnut beer (MINAM, 2019). On a larger scale, the sectors that best reflect the value of biodiversity are gastronomy and tourism. Gastronomy benefits from agrobiodiversity products and the increasing appreciation of native species in gourmet cuisine. In the area of tourism, the number of visitors to protected areas has grown, generating about 20 billion soles in 2017 (MINAM, 2019b).

Peru classifies ecosystem services following the Millennium Ecosystems Assessment nomenclature in Regulation, Supply, Cultural, and Support Services (MINAM, 2018c). A detailed list is presented in Annex 5.

3.2ECOSYSTEM GOODS AND SERVICES

Amazon forests play a key role in regional climate regulation by storing carbon, improving air quality, and participating in nutrient cycles (Charity et al., 2016). Additionally, through evapotranspiration, they play a part in the water cycle and heat balance in the Amazon (Nepstat, 2008). Amazon forest have a carbon stock estimated at 8,874 billion metric tons (MINAM, 2019b). How well these global environmental services work depends on the physical integrity of the forest, as deforestation and the subsequent loss of carbon fuel a positive feedback loop that diminishes the quality of services and causes them to decline over time (Lima et al., 2014).

These forests are habitat for various species of fauna and flora that provide local communities with fuel, game, fruit, timber, palms, medicinal plants, and fibers for clothing and housing, while also meeting their cultural and traditional needs (Strand, 2018). Moreover, the rivers that periodically flood the alluvial ecosystems of the Amazon carry nutrients that enrich croplands. The palms swamps are the main underground carbon storage in the region (Draper et al., 2014) along with the bamboo forests that provide food and building materials (Takahashi, 2006).

Freshwater ecosystems are critical in providing environmental services such as water for direct consumption, as well as for agricultural and industrial processes. Lakes and wetlands help regulate the climate and the water supply. Some rivers are used to produce hydropower, representing more than 55 percent of the total for the country (INEI, 2018a). In the Amazon in particular, rivers are the main means of transportation and connection with centers of government and commerce. They

also provide access to fish, which accounts for the largest percentage of protein intake in the region (García-Dávila et al., 2018), with annual per capita consumption of 45.9 kilograms in the city of Iquitos (PRODUCE, 2018).

The cold marine ecosystem, given its high primary productivity, contributes to carbon dioxide sequestration in addition to regulating regional temperatures. It is also the source of 10 percent of global fish landings (Montecino and Lange, 2009) and supports the world’s largest individual fishery (Christensen et al., 2014), although almost all the industrial anchoveta fishery goes to manufacturing feed for aquaculture and livestock. The tropical sea in the north, although less extensive, accounts for more than one third of the country’s direct human consumption (PRODUCE, 2018) and is also boosting the seafood-based gastronomic industry. In this region, mangroves provide carbon storage and water filtration services (Takahashi and Martínez, 2015) and support the local economy for at least 10 percent of the inhabitants of the Tumbes region (Takahashi, 2002).

Amazon forests have a carbon stock of 8,874 billion metric tons. (MINAM, 2019b)

53VALUE AND ECONOMIC POTENTIAL

The andean highlands ecosystems play a crucial role in water capture, regulation, and quality in the andean headwater basins, as well as in controlling erosion. The páramos and bofedales are the country’s densest carbon pools (León, 2016; Castañeda-Martín and Montes-Pulido, 2017). The

dry and shrub forests provide firewood for domestic use and coal for commercial use, as well as fruit and economically important resins. They also serve as a barrier against advancing desertification by blocking the movement of sand dunes (Depenthal and Meitzner, 2018).

Natural ecosystems also provide aesthetic and recreational environmental services. Over the last decade, tourism has doubled to more than four million international visitors (2017 data: INEI, 2018b) representing a total of 4.5 billion dollars in foreign exchange. The main destinations for these visitors

are archeological sites and protect natural areas. Part of what draws visitors to Peru is its local cuisine, which is based largely on its rich agrobiodiversity and has recently incorporated new species into its gastronomic offerings (Pasco et al., 2018).

Over the last decade, tourism has doubled to more than four millions international visitors, representing a total of $ 4.5 billion in foreign exchange.

VALUE AND ECONOMIC POTENTIAL

Peru’s Constitution (1993) provides the central framework for all laws and regulations relevant to biodiversity conservation and the sustainable management of tropical forests. Per the Constitution, the government has the fundamental duty of managing natural resources and the environment. The following articles are of importance:

4.1NATIONAL LAWS, POLICIES, AND STRATEGIES

ARTICLE 2 PART 22Provides that all persons are entitled to enjoy a “balanced” environment that enables them to live their lives.

ARTICLE 7-A (ADDED PER LAW 30588)“The State recognizes the right of all persons to progressive, universal access to safe drinking water. The State shall safeguard this right by assigning priority to human consumption over other uses…The State promotes the sustainable management of water, which is recognized as an essential natural resource and, as such, constitutes a public good and national asset. Dominion thereover is inalienable and imprescriptible”.

ARTICLE 66 Renewable and non-renewable natural resources are national assets. The State is sovereign in their use. Organic laws shall set out the conditions for their use and concession to private parties. Concessions grant the concessionaire property rights, subject to such law.

ARTICLE 67The State shall set national environmental policy. It shall promote sustainable use of its natural resources.

ARTICLE 68The State shall promote the conservation of biological diversity and protected natural areas.

ARTICLE 69The State shall promote the sustainable development of the Amazon by means of appropriate legislation.

ARTICLE 89Peasant and native communities have legal status and personhood. They are autonomous in terms of their organization, communal work, and the use of and free disposition over their land, as well as economically and administratively, within the framework set forth by law. Ownership of their lands is imprescriptible, except in the case of abandonment provided for in the previous article. The State shall respect the cultural identity of peasant and native communities.

Over the past five years, the pace of design of policies and legal instruments in the environment sector gained new momentum leading to the adoption of the National Strategy on Biological Diversity and its Action Plan, and strategies on wetlands, forests, and climate change; as well as new laws on ecosystem services, single use plastics and climate change. These instruments build on the National Environmental Policy (approved in 2009), which seeks to ensure the efficient, equitable conservation and sustainable use of Peru’s natural resources and the social welfare by assigning priority to integrated natural resource management. Social inclusion and public participation in natural resource management are important elements in recent policies and strategies. Table 2 summarizes policies and strategies relevant to biodiversity and tropical forest conservation.

59LEGAL FRAMEWOR AFFECTING CONSERVATION

Table 2Policies and Other Legal Instruments Relevant for Biodiversity and Tropical Forest Conservation

POLICIES AND LEGAL INSTRUMENTS

DESCRIPTION

The National Environmental Policy

This policy was developed and approved in 2009, 15 years after Peru’s Constitution was adopted. The policy includes the following objectives:

1. Conserve and sustainably use biodiversity and renewable and non-renewable natural resources.

2. Create the conditions for controlled access and use of genetic resources, along with equitable distribution of the benefits thereof.

3. Achieve integrated management of the country’s hydrological resources.4. Achieve planned occupation and use of Peruvian territory via economic

and ecological zoning studies, in a framework of legal certainty and conflict prevention.

5. Achieve integrated, sustainable management of fragile ecosystems, including tropical rainforests.

6. Achieve climate change adaptation for the people of Peru and implement mitigation measures conducive to sustainable development.

7. Implement valuation, evaluation, and financing tools for the conservation of natural resources, biodiversity, and environmental services.

The National Strategy on Biological Diversity through 2021 and its Action Plan 2014-2018 (MINAM, 2014)

States that by 2021 Peru “will rationally conserve and use its megabiodiversity, valuing related traditional knowledge, in order to meet the basic needs and ensure the welfare of current and future generations in a context of inclusive, competitive, sustainable development.” The strategy has six strategic objectives:

1. Improve the state of biodiversity and maintain the integrity of the ecosystem services it provides.

2. Increase the contribution of biodiversity to national development, improving the country’s competitiveness and the equitable distribution of benefits.

3. Reduce direct and indirect pressures on biological diversity and its ecosystem processes.

4. Strengthen capabilities at the three levels of government for sustainable biodiversity management.

5. Improve knowledge and technologies for the sustainable use of biodiversity, and value indigenous peoples’ traditional knowledge relating to biodiversity.

6. Enhance cooperation and engagement among all population groups in biodiversity governance.

The Action Plan outlines the agencies responsible for implementing the 147 actions (and 13 targets) identified in a participatory manner.

Regional Biodiversity Strategies

Regional Government Law No. 27867, Article 53 stipulates the roles and functions of regional governments in matters related to the environment. In accordance with this law, several regional governments have developed biodiversity strategies.

DESCRIPTION

National Wetlands Strategy (MINAM, 2015)

Adopted via Supreme Decree 004-2015-MINAM, its overall objective is to promote the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands by preventing, reducing, and mitigating the degradation of these ecosystems. It also contains specific objectives:

1. Promote a participatory system of wetland ecosystem management for the different management levels and scenarios.

2. Reduce the vulnerability of wetland ecosystems to natural and man-made pressures, including climate change, thereby lessening their fragility.

3. Strengthen the regulatory framework with updated coordination mechanisms and tools to improve wetland ecosystems management within the Peruvian government.

4. Strengthen participatory, integrated wetlands management by modernizing communication systems and tools to optimize cross-sector coordination, engaging civil society and the private sector and especially indigenous and local communities through citizen participation and education.

5. Rediscover and value the techniques of local communities and the traditional knowledge of indigenous peoples as they relate to the sustainable use and conservation of natural resources in wetlands, strengthening their cultural, economic, and productive dynamics.

National Climate Change Strategy

Approved in 2015 (Supreme Decree 011-2015-MINAM), the strategy outlines actions to conserve carbon sinks and reduce greenhouse gas emissions particularly from land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF).

National Strategy on Forests and Climate Change (adopted via Supreme Decree 007-2016-MINAM)

Its overall objective is to reduce forest loss and degradation in Peru, and consequently greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from LULUCF, and to enhance the resilience of the forest landscape and of the people who depend on these ecosystems, with special emphasis on indigenous and peasant communities, to reduce their vulnerability to climate change.

Peru’s Vision for 2050

Approved in April 2019 by the National Accord Forum - a working group led by the National Center for Strategic Planning (CEPLAN) and whose members included representatives from the Office of the President, Office of the President of the Council of Ministers, civil society, and political parties - emphasizes the country’s sustainable development and includes sustainable management of nature and climate change measures as one of its pillars.

Law on payment for ecosystem services mechanisms (law 30215)

Approved in June 2014 and its regulation, adopted via supreme decree 009-2016-MINAM. This law promotes, regulates, and provides for oversight over mechanisms for payment for ecosystem services (PES) deriving from voluntary agreements that set out conservation, recovery, and sustainable use actions to ensure ecosystem permanence. The regulation affirms the importance of investing in ecosystem conservation, recovery, and sustainable use. The law designates MINAM as the lead agency, highlights the duty of local and regional governments to serve as conservation promoters, and endorses and gives legitimacy to PES initiatives at the local level.

DESCRIPTION

Climate Change Framework Law (Law 30754)

Approved in April 2018, the law establishes the framework to reduce the country’s climate change vulnerability, seize opportunities for low-carbon growth, and meet the international commitments assumed by the government under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, applying an intergenerational approach. This framework law requires climate risk and vulnerability to be analyzed and climate change mitigation and adaptation measures to be identified as part of the evaluation of investment projects subject to the National Environmental Impact Assessment System, in addition to giving regional and local governments responsibilities in climate change matters for the first time.

Single Use Plastics and Disposable Containers Law (Law 30884)

Approved in December 2018, the purpose of the law is to establish the regulatory framework on single-use plastics, other non-reusable plastics and disposable containers of expanded polystyrene (Styrofoam) for food and beverages for human consumption in the national territory. The law seeks to reduce the adverse impact of single-use plastics on human health and the environment by reducing plastic litter on rivers, lakes and the marine areas.

The Law on Conservation and Sustainable Use of Biodiversity (Law 26839)

Provides a legal framework for implementing the Convention on Biological Diversity in Peru.

Law on Protected Natural Areas (Law 26834)

Provides a legal framework for the management and conservation of protected areas pursuant to Article 68 of the Peruvian Constitution.

General Fisheries Law (Decree Law 25977

Regulates fishing activity with a view to fostering its continued development as a source of food, employment, and income and to ensure responsible use of hydrobiological resources, optimizing economic benefits in keeping with environmental protection and biodiversity conservation.

Forest and Wildlife Law (Law 29763)

Creates a new institutional framework for the administration of forests in Peru, including the new National Forest and Wildlife Service (SERFOR).

Prevention of Risks Derived from the Use of Biotechnology (Law 27104)

Regulates the use and release of genetically modified organisms (GMOs), and Law 29811 establishes a 10-year moratorium on the import and production of GMOs in Peru.

Environmental Impact Assessment System Law (Law 27446)

Creates a system of evaluating the environmental impact of economic activities. The law requires every public or private project that may have an impact on the environment to obtain environmental certification before implementation begins.

Environmental Crimes Law (Law 29263)

Amends several articles of Peru’s Criminal Code relating to environmental crimes such as illegal trafficking in plants and animals, illegally catching aquatic species, and engaging in illegal activities that cause the degradation of natural forests, among others.

Law on the Sustainable Use of Medicinal Plants (Law 27300)

Regulates and promotes the sustainable use of medicinal plants.

LEGAL FRAMEWOR AFFECTING CONSERVATION

On June 2019, Congress approved the Law to Promote Incentives for Installation of Forest Plantations. As of the elaboration of this Analysis, the law has not been published in the official government newspaper. The law would create a Forest Fund, to be administered by SERFOR, in which the budgets that different public agencies have earmarked for reforestation would be pooled. Any private companies that contribute to the fund will be able to deduct the amount as an expense on their income tax return. The fund will be used to return 100 percent of the money spent investing in forest plantations to investors within two to four years. Questions have been raised about the law’s logic, as it will not benefit common citizens or indigenous communities that do not have the resources to plant the required 1,000 trees and maintain them for two years until the government returns the money. Another concern raised during the debate was that an incentive consisting of returning 100 percent of the investment could fuel an appetite for the more commercial eucalyptus and oil palm plantations, which would lead to an increase in deforestation.

DESCRIPTION

Regional Biodiversity Strategies

Regional Government Law No. 27867, Article 53 stipulates the roles and functions of regional governments in matters related to the environment. In accordance with this law, several regional governments have developed biodiversity strategies.

Promotion and Development of Aquaculture (Law 27460)

Regulates and promotes aquaculture in marine, coastal, and freshwater ecosystems as a source of food, employment, and income. These objectives must be pursued in harmony with the environment and biodiversity conservation.

A brief review of Peru’s legal framework reveals significant progress in the environment sector. As in many developing countries, challenges exist with the implementation of policies and regulations and law enforcement. Access to information and to environmental justice mechanisms, weak institutional capacity, and levels of corruption are examples of challenges that exacerbate environmental impacts and reduce civil society participation (ECLAC and OECD, 2016).

Despite all ongoing efforts, there is still a lack of environmental data, which adversely affects policy-making and informed participation. In the case of species diversity, information gaps still exist for multiple taxonomic groups and official lists of threated species for marine ecosystems are still in development, which limits adequate management. Additionally, the significant number of social-environmental conflicts reported in Peru suggests challenges in terms of civil society to access information and participate in environmental decision-making. There is also a need to strengthen administrative-judicial coordination to ensure information is available to prevent conservation crimes and to process the substantial number of lawsuits and criminal proceedings in the environment sector.

Among the factors preventing the different sectors and levels of government from implementing rules and regulations are unfamiliarity with the current framework, the lack of technical capacities and high turnover. These challenges are still prevalent among competencies transferred from national government to the regional government as is the case of forestry and small-scale mining. The lack of economic resources, staff, and technical capacity mean that agencies cannot effectively assume responsibilities and fulfill their institutional role in these areas. In the case of environmental impact assessments, rules and regulations are mostly in place, but procedures still need to be adjusted to align rules regarding environmental impacts with the Environmental Impact Assessment System, in order to clarify the process for evaluating certain projects and the roles of national government agencies.

The process of decentralizing forest-related authority has had unfortunate results, and alarming levels of corruption have been discovered in Loreto and Ucayali, the regions with the highest rates of forest-related environmental crimes (CIEL, 2019). As noted during interviews and site visits conducted for this Analysis, challenges remain in the multisector and multilevel coordination and planning needed for forest management and prosecution of environmental crimes.

Weakness in institutional capacity and coordination can hamper progress toward national level goals and international commitments. For instance, marine areas protected under the National System of Protected Natural Areas (SINANPE) represent about 0.4 percent of Peru’s territorial waters, far from the target of 10 percent by 2020, a commitment assumed as a Sustainable Development Goal signatory country and as part of the Convention on Biological Diversity. New efforts are underway for MINAM to provide technical assistance to regional and local governments to strengthen integrated management and planning of marine and coastal areas.

POLICY IMPLEMENTATION AND GAPS

Peru is party to most international instruments pertaining to biodiversity and tropical forest conservation, including:• Convention on Biological Diversity;• Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Convention);• Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES);• Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Bonn Convention);• International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships;• Minamata Convention on Mercury;• International Tropical Timber Agreement;• International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture;• United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples;• International Labor Organization Convention 169 concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples;• Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and Coastal Area of the South-East Pacific;• Protocol for the Conservation and Management of Protected Marine and Coastal Areas of the South-East Pacific;• World Heritage Convention;• Convention for the Conservation and Management of Vicuña;• Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles;• Amazon Cooperation Treaty (ACT).

Peru is also party to the Agreement on Port State Measures to Prevent, Deter, and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) Fishing, an international instrument spearheaded by the FAO whose objective is to prevent, deter, and eliminate IUU fishing by having port States implement effective measures to ensure the long-term conservation and sustainable use of living marine resources and marine ecosystems. Peru’s accession to this instrument was ratified by Supreme Decree 040-2017-RE of September 7, 2017.

In addition to these international agreements, Peru also participates in and has adopted several regional plans of action and strategies, including:• The Regional Biodiversity Strategy for Tropical Andean Countries (namely, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador,

and Peru).• ACT’s Regional Action Plan for Biodiversity in the Amazon (which involves Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador,

Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela).

In the area of trade, the Trade Promotion Agreement between Peru and the United States, which includes an environment chapter with its forestry annex, has led to the implementation of important mechanisms that promote both environmental measures and measures for the sustainable use of forest resources. An example of this is the recent announcement by the United States Trade Representative of enforcement actions to block illegal timber imports from Peru from the Iquitos-based timber company, WCA Inversiones. A similar action was taken in October 2017, when timber products and exports from another Peruvian enterprise, Inversiones Oroza (Oroza), were denied entry after Peru was unable to verify whether the shipment had been inspected.

4.2INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS

4.3GOVERNMENT AGENCIES

4.4CONSERVATION INITIATIVES: GAP ANALYSIS

Lastly, Peru has been an important participant in regional negotiations on the most recent environmental agreement for Latin America and the Caribbean: “Regional Agreement on Access to Information, Public Participation, and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters in Latin America and the Caribbean” (the “Escazú Agreement”). This Agreement aims to ensure full and effective implementation in Latin America and the Caribbean of the rights to access environmental information, public participation in environmental decision-making, and access to justice in environmental matters, as well as capacity building and cooperation, in an effort to help protect the rights of every individual, of present and future generations, to live in a healthy environment and sustainable development. While Peru signed the Agreement in September 2018 in New York, ratification by Congress is pending.

The three branches of government—legislative, executive, and judicial—all play an important role in developing and implementing the policies, laws, and regulations that govern natural resource and biodiversity conservation at the national, regional, and local level. Coordination among different lead agencies is key to the effective implementation

Multiple initiatives are underway to promote biodiversity and tropical forest conservation in Peru (see Annex 7). Among those led by the Government of Peru are SERNANP’s efforts to strengthen the National Natural Protected Areas System (SINANPE). In 2018, a significant milestone was achieved by boosting the percentage of ecosystems conserved in protected areas from 95.44 percent to 95.72 percent. In 2018, SINANPE added: 868,927.84 ha of forestland with the creation of Yaguas National Park in the department of Loreto; the regional conservation areas of Vista Alegre Omia (48,944.51 ha; the seasonally dry tropical forests of Marañón (13,929.12 ha), located in the region

of policies, laws, and regulations, above all in areas where different sectors like agriculture, the environment, mining, and water, converge, as is the case in the Amazon region. Annex 6 describes the role the different government agencies play in natural resource management and biodiversity conservation.

of Amazonas; and the Shunté and Mishollo forests (91,405.53 ha) in the region of San Martín (SERNANP, 2019). The actions taken by SERNANP have helped to reduce adverse impacts on biological diversity by 0.28 percent.

This is not, however, keeping pace with deforestation rates in the Peruvian rainforest. According to a study done by the University of Maryland, and published by Global Forest Watch, Peru lost 140,185 ha of primary forests in 2018, making it the seventh-ranked country in the world, and the fourth-ranked country in the Americas, with this type of deforestation. Furthermore, Peru reported no significant changes

in deforestation rates in the period of 2013-2017 according to the Sixth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity (MINAM, 2019).

In terms of international cooperation efforts, a study was conducted in 2018 to generate recommendations for how to link forest-related international cooperation to Peru’s priorities analyzed policies, plans and strategies implemented in 2012-2017 (Pronaturaleza, 2018 Unpublished). In general, the study found an increase in international cooperation efforts in the forest sector, with most initiatives concentrated in the Amazon regions, prioritizing biodiversity conservation and forest sector regulations. Actions such as forest management, restoration, community forest management, and strengthening of authorities at the regional level were less represented. The study also found a need to strengthen coordination among donors and with government authorities at the national and regional level to promote ownership. The study indicates that when it comes to international cooperation, there needs to be a push for establishing and managing a specific forest-related cooperation agenda that avoids duplication and strengthens synergies.

Peru lost 140,185 haof primary forests in 2018, making it the seventh-ranked country in the world, and the fourth-ranked country in the Americas, with this type of deforestation.

67LEGAL FRAMEWOR AFFECTING CONSERVATION

he Analysis team identified twelve direct biodiversity threats to forest ecosystems and nine to marine and coastal ecosystems. Based on scope, severity and irreversibility, the most significant threats to tropical forests and biodiversity were found to be climate

change, illegal logging, illegal mining, small scale and shifting agriculture, species overexploitation and poaching, unplanned rural roads and the expansion of illegal crops. The main pressures generated by these threats are deforestation, degradation, and pollution. In the case of marine ecosystems, the main threats identified were climatic variability and El Niño Southern Oscillation, habitat conversion, illegal fishing and overfishing followed by pollution from land-based sources and oil and gas developments. Threats to biodiversity in marine ecosystems and drivers are described in Annex 4. Climate change is discussed at the beginning of each section as the impacts of climate change can be considered threats and drivers which exacerbate other threats.

71THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FORESTS

5.1CLIMATE CHANGE: A DIRECT THREAT AND DRIVER THAT EXACERBATES OTHER THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FORESTS

The Amazon rainforest dynamics are closely linked to the global climate system. The forest is continuously pumping water into the atmosphere through evapotranspiration from leaves (Aragao, 2012; Spracklen et al., 2012). This process consumes a significant portion of the solar energy that reaches the earth’s surface and, in this way, reduces the available heat. Forests are also massive carbon reservoirs, with carbon transferred to wood and fibers but also released back to the atmosphere through fires and decay. Wetlands in the Amazon are also reservoirs of underground carbon. If not managed adequately, the Amazon could become a source rather than a sink of greenhouse effect gases (Brienen et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2018).

Although the impact of climate change is yet to be fully understood, it is expected that global warming will likely reduce rainfall and increase temperatures in the Amazon, contributing to regional vicious cycles between threats such as deforestation, degradation, droughts, and more fires (Nepstad, 2008). According to future climate models the Amazon will become drier and the potential for large scale changes due to fire will be higher regardless of the protection status because of the growing storage of dry fuel material (Coe et al., 2013; Lima et al., 2014). Drought, rising temperatures, accumulation of flammable organic matter and inadequate agricultural practices such as burning can contribute to the increased frequency and spread of forest fires. Over 187,000 ha were impacted by fires in the period of 2012-2016 with most of the forests impacted located in the highland areas, where burning is a common practice (SERFOR, 2018b).

Severe droughts have the potential to collapse local transportation systems based on river navigation and in extreme cases extensive fish mortality events could compromise human welfare at a local scale (Marengo et al., 2011; Freitas et al., 2013). In a similar way, Amazon forests are highly vulnerable to water stress resulting in lower primary production (Feldpausch et al., 2016), and, in extreme cases, tree mortality leading to carbon emissions and a positive feedback on climate change in the near term (Phillips, et al., 2009; Brienen et al., 2015).

Climate change can exacerbate drivers of threats and threats at different levels. Agroclimatic extreme events can impact global commodity prices (Chatzopoulos, et al., 2019). In the case of Peru, extreme climatic events such as El Niño are expected to become more frequent. Reports by the Central Reserve Bank indicate that the devastation caused by El Niño in 2017, contributed to a reduction in GDP to 2.7 percent as compared to 4 percent in the previous year (BCR, 2018). Responding to the event, required the Government of Peru to mobilize financial and human resources to impacted areas during the emergency and a commitment to invest about USD $2 billion in reconstruction efforts.

Over 187,000 hahas been impacted by fires in the peroid of 2012-2016 with most the forest impacted located in the highlands areas.

Extreme climatic events cannot only lead to changes in investment priorities, but also an increased pressure at the local level for investment in roads. In many areas of the Peruvian Amazon, waterways are the main form of transportation. Reductions in river flow resulting from drought and deforestation can lead to unreliable levels for transportation, thus increasing pressure on the demand for more rural roads.

Climate change can also lead to the expansion of the agricultural frontier to higher elevations. In the case

of coffee in Peru, a study conducted by the World Agroforestry Centre and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture found that about 40 percent of the current production areas in Peru’s northeast will no longer be suitable for coffee production by 2030 due to climate change. Shifting to higher elevation may be an alternative to farmers, putting additional pressure on the biodiversity and headwaters (Robiglio et al., 2017). Interviews conducted for this analysis revealed that some coffee farmers are already shifting to higher elevations.

5.2DIRECT THREATS TO TROPICAL FORESTS ECOSYSTEMS

ILLEGAL LOGGINGIllegal logging is a widespread threat which causes forest degradation and loss of target species. It is also a driver for deforestation due to the increase in the number of access roads for illegal operations. Lack of clarity on land tenure, corruption and the expansion of unplanned rural roads opened (Larrea et al., 2017) contribute to the spread of illegal logging. In addition, illegal logging is a powerful disincentive to formal wood production as the market needs are satisfied by the low-cost illegal products (Santos de Lima et al., 2018; Romero et al., 2017). Illegal selective logging has contributed to reduce the overall monetary value of the standing forest and as the more valuable woods are harvested the remaining forest cover is less attractive for forestry enterprises. Information gathered during site visits indicates that most of the timber is sold domestically, often through informal businesses. Today, most of the wood being traded from Peru has legal documentation supporting its origin, however the government is not able to ensure the legality of the wood. Studies conducted by investigative organizations have found high levels of timber harvested from controversial areas such annulled harvest areas (Global Witness, 2019). Finer et al found in 2014 that 68.3 percent of the forest concessions had controversial performances due to illegal activities (Finer et al., 2014).

ILLEGAL MININGSmall scale illegal gold mining is one of the most pervasive problems in the lowland amazon, not only because of its direct impacts (loss of vegetation cover, degradation and pollution of aquatic ecosystems) but also its role as a powerful driver for immigration (Scullion et al., 2014; Alarcon et al., 2016; Caballero et al., 2018). It is estimated that Peru loses around 9,000 ha of rainforest each year due to illegal mining. Recent analyses conducted by CINCIA and MAAP projects revealed that deforestation related

to illegal gold mining in Madre de Dios was nearly 100,000 ha in 1984-2017, and record high levels were reached in 2017 and 2018 (CINCIA, 2018; Finer and Mamani, 2018). About 70 percent of the artisanal and small-scale gold production comes from Madre de Dios (Ramirez, 2017) around 20 tons annually (GOMIAM, 2015).

A recent study identified 110 different mining sites throughout the Amazon region affecting forest concessions, indigenous lands and protected areas (RAISG, 2019). Besides its large local impacts, small scale gold mining uses mercury for ore processing, which is transformed into methyl mercury, a hazardous substance that bioaccumulates throughout the food chain and freshwater ecosystems (Langeland et al., 2017). It is estimated that around 500 tons of mercury were released to the atmosphere in Madre de Dios between1995 and 2007 (Ramirez, 2017). A study conducted in Madre de Dios found little relationship between high levels of mercury in sediments and mercury levels in fish (Martinez et al., 2018). These results point at the need to analyze the impacts of mercury pollution at the watershed and landscape level. Illegal mining is usually associated with other illegal activities such as human trafficking, illicit substances processing and transport, land grabbing and other environmental crimes (Cortés-McPherson, 2019).

SMALL-SCALE AND SHIFTING AGRICULTUREUsually, after logging roads and secondary roads are constructed, or if they exist near to development projects, small-scale peasants (parcels usually smaller than 5 ha) practicing subsistence slash and burn agriculture gradually clear forest areas (Marquardt et al., 2013). According to MINAM up to 90 percent of deforestation is caused by shifting agriculture, however, this could be an oversimplification of the complexity of the land use change involving indigenous people, migrant

peasants and established colonists (Ravikumar et al., 2017; Marquardt et al., 2019). Most of the original impact of this small-scale agriculture has taken place in the montane forests of San Martín, Huánuco, Pasco, Junín and Cuzco, with more than 70 percent of the deforestation affecting these forests types (Dance, 1983). By 2017, around 45,709 km2 of montane forests had been deforested, and up to one quarter of the remaining forests have a high or very high deforestation probability in the following years (Bax and Francesconi, 2018). It also worth noting the role of the alternative crops (palm, coffee, cacao, piña, and others) introduced to farmers following the eradication of coca in these areas. Several local specialists consulted for this Analysis indicated that the expansion of these crops have contributed to deforestation. Environmental assessments of alternative development programs could generate the information needed for decision makers to prevent or mitigate negative impacts.

Nowadays, small-scale agriculture is expanding in the Amazon lowlands with the increased accessibility provided by the extensive road development of the past decade. Also, some abandoned forest concessions are being invaded by migrant peasants and land traffickers. In addition, capital obtained from informal and illegal activities (small-scale mining, illicit crops cultivation, etc.) is used to acquire land for farming and other purposes (Macroconsult, 2012). Furthermore, the colonization initiatives of a few religious groups looking for a “promised land” have a strong deforestation impact at specific sites in the Amazon: Arca Pacahuara at Iberia, Madre de Dios, Alto Monte de Israel at San Pablo, Loreto, and Canaan de la Esperanza, Yavarí, Loreto (Rivas, 2005).

SPECIES OVEREXPLOITATION (LEGAL AND ILLEGAL)Selective and illegal logging have caused the practical commercial extinction of several valuable hardwoods like mahogany Swietenia macrophylla, red cedars Cedrela spp., and it is driving to extinction some others like shihuahuaco Dipteryx micrantha and Dipteryx charapilla in the absence of suitable habitat for natural regeneration (Andre et al., 2008, Grogan et al., 2008; Putzel et al., 2011).

Fishing intensity in the lowland Amazon was traditionally low and used for subsistence and local markets until the 1980a. With the quick development of commercial fisheries, the landings increased until maximums were reached in 2010 (García et al., 2011; García-Dávila et al., 2018). Nowadays, several large fish species have become scarce in the landings, and smaller species have the largest share of the catch (Garcia-Dávila et al., 2018). Also, several species are targeted for illegal trade as pets (freshwater turtles, birds) and ornamentals (orchids, fishes). According to SERFOR, boas, lizards and turtles are among the most trafficked reptile species (SERFOR, 2017). Although most of the trafficked wildlife is sold in local markets, there is illegal trading with Asia and Europe as primary destinations. In the case of Iquitos, there has been a recent surge in the demand of jaguar’s teeth and skins that could be linked international demand (WCS, personal communication).

UNPLANNED RURAL ROADSThere are more than 7,000 km of unpaved rural roads in the Amazon region (CIE-Perucámaras, 2017) of which 37 percent are small trails used for local communities and forests extractors. A large portion of these roads is opened by hand without any planning, engineering study or safeguard. These unplanned roads create the opportunities for access to forest resources, land trafficking and other illegal activities (Salisbury and Fagan, 2013; Dammert, 2018). Impacts of the opening of roads include increased fire frequency, soil erosion, landslides, alteration of sediment loads in rivers and streams, introduction of invasive species, higher hunting and poaching pressure and proliferation of small-scale agriculture (Kleinschroth and Healey, 2017). Some early warning initiatives have been established in the past few years to alert the authorities about these unexpected developments (such as MINAM-GEOBOSQUES, ACCA-MAAP, Global Forest Watch). The information generated by these initiatives allows for the easy identification deforestation hotspots and leakage sites, however the actual intervention in the field to address the problems detected is hindered by the limited logistical and technical capacities of local enforcement institutions.

ILLEGAL CROPSAccording to the latest public report on coca leaf production, in 2017 Peru was the second world producer with almost 50,000 ha (UNDOC and DEVIDA, 2018). Illicit crops have a similar expansion pattern to small-scale agriculture, and in several cases the same social actors are involved. Most of the expansion of the coca crops have been restricted to tropical montane forests starting in Cuzco in the sixties and later to Huanuco and San Martin in the 1980s (Young, 1996). Current production is focused in Apurimac, Ene and Mantaro river basins (Bax and Francesconi, 2018). The illegal nature of the operation, and the large amounts of money involved leads to the development areas controlled by criminal groups as a defense mechanism against the law enforcement (Davalos et al., 2011).

Coca crops have been identified inside protected areas mainly in Madre de Dios, Loreto and Pasco totaling 228 ha (UNDOC and DEVIDA, 2018). SERNANP staff revealed they are planning joint interdiction operations in these protected areas and their buffer zones. There were 3,368 ha of coca crops detected in indigenous lands, however the involved communities argued these activities are conducted by illegal invaders supported by corrupt authorities. The impact of coca growing extends well beyond deforestation. The leaves are usually processed locally into coca paste using acids and solvents which are later disposed of in the soil, polluting downstream streams and aquifers (Salisbury and Fagan, 2013).

NATURAL AND PROVOKED FIRESOver the past two decades severe droughts contributed to a higher frequency and magnitude of wildfires in the Amazon (Campanharo et al., 2019). As droughts in the Amazon will become more frequent it is expected the intensity and scope of forest fires will increase, and the carbon released from fires and decaying vegetation will be higher (Aragao et a.l., 2018). As the forest is logged, and larger trees are removed, shrubs and grasses occupy of the clearings. During the dry season they dry and accumulate as fuel, increasing fire risks (Nepstad et al., 2008). Human-caused forest fires are closely linked to the expansion of agriculture in the Amazon. Usually, landowners set controlled

fires to clear the remnants of the previous harvest, or to clear land (Socolar et al., 2019). Often these bad practices lead to wildfires that result in further deforestation and the release of greenhouse gases. Forest fires also release large amounts of smoke that affect public health and the normal operation of public services like air transportation (De Mendonca et al., 2004). In 2017, 15,959 ha were impacted by forest fires in Peru (SERFOR, 2019).

AGRIBUSINESS PROJECTSLarge scale and mechanized agriculture is fairly new in the Peruvian Amazon, and has come with the presence of industrial monocultures such as oil palm and cacao (Gutierrez-Velez et al., 2011; Dammert, 2015, 2018). The expansion is mostly driven by the local and international market, but promoted as “development” by the regional and local governments. According to Vijay (2018) the palm oil expansion is responsible for 11 percent of the agriculture expansion in the 2007-2013 period. In a comparative study among Latin American countries, Furumo and Aide (2017) identified Peru as the country with the highest rate of forest conversion to palm cultivation between 2014 and 2017. Besides the loss of forest cover, their expansion compromises important ecosystem services like climate regulation and food security. The large size of the palm oil crops causes a higher fragmentation impact than that of traditional agriculture, and the use of pesticides and the maintenance of service roads require an increased monitoring and surveillance program to prevent and reduce the ecological impact of the activity.

Peru is the Latin American country with the highest rate of forest conversion to palm cultivation between 2014 and 2017.

By 2016, extensive palm oil and cacao

plantations had deforested around

13,000 ha in Loreto and Ucayali.

By 2016, extensive palm oil and cacao plantations had deforested around 13,000 ha in Loreto and Ucayali. Some companies involved in industrial agriculture have used illegal practices. The Melka Group was accused by the Peruvian Government of illegal deforestation, hostile displacement of local and indigenous communities, and bribery and extortion of local authorities, among other illegalities (CONVOCA and OXFAM, 2016). In August 2019 Cacao del Perú Norte SAC, a member of the Melka Group, was sanctioned with a USD 5 million fine and prison for the company managers. There are still several conflicts between indigenous communities and plantations pending solution in the Amazon: Grupo 8P (previously Plantaciones de Pucallpa SAC) in Ucayali, Palmas de Shanusi in San Martín, and Tamshi SAC in Loreto, among others.

Information gathered during site visits indicates that there is interest from the private sector to reduce the negative impacts of agribusinesses and the negative perceptions around oil palm, in particular, by adopting best practices and international standards.

LARGE TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTUREThe construction and paving of new roads facilitate the expansion of the development frontier by providing access to forest resources, but also by reducing the costs of transportation to markets (Mäki et al., 2001). In recent times the most important regional infrastructure plan is the Initiative for the Integration of Regional Infrastructure in South America (IIRSA) started in 2000, and spearheaded by Brazil. The original IIRSA portfolio included 335 projects with around USD 37 billion investment, but these numbers were doubled by 2011 (Kis Madrid, 2011). The Peruvian Amazon was involved in the IIRSA Sur (Matarani port facilities – Madre de Dios), IIRSA Centro (Lima-Tingo María-Pucallpa road, ports and logistics centers), and IIRSA Norte (Bayóvar and Paita ports, multimodal connection to Manaus and Santarem including roads, waterways and logistics facilities). The detailed Peruvian plan included 31 roads and 4 waterways with a total of 12,000 km to connect agricultural production and mining centers with national and international markets.

Despite the environmental and social safeguards enforced by the financing bodies (IADB, CAF), many of the projects had relatively large impacts during the building phases, including increased encroachments of migrants looking for labor opportunities, displacement of indigenous groups, introduction of exotics, illegal logging and poaching. Furthermore, some of the more pervasive environmental impacts were identified once the road was operational: impact analysis showed that the buffer zone of 10 km around the roads have a higher deforestation rate than other areas (Reymondin et al., 2013), the expected positive economic benefits to small landowners were not met (Oliveira et al., 2019), and resulted in forest clearing and burning, land trafficking and illegal logging (Redwood, 2012). In the case of Madre de Dios, the Interoceanic Highway, part of IIRSA Sur threatens the connectivity of the Vilcabamba-Amboro biological corridor due to the related expansion of artisanal and small-scale gold mining, small-scale agriculture and rural roads (Vanthomme et al., 2019).

The Amazon waterway (hidrovía amazónica) project in Northern Peru is affecting the largest rivers: Marañón, Ucayali, Huallaga, and Amazonas. This project expects to increase the speed and size of vessels using the river for transportation of people and goods buy dredging several shallow areas in those rivers. Besides the environmental issues already identified (Bebbington et al., 2018; Bodmer et al., 2019), the major issue are the long term viability of these improvements as the lowland amazon rivers have strong lateral dynamics, and some of the original shallow spots identified 20 years ago have changed (WCS, comm.pers.). The project is managed by Consorcio Hidrovias II (a joint Chinese and Peruvian investment) since 2017 and it is bringing a growing number of Chinese citizens to the region.

INTRODUCED SPECIESSeveral plant species were introduced to the Amazon decades ago to complement agroforestry practices and to help in the recovery of degraded soils after long fallow periods (Palm et al., 2005). Unfortunately, some of these plants successfully adapted to wild conditions and have spread, along with the progressive colonization of the amazon region. These invasive species compete

with natural vegetation and crops for nutrients reducing production volume and quality. They are usually very aggressive, expanding into the range of natural vegetation and causing environmental and economic damage. Control systems are expensive and require periodical interventions. Often farmers burn the land to eradicate invasive species, a practice that may aggravate the problem (Marquardt et al., 2013).

Some of the more pervasive exotic species in the Peruvian Amazon are coquito (Cyperus rotundus), arrocillo (Rottboellia cochinchinensis), and kudzu (Pueraria phaseoloides). Kudzu is a leguminous nitrogen-fixing herbaceous cover crop that was introduced to Peru in 1942. It is used to improve fallows or in association with Inga in agroforestry (Preininger et al., 2010). It is also used as forage for livestock and as supplement in pig farming diets. However, the risk of kudzu expansion affects natural areas is very high as it can displace native plants due to its adaptative capacity to acid and low fertility soils.

There are several fish species introduced in Peru as live food or for aquaculture that have been able to establish wild populations. This is the case of gambusia (Gambussia cf. affinis) and tilapia (Oeochromis niloticus) but there are no records of negative interactions with local fauna (Cossios, 2010). Other tilapia species such as O. aureus and O. hornorum are raised only in fish farms but they

could become a serious problem if they escape to water courses as they are very aggressive and voracious.

LARGE EXTRACTIVE INDUSTRIES (OIL AND GAS)There are twelve oil/gas blocks in operation in Peru, and five blocks in the exploration phase (Perupetro http://www.perupetro.com.pe). Hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation is driven by increasing local demand as Peru is importing diesel and oil to satisfy its internal needs. These initiatives are strongly supported by governmental policies and are considered a national priority. However, extractive industries have a long record of negative interactions with both biodiversity conservation and indigenous people, especially in remote areas (Orta-Martinez et al., 2007; Humphreys et al., 2018). Despite a paucity of reports, it is estimated that more than 60 oil spills have occurred in the Peruvian Amazon according to OSINERGMIN.

Offshore-in-land operations have the potential to reduce the environmental impacts of hydrocarbon operations (Finer et al., 2013). However, practices used during the seismic exploration phase could impact native species distribution (Kolowski and Alonso, 2010). Soundscape analysis around natural gas wells revealed bird diversity reduction and lower hunting activity near these operation sites (Deichmann et al., 2017).

5.3DRIVERS OF THREATS TO TROPICAL FORESTS ECOSYSTEMS

INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS Peru’s vision through 2050 highlights a commitment to the sustainable management of the territory and to its ecosystem services, including biodiversity conservation and adaptation to climate change. This vision reflects a commitment from the Government of Peru to promote an economic development model that respects and values the conservation of biodiversity and natural resources, but its implementation requires political will at all levels of government to ensure that the required financial resources and institutional arrangements are in place.

While the Government of Peru has made progress in strengthening the implementation of environmental laws and regulations, weaknesses in environmental governance at the regional and local levels continue to be factors driving threats to biodiversity and tropical forests. Some of the challenges identified in the 2016 Tropical Forest and Biodiversity Assessment (de Quiroz et al 2014) are still prevalent and were mentioned by stakeholders consulted for this analysis. Such challenges include:• Concessions are allocated on a sector basis, which

can lead to overlap in the legally conceded use rights. Cases such as overlaps between mining concessions and agricultural or forest rights are common in areas like Madre de Dios.

• Lack of clarity on land tenure is another related source of conflict that impacts native communities and farmers settled in areas such as permanent production forests.

• Criteria for land holders to secure a land title or land us rights include the need to demonstrate that the parcel of land is under production or has been “improved”. This continues to be a perverse incentive that contributes to deforestation.

INADEQUATE MANAGEMENT CAPACITYTerritorial management in Peru is the responsibility of the regional and local authorities. Decentralization efforts, the transfer of such responsibilities from the national government, have taken years and some regional and local governments lack the human and financial resources needed for adequate management of their territories. This challenge was raised in multiple meetings with government officials during the site visits. A study conducted by the Smithsonian Institution analyzed different development scenarios for the region of Madre de Dios, and found that active territorial management of the region’s landscape would provide higher economic performance than unmanaged development through 2040 (Vanthomme, et al., 2019). While this study focused only in Madre de Dios, the need to strengthen management capacities at the regional and local level is pervasive in Peru.

Multiple agencies are involved in natural resources management. Inadequate intersectoral and interinstitutional coordination can result in reduced efficiency of government efforts (Vanthomme, et al., 2019). The bureaucratic complexity of processing land use permits, formalizing concessions, or managing private conservation were challenges raised by stakeholders consulted for this Analysis. Stakeholders raised the need for improving coordination between national and regional level authorities to ensure regional contexts are considered in the development of laws and regulations.

High staff turnover rates can also contribute to inadequate management capacity if knowledge is not adequately transferred or new staff lack needed skills or are appointed to respond to private interests. In addition to staffing fluctuations as a result of new elected officials, the slow implementation of the public service law (SERVIR) means that some government staff work on short-term contracts and

often do not receive payment for months, which can reduce retention.

Positive signs towards strengthening management efforts and coordination were observed during the site visits. In Ucayali, efforts are underway to create a new Regional Office for Forestry and Wildlife Issues. Following the steps of the region of San Martin, this change in the management structure is expected to raise the profile of the forest sector in the region by increasing financial resources and decision-making authority. In the case of Madre de Dios, in February 2019, the Government of Peru launched Operacion Mercurio, an interagency effort to eliminate illegal mining from an area known as La Pampa. This was an effort to reduce the encroachment of illegal mining into protected areas. This operation resulted from political will at the highest levels of the government to mobilize both human and financial resources. Deforestation due to illegal gold mining decreased 92 percent between 2018 (900 ha) and 2019 (67 ha), representing the situation before and after the start of Operation Mercury (Villa and Finer, 2019).

INADEQUATE TECHNICAL CAPACITIESThe VI National Report on Biological Diversity highlights the need to strengthen government capacities to achieve conservation goals (MINAM, 2019). Inadequate technical capacities at the different scales of government, and among civil society can limit the management of Peru’s tropical forests and the wellbeing of the communities that depend on these forests.

The need to strengthen local capacities was raised by multiple stakeholders during the site visits and consultations conducted for this Analysis, in areas such as the following: • Implementing traceability mechanisms in the

forest sector, strengthening community forest management, and promoting value chains for non-timber forest products.

• Supporting coffee and cacao farmers to increase the productivity and quality of their crops to access specialized markets and mitigate the impacts of climate change. Given that the price of these commodities depends on global markets, when prices are down vulnerable farmers

may return to planting illicit crops as a source of income.

• Mitigating the impacts of large scale and rural roads.

• Mitigating the environmental impacts of artisanal and small-scale gold mining, as well as restoration of areas impacted by this activity.

• Developing incentives for conservation enterprises.

• Generating scientific evidence for decision-making. In terms of biodiversity, there is a need to conduct population assessments for multiple species in Peru to determine their current status and threat level.

SOCIO-POLITICAL FACTORSWhile poverty rates in Peru have decreased steadily over the past ten years, inequality and informality continue to be prevalent. Access to services and economic opportunities continues to drive migration towards urban areas, with populations in rural areas decreasing at a rate of 2.1 percent per year (INEI, 2018c). The 2017 Census found an increase in the population in the coast and amazon jungle, and a decrease in the population in the highlands. The increase in the population in the jungle, coupled with weak environmental governance puts additional pressure on the local biodiversity and tropical forests. The Latin America Public Opinion Project (LAPOP) found that illegal logging is perceived as the main illegal activity in the jungle, and illegal mining in the highlands; while narco-trafficking is perceived as the main illegal activity that contributes to the economy in the north coast, central highlands and Lima (Carrion et al., 2018).

Public participation in environmental decision-making, and greater awareness of the value of biodiversity and tropical forests are key to helping increase political will for the conservation and improved management of these resources. According to LAPOP, most Peruvians would prioritize environmental protection over economic activities (Carrion et al., 2018). However, the environmental performance review of Peru conducted by the OECD found that even though Peru is making progress in the development of laws and regulations that promote citizen participation, “citizens still

have only limited opportunities to influence environmental decisions.” Instruments such as environmental impact assessments and territorial governance processes need to be strengthened to allow for broad participation of all affected social groups (OECD, 2016). Furthermore, lack of information or access to relevant information can hinder public understanding, awareness and participation (OECD, 2016); and contribute to the undervaluation of the environmental goods and services provided by forest ecosystems as described in the 2014 Tropical Forests and Biodiversity Assessment (de Quiroz et al 2014).

During consultations conducted for this Analysis, and the site visit to Madre de Dios, some interviewees highlighted the value of activities aimed at strengthening scientific capacity and access to information for decision-making. Findings of studies conducted by the Center for Amazonian Scientific Innovation with support from USAID and other partners, have contributed to developing plans to restore lands degraded by illegal gold mining.

ECONOMIC FACTORSPeru’s primary productive sectors are agriculture, fishing, metal mining, hydrocarbons, and primary manufacturing. Global demands for metals and commodities impact Peru’s economy, and given weaknesses in environmental governance, are drivers of threats such as illegal mining, illegal logging and overexploitation of wildlife. On August 23, 2019, gold price reached a six-year high of USD 1,537 per ounce. Given the risks of a new global recession, gold prices are expected to increase, thus continuing to put pressure on biologically sensitive areas in the Amazon, as is the case in Madre de Dios. In the case of the timber industry, a study conducted by the FAO in 2018 found that in Peru most of the demand for timber is local. In 2015, only 10 percent of the timber sales were exports. Exports in 2018 (USD 125 million) decreased as compared to 2015 (USD 151 million) according to the Central Reserve Bank of Peru (BCRP, 2018). The same study found that it is complicated to verify traceability around internal trade, due to the large number of economic units and lack of capacity of authorities to verify volumes of timber commercialized.

Demand for agroindustry production will also continue putting pressure on tropical forests and biodiversity. The expansion of the oil palm and cacao industries is a major threat. In 2018, oil palm exports were about USD 5.3 million, as compared to USD 189,000 in 2014. In the case of cacao products, exports in 2018 were USD 56.8 million, as compared to USD 1.9 million in 2014. While the expansion of oil palm plantations is a significant concern, a recent announcement from oil palm producers and the Government of Peru suggest an increased commitment to reduce deforestation in oil palm production by 2021.

Timber exports in 2018: USD $125 million decreased as compared to 2015: USD $151 million according to the Central Reserve Bank of Peru (BCRP, 2018).

Gold prices are expected to increase, thus continuing to put pressure on biologicallysensitive areasin the Amazon.

Table 3 outlines actions needed to address the different drivers of threat to biodiversity. The drivers are summarized in subcategories. The actions were identified based on the information collected during the review of secondary literature, site visits and consultations.

DRIVERS ACTIONS NEEDED TO CONSERVE BIODIVERSITY IN TROPICAL FORESTS

CLIMATE CHANGE

Inadequate water levels and flow in rivers

• Promote the use of natural infrastructure to increase water storage for dry seasons; and reduce deforestation rates in sensitive areas.

Droughts and buildup of flammable organic material

• Develop a warning system for forest fire monitoring and prevention.

Increases in temperatures and changes in agricultural altitudinal frontier

• Boost technical capacity for implementing sustainable agricultural practices and extension services.

• Create financial and non-financial incentives for products that do not contribute to deforestation of biologically sensitive areas.

• Promote the implementation of ecological and economic zoning.

Lack of political will to implement a shared vision for sustainable development

• Promote efforts to strengthen political will.

Institutional weakness at the subnational level • Consolidate decentralization efforts in the forest and environment sectors.

Land tenure and property rights conflicts

• Promote inter-agency coordination and build capacities to streamline protocols. • Consolidate efforts to promote the management of indigenous lands.

• Develop joint strategies and protocols to promote coordination at the national and subnational level.

• Strengthen CEPLAN’s capacity to promote cross-sectoral coordination, participation, and accountability.

Inadequate coordination between national and subnational agencies

• Promote institutional mechanisms for policy dialogue and coordination.

• Develop joint intervention protocols for judiciary officials.• Strengthen the services provided by the judiciary and enforcement system

(specialized environmental courts; protection for environmental defenders; specialized teams with supranational jurisdiction).

85ACTIONS NECESARY TO CONSERVE BIODIVERSITY

Inadequate land use planning and management

• Strengthen capacities to assess and mitigate environmental impacts of agricultural, land use change and infrastructure projects.

• Strengthen the implementation of economic and ecological zoning at the subnational and local levels.

• Strengthen indigenous participation and capabilities for co-managing conservation areas.

High staff turnover • Promote implementation of the Civil Service Law (SERVIR), and limits for the number of political appointees.

Corruption • Promote implementation of the SERVIR law, and anti-bribery measures.• Promote investigative journalism and transparency efforts.

Inadequate promotion and implementation of sustainable agricultural practices

• Create incentives for economic activities and non-timber forest products that promote conservation and contribute to maintaining standing forest.

Inadequate technical assistance for the agriculture sector

• Build capacities among agricultural extension agents to minimize environmental impacts and promote biodiversity conservation.

• Promote initiatives to scale up agricultural extension services.

Inadequate adaptation to market demand for sustainable products

• Strengthen capacities to access to relevant markets and financing.• Promote research on alternative products with a view toward sustainability.• Promote incentives for sustainable businesses.

Inadequate capacity for implementing incentives for sustainable businesses

• Promote private and financial sector involvement in developing incentives for conservation enterprises.

• Create incentives for private conservation initiatives (including financial incentives).

Inadequate capacity for implementing traceability, monitoring, and enforcement systems in the timber and gold mining sectors

• Implement the National Forest and Wildlife Information System (SNIFFS) at the national and regional level.

• Foster transparency and accountability in the forest and ASGM sectors. • Promote formalization and oversight of artisanal and small-scale mining

operations.

Undervaluation of biodiversity

• Promote research on biodiversity valuation, the dissemination of findings, and capacity-building at the sub-national level.

• Promote environmental education and democracy strengthening initiatives.

Lack of economic opportunities • Promote sustainable development efforts in areas with high poverty levels.

Migration • Strengthen regional and local governments’ land use planning and management capacity.

ECONOMIC FACTORS

Demand for land • Strengthen the implementation of ecological and economic zoning.• Build political will and capacities to address land tenure and property rights

issues.

Domestic and international demand for natural resources (gold, timber, species)

• Strengthen capacity for compliance with laws and regulations, including through the implementation of timber traceability efforts.

• Promote efforts to raise public awareness in order to prevent environmental crimes and demand for illegal products.

• Strengthen capacity for compliance with laws and regulations.• Promote efforts to raise public awareness in order to prevent environmental

crimes. • Reinforce oversight and monitoring systems.

DRIVERS ACTIONS NEEDED TO CONSERVE BIODIVERSITY IN MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

CLIMATE CHANGE

ENSO and climatic variability

• Promote learning among adaptation initiatives.• Promote adaptation of artisanal fishing operation.

Uncoordinated and obsolete coastal marine policy

• Assess the current marine policy framework and identify needs for modernization.

Open access regime for artisanal fishing • Develop a system for exclusive fishing rights.

• Consolidate decentralization efforts and strengthen capacities at the regional and local government levels for the management of fisheries and marine resources.

Insufficient fishing rights • Modify usage rights rates to ensure resources cover management costs.

Inadequate fisheries management system

• Modernize management instruments to incorporate the use of evidence, transparency and stakeholder participation in management decisions.

• Develop joint strategies to align efforts, resources and technical capacity of the different institutions at national and sub-national level and across the different sectors.

• Strengthen CEPLAN’s capacity to promote coordination, participation, and accountability for intersectoral coordination.

• Develop joint intervention protocols for judiciary officials.• Strengthen the services provided by the judiciary and enforcement system

(specialized environmental courts; protection for environmental defenders; specialized teams with supranational jurisdiction).

87ACTIONS NECESARY TO CONSERVE BIODIVERSITY

Un-planned urban development

• Strengthen capacities at the regional and local government levels for the management of fisheries and marine resources.

Corruption• Promote implementation of the SERVIR law, and anti-bribery measures.• Promote investigative journalism and transparency efforts.

Inadequate capacity to implement best practices

• Promote the development and adoption of best practices and development of new technologies.

Ecosystem management approach and adaptive management

• Build capacities for the design and execution of adaptive management strategies in the fisheries sector.

Undervaluation of fisheries and marine resources

• Build technical capacity for biodiversity and blue carbon valuation in public accounts.

• Promote efforts to disseminate information and knowledge.

Inadequate capacities for planning and use of marine-coastal resources

• Build scientific capacity and dissemination of results at sub-national level.

Inadequate capacity to implement traceability, monitoring and control systems

• Improve traceability systems for effective enforcement along the fishing value chain.

Population growth • Build local capacities for land use planning, provision of state services and management.

Lack of economic opportunities • Strengthen capacities to promote economic opportunities and employment.

ECONOMIC FACTORS

Global demand for fish meal and oil

• Strengthen capacities for compliance with laws and regulations and implement effective traceability initiatives.

• Strengthen capacity for compliance with laws and regulations; and promote efforts to raise public awareness in order to prevent environmental crimes.

his section focuses on the actions necessary to conserve biodiversity in tropical forests given that work on the conservation of marine resources has not been a core

component of USAID development objectives in Peru. The extent to which the Mission meets the identified actions is summarized on Table 4.

91EXTENT TO WHICH THE MISSION MEETS THE IDENTIFIED ACTIONS NEEDED

Table 4Extent to which the Mission Meets the Identified Actions Conservation

TROPICAL FORESTS AND BIODIVERSITY

ACTIONS NEEDED EXTENT TO WHICH THE MISSION MEETS IDENTIFIED ACTIONS

Promote efforts to strengthen political will. Promote political advocacy and efforts to communicate the importance of conservation to Peru’s economic development.

Projects under Development Objective 3 (DO3) include activities to share information and raise awareness among government agencies at a technical level. Additional efforts could be considered for improving awareness-raising at the political and legislative level.

Consolidate decentralization efforts in the forest and environment sectors.

Strengthen the public and natural resource management capabilities of the regional governments.

Efforts under DO3 include work with the regional governments and SERFOR in transferring capacities and resources to local forest authorities. The Mission is no longer investing directly in the decentralization process.

Projects under DO3 aim to build subnational capacity relating to forest resource management. Projects under DO1 and DO2 aim to strengthen public management capacity to promote transparency and public investment in priority areas for alternative development programs.

Promote inter-agency coordination and streamline protocols to help resolve land tenure conflicts.

Consolidate efforts to promote the management of indigenous lands.

The Mission provides limited support to matters related to land tenure and property rights.

Activities under DO3 help build local capacities for the management of indigenous lands in targeted areas.

Develop joint strategies and protocols to promote coordination at the national and subnational level.

Activities under DO3 strengthen forest governance capabilities at the subnational level. The new activity focusing on environmental crimes will promote coordination between national and subnational agencies to prevent, investigate, and sanction environmental crimes.

Strengthen CEPLAN’s capacity to promote coordination, participation, and accountability in cross-sector management to ensure the effective management of natural resources and prevention of threats.

The projects under DO1 and DO2 aim to strengthen public management capabilities for promoting transparency and public investment in priority areas for alternative development programs.

Promote institutional mechanisms for policy dialogue and coordination.

The Mission implements actions focused on the objectives of each of the three DOs via its corresponding programs.

Develop joint intervention protocols for judiciary officials.

Strengthen the services provided by the judiciary and enforcement system (specialized environmental courts; protection for environmental defenders; specialized teams with supranational jurisdiction).

Create effective mechanisms to ensure protection for those who act in defense of the environment and natural heritage.

The new activity under DO3 focusing on environmental crimes will promote coordination between national and subnational agencies to prevent, investigate, and punish environmental crimes. The Mission is not directly supporting the creation of specialized courts.

The Mission does not have a program focused on environmental defenders.

Include environmental assessments in land use change and infrastructure projects in the Amazon.

The Mission does not have any activity focused on strengthening capacity in terms of environmental assessments, except for specific efforts under DO3 focused on the forest sector.

Promote implementation of the SERVIR law at the regional and local government level, and limit the number of political appointees.

The Mission is supporting SERFOR with the implementation of the SERVIR law.

Promote investigative journalism and transparency efforts.

The Mission is supporting initiatives to promote transparency in the government under DO2 and DO3 (focusing on the forest sector).

Develop and adopt anti-bribery practices and standards and computerize mechanisms that impede “access” to officials.

The Mission is supporting initiatives to promote transparency in the government under DO2 and DO3.

Create incentives for economic activities and non-timber forest products that do not contribute to deforestation in the Amazon.

Activities under DO1 and DO3 incorporate deforestation prevention efforts.Through a new DO3 activity, USAID is planning to promote partnerships with the private sector to strengthen sustainable businesses.

Promote the implementation of ecological and economic zoning at the subnational level.

The Mission does not have activities aimed at enhancing the ecological and economic zoning process. However, support is being provided for forest zoning.

Strengthen capacities to access to relevant markets and financing.

Promote incentives for sustainable businesses.

Promote incentives for private conservation initiatives (fast-track procedures).

Through a new DO3 activity, USAID is planning to promote partnerships with the private sector to strengthen sustainable businesses. Under DO1, the Mission supports market linkage efforts for coffee and cacao in alternative development areas.

Build capacities among agricultural extension agents to minimize environmental impacts and promote biodiversity conservation. Promote initiatives to scale up agricultural extension services.

The Mission, under DO1, supports rural extension efforts through the National Commission for Development and Drug-free Life (DEVIDA) in alternative development areas.

Promote research on alternative products with a view to sustainability.

Under D01, the Missions supports efforts focused on coffee and cacao in alternative development areas.

Implement the National Forest and Wildlife Information System (SNIFFS) at the national and regional level. Promote transparency and accountability in the forest and ASGM sectors.

Promote formalization and oversight of artisanal and small-scale mining operations.

Through DO3 activities, the Mission is supporting development and implementation of the SNIFF. USAID expects to foster coordination between relevant agencies via a new activity to combat environmental crime.

Efforts under DO2 could be expanded to promote transparency and accountability in the forest sector.

Promote research on biodiversity valuation, the dissemination of findings, and capacity-building at the sub-national level. Promote environmental education and democracy strengthening initiatives.

The Mission has supported biodiversity valuation efforts under the current CDCS. Productive activities under DO1 have helped place value on biodiversity (coffee and cacao). Forest sector activities under DO3 have helped to strengthen value chains for timber and non-timber products. The new activity to promote private sector investment is expected to contribute to better valuation of biodiversity and ecosystem services.

Promote sustainable development efforts in Peru’s andean highlands, which are home to its highest poverty levels.

The Mission provides limited support for this action.

Strengthen regional and local governments’ land use planning and public management capacity.

The Mission provides limited support for this action.

Foster education for socio-environmental democracy.

Activities under DO2 and DO3 promote transparency and citizen participation in decision making.

Strengthen indigenous participation and capabilities for co-managing conservation areas.

USAID efforts under DO2 and DO3 have supported co-management of protected areas (e.g., Management Contract Executor Amarakaeri).

Promote research, the dissemination of findings, and capacity-building at the subnational level (universities).

Efforts under DO1, DO2, and DO3 have helped to generate scientific knowledge and disseminate information. Activities like those of the Center for Amazonian Scientific Innovation (CINCIA) and the Partnerships for Enhanced Engagement in Research projects directly support the generation of scientific knowledge. FOREST has started partnerships between US and Peruvian universities. Additional efforts are needed to build local scientific capacities.

Strengthen the capacity of research institutions at the subnational level.

Promote coordination between academic institutions and the government.

EXTENT TO WHICH THE MISSION MEETS THE IDENTIFIED ACTIONS NEEDED

ECONOMIC FACTORS

Strengthen the implementation of ecological and economic zoning.

Build political will and capacities to address land tenure and property rights issues.

The Mission provides limited support for efforts related to land ownership.

Strengthen capacity for compliance with laws and regulations, including through the implementation of timber traceability efforts.

Promote efforts to raise public awareness in order to prevent environmental crimes and demand for illegal products.

Efforts under DO1, DO2, and DO3 support these actions. The new environmental crime activity under DO3 will promote coordination between national and subnational agencies to prevent, investigate, and punish environmental crimes.

CLIMATE CHANGE

Promote the use of natural infrastructure to increase water storage during dry seasons; and reduce deforestation rates in sensitive areas.

The Mission partially supports this action. Measures to mitigate the environmental impact of USAID productive activities include recommendations for preventing erosion and for the use of buffer strips near rivers and gullies. Activities under DO1 encourage the use of these measures but the degree to which they are implemented is limited insofar as implementation is up to farmers.

The Natural Infrastructure for Water Sustainability (NIWS) activity under DO3 focuses on promoting conservation and better management of natural infrastructure for storing water in upper basins.

The Mission does not have activities focused on promoting or implementing environmental safeguards associated with rural roads.

Develop a warning system for forest fire monitoring and prevention.

Efforts under DO3 include technical assistance to strengthen government agencies’ capacity to plan responses to forest fires.

Promote the implementation of ecological and economic zoning at the subnational level.

The Mission does not have activities aimed at enhancing the ecological and economic zoning process. However, support is being provided for forest zoning.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The Assessment Team found the following activities and adjustments that USAID/Peru can make within the constraints of its current strategy and projects, and that could contribute to the integration among Development Objectives (DOs) and the self-reliance of Peruvian institutions.

Table 5Recommendations

OPPORTUNITY: WORKING UNDER EXISTING USAID

PROGRAMS

PROACTIVE: ADAPTING PROGRAMS TO IMPROVE THE EXTENT TO WHICH USAID ADDRESSES THE ACTIONS NECESSARY

DIRECT THREAT REDUCTION: DESIGNING NEW ACTIVITIES

SPECIFICALLY TO REDUCE THREATS TO AND PROMOTE BIODIVERSITY

Alternative development

Integrate efforts between DO1 and DO3 in order to strengthen forest governance, promoting investment in alternative development activities while promoting forest conservation and biodiversity.

Strengthening capacities of government agencies for inter-institutional monitoring of deforestation due to expansion of small-scale agriculture and illicit crops in priority areas.

Support relevant authorities to conduct environmental assessments to mitigate impacts of alternative development efforts.

Governance and institutional strengthening

Promote coordination between transparency and anti-corruption activities with the environmental, forestry, and agricultural sector.

Support efforts to strengthen capacity of the Government of Peru to address land tenure and land use rights in priority areas.

Support efforts specifically aimed at generating political will for the conservation of biodiversity and tropical forests at multiple levels of government.

Environment and sustainable growth

Promoting inter-institutional coordination platforms or spaces among USAID operators under DO1 and DO3 to resolve priority bottlenecks such as land tenure in permanent production forests and buffer zones and strengthen local territorial planning capacities.

Integrating aspects of conservation and value chains for non-timber products with market potential in projects under DO1 and DO3.

Design new activities to strengthening local capacities to mitigate the impacts of roads in biologically sensitive areas.

To address threats to marine ecosystems, USAID could consider expanding efforts to strengthen enforcement of environmental laws and regulations to include land conversion and illegal fishing; and include the management of marine ecosystems in transparency and anti-corruption initiatives.

In addition, USAID/Peru is well positioned to take a leading role in the coordination with other donors and U.S. Government Agencies investing in the forest sector and environmental law enforcement to maximize the impact of the activities that will bridge into the 2020-2025 CDCS. USAID/Peru can also leverage efforts under the Amazon Regional Environment Program to complement efforts on strengthening indigenous economies, promoting best practices in large scale infrastructure and extractive industries, and strengthening Peru’s capacities to monitor the impacts of climate change in the Amazon.

ANNEXES

Alarcón, G., Díaz, J., Vela, M., García, M., & Gutiérrez, J. (2016). “Deforestación en el sureste de la amazonia del Perú entre los años 1999 - 2013; caso Regional de Madre de Dios (Puerto Maldonado - Inambari).” Revista de Investigaciones Altoandinas, 18(3).

Alfaro-Shigueto, J., Mangel, J. C., Darquea, J., Donoso, M., Baquero, A., Doherty, P. D. et al. (2018). “Untangling the impacts of nets in the southeastern Pacific: Rapid assessment of marine turtle bycatch to set conservation priorities in small-scale fisheries.” Fisheries Research, 206, 185-192.

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Anderson, C. M., Asner, G. P., & Lambin, E. F. (2019). “Lack of association between deforestation and either sustainability commitments or fines in private concessions in the Peruvian Amazon.” Forest Policy and Economics, 104, 1-8.

André, T., Lemes, M. R., Grogan, J., & Gribel, R. (2008). “Post-logging loss of genetic diversity in a mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King, Meliaceae) population in Brazilian Amazonia.” Forest Ecology and Management, 255(2), 340-345.

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Aragão, L. E. O. C., Anderson, L. O., Fonseca, M. G., Rosan, T. M., Vedovato, L. B., Wagner, F. H. et al. (2018). “21st Century drought-related fires counteract the decline of Amazon deforestation carbon emissions.” Nature Communications, 9(1), 536.

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Bakun, A., & Weeks, S. J. (2008). “The marine ecosystem off Peru: What are the secrets of its fishery productivity and what might its future hold.” Progress in Oceanography, 79(2-4), 290-299.

Batista, J. S., & Alves-Gomes, J. A. (2006). “Phylogeography of Brachyplatystoma rousseauxii (Siluriformes-Pimelodidae) in the Amazon Basin offers preliminary evidence for the first case of “homing” for an Amazonian migratory catfish.” Genetics and Molecular Research, 5(4), 723-740.

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ANNEXES

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ANNEXES

Gutiérrez, M., Castillo, R., Segura, M., Peraltilla, S., & Flores, M. (2017). “Trends in spatio-temporal distribution of Peruvian anchovy and other small pelagic fish biomass from 1966-2009.” Latin American Journal of Aquatic Research, 40(3).

Han, D., Shan, X., Zhang, W., Chen, Y., Wang, Q., Li, Z. et al. (2018). “A revisit to fishmeal usage and associated consequences in Chinese aquaculture.” Reviews in Aquaculture, 10(2), 493-507.

Hajek, F., Ventresca, M. J., Scriven, J., & Castro, A. (2011). “Regime-building for REDD+: Evidence from a cluster of local initiatives in south-eastern Peru.” Environmental Science & Policy, 14(2), 201-215.

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INEI. (2018b). Compendio Estadístico Perú 2018. Lima.

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ANNEXES

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I. BACKGROUNDAs part of the documentation for the 2020-2025 Country Development Cooperation Strategy (CDCS), USAID/Peru is required by Sections 118 and 119 of the Foreign Assistance Act (FAA), as amended, to prepare an analysis of tropical forests and biodiversity in Peru.

By mandating an FAA 118/119 analysis (hereafter referred to as “the analysis”), the U.S. Congress is recognizing the fundamental role that tropical forest and biodiversity play in supporting countries as they progress along the journey to self-reliance. The analysis will examine the country-level forest and biodiversity conservation needs and the extent to which the Mission in Peru is currently addressing the identified needs for forest and biodiversity conservation. The report recommendations will help the Mission identify ways to strengthen host country commitment and capacity to biodiversity conservation.

1.1 SUMMARY OF RELEVANT PARTS OF FAA SECTIONS 118 AND 119FAA Sections 118 and 119, as amended, require that USAID missions address the following:

1) FAA Sec. 118 Tropical Forests (e) COUNTRY ANALYSIS REQUIREMENTS. Each country development strategy statement or other country plan prepared by the Agency for International Development shall include an analysis of:

1) The actions necessary in that country to achieve conservation and sustainable management of tropical forests.2) The extent to which the actions proposed for support by the Agency meet the needs thus identified.

2) FAA Sec. 119 Endangered Species (d) COUNTRY ANALYSIS REQUIREMENTS. Each country development strategy, statement, or other country plan prepared by the Agency for International Development shall include an analysis of:

1) The actions necessary in that country to conserve biological diversity. 2) The extent to which the actions proposed for support by the Agency meet the needs thus identified.

The FAA 118/119 analysis for USAID/Peru must adequately respond to the two questions for country strategies, also known as “actions necessary” and “extent to which.”

1.2 PURPOSEThe primary purpose of this task is to conduct an analysis of Peru’s tropical forests and biodiversity in compliance with Sections 118 and 119 of the FAA of 1961, as amended, and ADS guidelines. The analysis will inform USAID/Peru in the development of its CDCS. USAID’s approach to development requires that the Agency examine cross-sector linkages and opportunities to ensure a robust development hypothesis. Conservation of forests and biodiversity is a critical component in achieving self-reliance and should be considered in mission strategic approaches to improve development outcomes. The analysis therefore can define opportunities to integrate tropical forest and biodiversity conservation into priority development sectors such as institutional governance, anti-corruption, alternative development, economic growth, and climate change mitigation and adaptation to support the journey to self-reliance. Examples might include adding environmental education into curriculum development, selecting sub-sectors that reduce land conversion, encouraging investments in zero-deforestation enterprises, or mobilizing youth to advocate for more transparent governance of a country’s natural capital assets.

Peru is classified as a Tier 1 country under the USAID Biodiversity Policy, as such USAID/Peru will include conservation strategies in the new CDCS and is expected to request sufficient funding to have an impact

ANNEXE 2SCOPE OF WORK

ANNEXES

on biodiversity targets. In addition to developing recommendations on ways to integrate biodiversity into other technical sector activities, this analysis could be used to help identify actions necessary for forest and biodiversity conservation interventions, including priority geographical areas and key threats and drivers. The analysis is an important early step in identifying opportunities to use integrated approaches that support both biodiversity conservation and improved development outcomes in Peru. Recommendations may include:• Indirect conservation co-benefits: Programs without an explicit, measurable conservation objective seek out

opportunities to contribute toward reduction of threats.• Direct threat reduction: Programs are designed with an explicit objective of reducing threats or otherwise

contributing to biodiversity or forest conservation.

While the analysis should not be used as a climate-risk assessment, climate change is a global concern, and as such, the analysis will evaluate the threat to the country’s tropical forest and biodiversity from climate change. Peru is considered highly vulnerable to impacts of climate change. According to the Ministry of Environment, 67% of disasters in Peru are linked to climate change, and 14 million Peruvians are vulnerable to climate change-related food insecurity.

The analysis team should begin by considering the following available reports on Peru’s climate change vulnerabilities in the analysis: • Cobertura y deforestación en los bosques húmedos amazónicos 2017

https://www.gob.pe/institucion/minam/informes-publicaciones/235274-cobertura-y-deforestacion-en-los-bosques-humedos-amazonicos-2017

• Contribuciones Nacionalmente Determinadas https://www.gob.pe/institucion/minam/informes-publicaciones/2589-contribuciones-nacionalmente-determinadas

• La gestión del territorio en el contexto de cambio climático. https://www.gob.pe/institucion/minam/informes-publicaciones/2597-la-gestion-del-territorio-en-el-contexto-de-cambio-climatico

Team should also review other sources of climate information available such as the World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal and the United Nations Climate Change website.

1.3 MISSION PROGRAMPeru has undergone a dramatic economic transformation to become a middle-income country. However, a variety of challenges undermine the country’s global integration and inclusive growth. USAID’s development assistance is accelerating Peru’s transition to a more inclusive, responsible partner with a market-based economy. Under USAID/Peru’s current 2013-2019 CDCS, USAID’s programs in Peru promote alternative development, strengthen natural resource management and biodiversity conservation in the Amazon, promote adaptation to climate change in the Andean highlands, and strengthen governance and institutional capacities. The goal of the current CDCS is to help ensure that Peru’s stability and democracy are strengthened through increased social and economic inclusion and reductions in illicit coca cultivation and the illegal exploitation of natural resources. The CDCS results framework supports this goal through three development objectives (DO): • DO-1: Alternatives to illicit coca cultivation increased in targeted regions.• DO-2: Management and quality of public services improved in the Amazon Basin.• DO-3: Natural resources sustainably managed in the Amazon Basin and glacier highlands.

USAID/Peru is currently implementing the five-year Amazonia Verde Project (2017-2022), which seeks to conserve Peru’s unique biodiversity and strengthen the sustainable management of forests. The Mission expects to use both sustainable landscapes and biodiversity funding for this project. The findings of the FAA 118/119 analysis will inform how new activity design can complement the Amazonia Verde Project. For

example, the findings are expected to help identify strategic partnerships and interventions that will help Peru progress on a resilient, low emission and sustainable development pathway over the next five years.

USAID/Peru’s climate change adaptation efforts focus on securing water supply by promoting natural infrastructure in the highlands.

USAID/Peru’s Alternative Development Program seeks to strengthen Peru’s capacity to transition farmers into a licit economy through the adoption of alternative crops such as coffee and cocoa in regions where areas of high biodiversity and tropical forests are also present. This successful model has lifted thousands of rural Peruvian families out of poverty and enabled them to move away from coca cultivation. Over the last five years, families participating in USAID programs have seen their incomes increase by 53 percent; in USAID target regions, extreme poverty dropped from 55 to 30 %. The findings of the FAA 118/119 analysis will identify opportunities for new activity design to contribute to biodiversity conservation and tropical forest management.

II. STATEMENT OF WORK To achieve the above-stated purpose, the analysis team, under the direction of the Team Leader, will proceed as described in this section. As described herein, this analysis will mainly involve synthesis and analysis of existing information, coupled with key stakeholder consultations and site visits to ground-truth information. The analysis will not generate original primary data.

Under the direction of the team leader, the analysis team will evaluate the status of tropical forests and biodiversity in Peru. The focus of all activities undertaken will be threefold:

Describe the current status of Peru’s tropical forests and biodiversity to include emerging issues, threats, and trends.

Identify actions necessary to conserve tropical forests and biodiversity and the extent to which the Mission is supporting such actions necessary. Develop recommendations that will guide the Mission in developing the new CDCS.

To accomplish this task, the analysis team will perform the activities in Sections 2.1 and 2.2:

2.1 PRE-FIELD WORK ACTIONS

2.1.1 DESK-BASED DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSISGather and begin to analyze existing information to identify tropical forest and biodiversity status, key biodiversity issues, stakeholders, policy and institutional frameworks and gaps in the available information. The team should review pertinent reports and documents including but not limited to: previous 118/119 analyses, current CDCS and project documents, information available online (websites of government ministries and development partners) on biodiversity conservation and tropical forest conservation, project reports and evaluations, the National Biodiversity Strategy by 2021 and Action Plan (NBSAP), the National Forest and Climate Change Strategy by 2030 (NFCCS), the National Strategy to Reduce Wildlife Trafficking in 2017-2027, Master Plan of Natural protected areas, and Nationally Determined Contributions 2018.

2.1.2 PLANNING AND LOGISTICAL PREPARATIONS

Note: The activities described in this Section may occur prior to, or in parallel with, activities described in Section 2.1.1.

Organize weekly planning meetings with the mission. The team should plan weekly calls with the activity manager ahead of in-country arrival to support planning and logistic preparations such as site visits, lodging and in-country travel, key informants, work plan development, key informant interview protocols, and political or other sensitivities. See section 2.2 for further details and topics for the pre-field work meetings.

Plan site visits. In coordination with the mission, the team should begin planning site visits based on the mission’s recommendations and the team’s preliminary review of key topics and information gaps. Site visits allow information gathering from key informants, and direct observation, and supplement information gathered from consultations, literature review and other second-hand sources. Site visit locations should be finalized at least two (2) weeks prior to in-country fieldwork to allow the consultant to complete necessary logistical preparations.

Peru’s tropical rainforests are mainly found on the Eastern part of the country, towards the Pacific drainage, also known as the Peruvian Amazon region. Currently, USAID/Peru is implementing activities in five regions located in the Peruvian Amazon. Biodiversity conservation and Forestry activities focus on the regions of Loreto, Ucayali, San Martin, and Madre de Dios; while Alternative Development activities focus on San Martin, Ucayali, and Huanuco. The team should plan field visits to at least two regions, likely Ucayali and Madre de Dios or Loreto to validate information about forests and key protected areas. These visits will provide an opportunity for the assessment team to discuss current state of biodiversity conservation; forest management and timber tracking; environmental governance and prosecution of environmental crimes; alternative livelihoods for forest dwelling communities in coca growing areas; sustainable plantation forest management; implementation of Reducing Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) activities; and the Payment for Forest Environmental Services (PFES) system.

Develop and submit draft work plan: 10 days after the start of the period of performance, the consultant will submit a draft work plan (Deliverable 1). The draft work plan will also include a preliminary:

List of the type of information to be obtained through further desk research and through consultations; and Mapping of key people to engage throughout the analysis process. This may include US-based (predominantly Washington D.C.) stakeholders; mission staff, including the program office, all sector technical staff, and the deputy and mission director; implementing partners; and other key in-country stakeholders (e.g., organizations, government bodies, the private sector and individuals knowledgeable about and/or implementing projects on environment, biodiversity and tropical forest conservation and other sectors relevant to tropical forest and biodiversity conservation, such as agriculture, economic growth, health, climate change and governance). Washington D.C. based stakeholders may include USAID Forestry and Biodiversity Team, Global Climate Change Team, and Latin America and Caribbean Bureau Environment Team technical staff. In addition, the analysis team may consider meeting with U.S. conservation organizations currently active in Peru to learn about their work and conservation experience in Peru.Itinerary for in-country consultations and site visits, based upon information made available by the mission regarding geographies of existing programming, areas of known concern and areas being considered for future programming. Key informant interview guides to be used for stakeholder consultations.

Report outline based on the outline attached to the SOW (refer to Annex B: Analysis Report Annotated Outline in the FAA 118/119 Best Practices Guide), with differences noted and explained. Schedule for written progress reports to, or calls with, the activity manager starting on 15 days after the start of the period of performance and bi-weekly calls thereafter during the pre-field and field segments. If calls are chosen, they will be documented with written call notes provided to the USAID Activity Manager.

Revise work plan. Following receipt of mission comments and suggestions on the draft work plan, the team will revise the work plan and submit a revised version 2-5 days before the start of the field work.

Note: Logistical details and planning for site visits can only be finalized once sites are agreed upon; if insufficient time is afforded the consultant to research and collaborate with the mission, the work plan will include only general information on site visits.

2.2 MISSION AND FIELD CONSULTATIONS AND SITE VISITS

Note: see section 5 “Role of USAID Mission” for role of the USAID activity manager in supporting the in-country program described in this section.

In-country, in coordination with the activity manager, the analysis team will:

Conduct in-brief meetings with the Environment and Sustainable Growth Office (ESG), Office of Alternative Development (AD), Office of Governance and Institutional Strengthening (GIS), Mission leadership, the U.S. Embassy’s RSO, and ESTH team to:

Orient the attendees to the overarching objective of the 118/119 analysis, the methodology to be used (i.e., approach the analysis team will take to conduct the analysis and recommendations for potential biodiversity linkages with other sectors), and the agreed upon itinerary per the approved work plan. Ideally this will have already been circulated within the mission prior to the team’s arrival in country.Review with the mission the approach to the assignment and learn specific mission areas of interest or concerns regarding the planned itinerary and consultations.Learn of any sensitivities related to the exercise (e.g., political constraints, mission challenges in working with the host country government or other generalized in-country implementation challenges) that could refine the analysis team’s consultations and strategic or programming recommendations (i.e., the potential for raising expectations and the need to be clear about the purpose of the analysis).Identify any additional organizations to be contacted and site visits to be planned, including advice and protocol on approaching USAID partners and host country organizations with respect to the assignment.

The meeting with ESG will be critical because the office has led USAID’s forest management and biodiversity conservation portfolio for several years. The ESG team will brief the analysis team on current programs and explain the challenges and lesson learned from their experiences.

Meet with the program office at USAID to:Understand the mission’s planned timeline for new CDCS development.Gain an understanding of the status of the new CDCS development/results framework and anticipated changes to overarching strategic goals and/or development objectives, to the extent they are known at the time of fieldwork.

Meet (separately) with all mission technical teams to: Understand current programming (geographic areas of focus, earmarks and related mandates or constraints) and the ways in which it may have supported or contributed to actions necessary to conserve forests and biodiversity.Learn about planned or potential future programming or strategic orientation.

Meet with stakeholders and undertake site visits identified in the work plan.Meet with the agreed upon organizations, government bodies, USAID’s private sector partners, and individuals who are knowledgeable about and/or implementing projects on environment, tropical forest and biodiversity conservation and other sectors relevant to tropical forest and biodiversity conservation, such as agriculture, economic growth, health and governance.

As a start, the analysis team should meet with the following organizations:• NGO sector and academic institutions

World Wildlife Fund Peru, IUCN Peru, Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), Amazon Basin Conservation Association, Center for International Forestry Research, AIDER, CINCIA, Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, Smithsonian Institution, and Ciudad Saludable.

• Development partners European Union, GIZ, UNDP, Interamerican Development Bank, World Bank.

• Government organizations MINAM (Forest Program, Climate Change Office, Biodiversity Office) SERNANP, SERFOR, DEVIDA, FEMA, PRODUCE, IMARPE.

In addition, the analysis team should meet with USAID/Peru’s current environment and alternative development partners implementing the following activities: Probosques, FOREST, NIWS, CINCIA, Alianza Foretal, Alianza Peru Cacao, Alianza Café. To the extent possible, the analysis team should also meet with USAID South America Regional partners implementing environment related activities, such as BMPs and SERVIR.

Conduct exit briefing: Prior to departure, host an exit briefing with the Mission, including Mission management, Regional Program Office and all technical teams, to provide an overview of the analysis and preliminary report findings (Deliverable 2).

2.3 PREPARATION OF THE FAA 118/119 ANALYSISThe analysis team will analyze the information gathered and will prepare the analysis in accordance with the outline attached to the SOW. The analysis team should also refer to the FAA 118/119 Best Practices Guide for useful information on producing the analysis and Annex B of the guide, the Analysis Report Annotated Outline, which provides details on the information required in each section of the report.

The analysis team shall prepare a draft report, of between 20-35 pages excluding annexes for review by USAID (Deliverable 3). The analysis report will respond to the legislative requirements listed above and include both single-sector and cross-sectoral recommendations on how the mission can address tropical forest and biodiversity conservation in the upcoming CDCS.

The Mission review period for draft reports will be 15 days. Following receipt of Mission comments on the draft report, the analysis team will prepare and submit a final analysis (Deliverable 4) that incorporates Mission comments, in accordance with the schedule of deliverables below. The analysis report should

be sent to the relevant bureau in Washington for review and concurrence. The Mission may review and provide comments on Deliverable 4 until the analysis is considered final and sufficient.

The FAA 118/119 analysis draft and final reports will follow the outline in Annex A of the SOW, and should include the following maps and tables:

Map of main ecosystems in the country;

Map of the forested areas and land uses;

Map of protected areas, including forest reserves;

Map of aquatic and marine resources;

Protected area status table with: • A list of all declared and proposed protected areas (national parks, wildlife reserves and refuges,

forest reserves, sanctuaries, hunting preserves, marine protected areas, etc.);• Institution(s) responsible for the protection and management of each protected area;• Area of coverage;• Ecosystems contained in each protected area; and• Protected area management plan status.• Table of the status of natural resources outside protected areas with:• Land cover and land-use type (e.g., wetlands/freshwater sources, major catchment areas,

agricultural ecosystems, etc.);• Institution(s) responsible for management;• An overview of the major threats and challenges to conserving biodiversity outside protected areas; • Economic potential.

Table of conservation initiatives including:• A list of the main conservation initiatives implemented by government, donors, non-governmental

organizations, private sector and universities;• Brief evaluation of effectiveness;• Implementation dates; and• Funding levels.

Table of largest threats to forests and biodiversity classified according to relevant weight of threat, with justification for classification.

III. SCHEDULE AND LOGISTICSThe assignment will cover a period of on/about May 27, 2018 to August 30, 2019. This includes approximately four weeks of preparation work, two weeks of work in-country including field visits, three weeks to produce the draft report following in-country work, two weeks for USAID review of the draft report, and two weeks to produce the final report.

The level of effort (LOE) requirements for this task are: • A total of 30 days for expatriate staff in-country; and• A total of 60 days for local staff.

WEEK ACTIVITY/MILESTONE COMMENTS

Week 1-2 Initial planning meeting with USAID/Peru Submit work plan and interview guide

Clear understanding of USAID/Peru expectations

Documents, contacts, and list of sites to visit gathered and reviewed (Mission)

Preparatory tasks for in-country meetings, and site visit logistics completed

Week 3

Desk studiesConsultations by phone for the team leader with USAID/W and suitable conservation organizations in DC. Schedule consultations in Lima

Bibliography of consulted sources

Interviews summarized

Week 4 Continue desk studies Summary of findings

Week 5

In-brief with Mission Director and Mission teams

Consultations/Interviews with stakeholders in Lima

Interview summarized

Maps collected

Week 6 Site visits in field Interviews and data from field visit summarized

Week 7

Compilation of findings and recommendations

Exit briefing

Weeks 7,8,9

Report writing & Submit draft report Preliminary report findings

Week 10,11 Review draft report USAID/Peru and USAID/W review the draft report

Week 12,13 Incorporate comments and Submit final report

Week 14-15 USAID/Peru and USAID/W review and approve the report

Table A2 1Weekly Activities and Milestones

IV. DELIVERABLESThe following are the deliverables for this task:

Deliverable 1. Work plan and schedule submitted within 10 working days of start date. The work plan should include all tasks and a timetable, milestones and deliverables and explain the following information:

• Plan for coordination and consultations with the mission;• A brief agenda for development objective (DO) and program office meetings and for the in-briefing

and exit briefing;

Deliverable 2. Submit preliminary recommendations and exit briefing presentation following consultations in Lima and field visits.

Deliverable 3. Draft FAA 118/119 submitted 45 working days after the conclusion of in-country work.

Deliverable 4. Following USAID review and comment, a revised final report, incorporating all comments, formatted and branded in accordance with USAID requirements, will be submitted within 15 working days of the receipt of comments on the draft.

V. ROLESThe analysis team will be composed of the following:

Analysis Team Leader The Analysis Team Leader will provide overall guidance during the analysis development; lead the planning of field visits and scheduling of consultations meetings; lead the design of the interview questionnaire; oversee the analysis of findings; and draft the final report.

Qualifications:• Natural resource management specialist with postgraduate qualifications (master’s level degree or higher)

in biology, ecology, zoology, forestry, geography, ecosystem conservation or a closely related field. • Expertise in assessing environmental threats. • Knowledge of the Peruvian context and experience working in Peru. • Expertise in Peru’s environmental policy and institutional framework.• Expertise in Peru’s biodiversity and natural resources management status.• Good contacts within Peru’s government, nongovernmental organizations, international donors, and

private sector.• Knowledge of USAID’s strategic planning process related to tropical forests and biodiversity.• Experience coordinating analyses and leading teams. • Exceptional organizational, analytical, writing and presentation skills.• Fluent in English and Spanish.

Environmental Policy Specialist, Local ConsultantThe Environmental Policy Specialist will lead the analysis of Peru’s environmental legal framework; and threats to biodiversity conservation and their drivers. The consultant will work under the guidance of the Analysis Team Lead and will collaborate with other local consultants in the drafting of the different sections of the Analysis.

Qualifications:• At least 5 years of experience in forestry, natural resource management, or international development;• At least a Master’s degree in biology, forestry, ecology, international development or another relevant social

science/science field or Law degree;• At least 5 years of experience working in Peru; and• Knowledge of Peruvian environmental laws, policies, and regulations.

Biodiversity Specialist, Local ConsultantThe Biodiversity Specialist, will lead the analysis of the status of tropical forests and biodiversity in Peru, including threats and drivers. The consultant will work under the guidance of the Analysis Team Lead and will collaborate with other consultants in the drafting of other sections of the Analysis.

Qualifications:• At least 10 years of experience in forestry, natural resource management, or international development;• At least a Master’s degree in biology, forestry, ecology, international development or another relevant social

science/science field;• At least 10 years of experience working in Peru; and• Knowledge of Peruvian Forest Sector and biodiversity conservation.

Natural Resources Management Specialist, Local ConsultantThe consultant will lead the assessment of threats to biodiversity and tropical forests in alternative development areas, including the identification of drivers, actions needed to address the threats and recommendations; and will lead a field visit.

Qualifications:• At least 5 years of experience in forestry, natural resource management, or international development;• At least a Master’s degree in biology, environmental sciences, forestry, ecology, international development or

another relevant social science/science field;• At least 5 years of experience working in Peru; • Knowledge of USAID Alternative Development activities; and • Knowledge of Peruvian Environmental and Agricultural Sectors.

Role of USAID Mission: The USAID Mission will: • Provide additional information and documents to review;• A list of key stakeholders; • Site visit list and schedule; • Provide support and logistics with contacts information and (public and private stakeholders/partners); and• Review, provide feedback on the draft analysis report and give approval of the work plan, report outline, and

final analysis report.

The U.S. Forest Service will:• Contribute to the overall planning and oversight of the analysis.• Provide logistics support for in-country meetings and site visits; • Review and submission of final report.

GOVERNMENT ENTITIESMinistry of Environment (MINAM)Ministry of Energy and Mines (MINEM)National Natural Protected Areas Service (SERNANP - Lima, Madre de Dios, Ucayali)Peruvian Marine Research Institute (IMARPE)Ministry of Production (PRODUCE)Peruvian Amazon Research Institute (IIAP)National Service for Environmental Certification (SENACE)National Forestry and Wildlife Service (SERFOR - Lima, Madre de Dios)The National Commission for Development and Life without Drugs (DEVIDA)Environmental Prosecution Office (FEMA - Lima, Ucayali, Madre de Dios)Regional Agriculture Directorate, Regional Government of UcayaliRegional Forestry and Wildlife Office, Regional Government of UcayaliRegional Natural Resources and Environment Office, Regional Government of Madre de Dios

NGO AND CIVIL SOCIETY ORGANIZATIONSCiudad SaludableWorld Wildlife FundAmazon Basin Conservation AssociationWorld Conservation SocietyCenter for Conservation, Research and Management of Natural Protected Areas (CIMA -Cordillera Azul)Rights, Environment and Resources (DAR)Kene - Forest and Environment Research InstitutePeruvian Society for Environmental Rights (SPDA)ProéticaFrankfurt Zoological SocietyCommon Goods Institute (IBC)Regional organization of the inter-ethnic development association of the Peruvian jungle Ucayali (ORAU)Tambopata National Reserve Management Committee

PRIVATE SECTOR Ucayali Timber Producer Association (APROFU)Olamsa (Palm Oil Company)Palm Oil Producers Association of UcayaliUcayali Timber Export Consortium (CEMU)Panguana Private Conservation Area

INVESTIGATIVE JOURNALISMOjo Público

UNIVERSITIESNational Intercultural University of the Amazon (UNIA)National University of Ucayali (UNU)

DONORGerman Development Bank (KFW)

ANNEXE 3LIST OF STAKEHOLDERS CONSULTED

USAID-FUNDED ACTIVITIESProBosquesForest Oversight and Resource Strengthening FORESTNatural Infrastructure for Water Security (NIWS)Center for Amazonian Scientific Innovation (CINCIA)Alianza ForestalAlianza Perú CacaoAlianza CaféInstitutional Strengthening Partnership for DEVIDABest Management Practices in the Amazon Activity SERVIR

BIODIVERSITY AND MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMSClimate change: a direct threat and driver that exacerbates other threats to biodiversity in marine and coastal areasThe Peruvian upwelling system responsible for the huge fish productivity in the Eastern Pacific is periodically affected by El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events. This phenomenon affects not only marine productivity but impacts most of the species and communities along the Peruvian coastline (Timmermann et al., 2018). The collapse of the anchoveta fisheries in early 70s has been attributed to a combination of ENSO and bad public policies (Gutierrez et al., 2017). The mortality of seabirds and seals, as well as local displacement are the more visible effects of ENSO (Jahncke, 1998; Soto el al., 2004). However, underwater the situation is similar with anchoveta and other cold water species. They are starving and moving southward or deeper, looking for better conditions (Gutierrez et al., 2017). In the midterm, several species in natural banks are replaced by warm water species. During the strongest ENSO episodes, massive die-offs of coastal seaweed beds affect the spawning areas for several commercial species (Vasquez et al., 2006).

Under climate change conditions, ENSO events could be more frequent, have a higher magnitude, or ENSO conditions could even become the new natural oceanographic pattern for the region (Wang, 2006; Gutierrez et al., 2011; Cai et al., 2018; Freund et al., 2019). This will have a strong impact on the biological base of the current fisheries system affecting multiple levels of the country’s coastal economy (Medina et al., 2015).

Sea temperature has also changed over the past decade, with a decrease of about 0.2 - 0.3 ° C per decade on the central and southern coast with intense upwelling, while the opposite occurs in the north of the country (Gutierrez et al., 2011). Changes in acidity and oxygenation of the water column that could affect fisheries and aquaculture are also expected, but the evidence is still inconclusive (Bertrand et al., 2011).

THREATS TO MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMSIllegal, unreported and unregulated fishing (IUU)Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing (IUU) is one of the main problems affecting the Peruvian marine environment. According to PRODUCE, Peru loses between USD 300 - 500 million annually due to IUU. Illegal fishing is widespread given the limited enforcement capacity in Peru (Proética, 2019). Illegal activities include fishing in prohibited areas and restricted species or during closed seasons, blast fishing, fishing with prohibited gear and even from boats without the corresponding permits. Artisanal fishing is mainly unreported since around 35 percent of the catch lands outside adequate facilities and in poor sanitary conditions. Landing

ANNEXE 4MARINE BIODIVERSITY: THREATS AND DRIVERS

statistics are unreliable given the limitations in fish identification and registration capacity at the local and regional government scales (Mendo and Wosnitza-Mendo, 2014).

The level of compliance with the regulation is poor and like the case of illegal timber, it is frequent that the application of the law be ignored and that the officials in charge have no capacity or incentives to apply it. The magnitude and extent of informality in this sector is so great that successive attempts to formalize the fleets have failed due to social pressure (Proética, 2019)

Overfishing by the industrial fleetDespite the strong regulatory framework and surveillance system of the industrial fishing activities there is evidence of overexploitation of the target resources. Changes in the regulatory framework to expand or reduce permitted fishing zones, quotas and allowed sizes, have been associated with pressure from civil society and El Niño events (Macroconsult, 2018).

In the case of the anchovy, there have been cases in which fishing has continued even when the conditions of the resource merited reducing quotas or not opening seasons. Peru has issued controversial measures for the capture of juveniles. In November 2016, a supreme decree (DS 024-2016) was issued, which allows the capture of juveniles without limitations while the fleet reports to PRODUCE so that it temporarily closes fishing in the area with excess juveniles. The measure has been highly questioned and to date there is no independent evaluation of its effects. The main effect of the capture of juveniles is the reduction of the renewal capacity of the stock.

In the case mackerel, the resource was overexploited until the late 2000s. In this period fishing quotas were exceeded, high percentages of juveniles were captured and part of the fishing was even used to make fishmeal which is legally prohibited. Since then, fishing has been reduced to less than 5 percent of the historical average (Corrales et al., 2018) with a slight stock recovery in recent years.

Overfishing by the small-scale fleetAs noted above, there is less control over artisanal fishing than over industrial fishing, so the landings record is unreliable. Given the lack of enforcement capacity, juveniles smaller in size than allowed by law are sometimes sold without restrictions in local markets. Despite the lack of detailed and reliable landing statistics, the information collected by IMARPE reflects that the landing volumes of some species have been reduced in recent years, suggesting overexploitation. However, the average landing volume remains stable due to the replacement effect with other species (Guevara-Carrasco and Bertrand, 2017).

Another indicator of overfishing is that landing sizes are well below the legally permitted sizes. Among this group are the lisa (Mugil cephalus), cachema (Cynoscion analis), coco (Paralonchurus peruanus), cabinza (Isacia conceptionis) and lorna (Sciaena deliciosa) (Marín, 2018). The current extraction rate of juveniles threatens the renewal capacity of the stock. The Government of Peru has established seasonal bans for species such as pejerrey, choro, chanque, concha navaja and macha in Southern Peru to promote the stock recovery.

Bycatch Most of the marine fishing activities present bycatch but due to their magnitude industrial fishing has a greater impact. Tolerance limits for bycatch are regulated. In industrial anchovy fishing, the main affected species include dolphins, sea wolves and seabirds. It is estimated that around 15,000 dolphins die each year in industrial anchovy fishing (WWF, pers. Comm.). Industrial hake fishing also captures sea lions, birds and sea turtles, sharks and rays (Céspedes, 2013). Bycatch tolerance standards are generally respected in anchovy fishing (10 percent by volume) but their application in the case of artisanal fishing is scarce and opportunistic (Mangel et al., 2006). Among these, the hooks used to catch mahi-mahi also catch seabirds, turtles, sharks and other species, some of them prohibited or threatened (Valqui et al., 2016). In the case of tuna fishing, lack of

ANNEXES

enforcement and informality do not prevent the landing and commercialization of bycatch. This situation is similar in all artisanal fisheries and although some mitigation measures such as pingers and modified hooks have been tested, their adoption is not yet attractive to fishermen (Mangel, et al., 2018; Alfaro-Shigueto et al., 2018). The implementation of the US Seafood Import Monitoring Program is driving a strong effort from the government and the private sector to reduce bycatch in mahi mahi fisheries.

Habitat conversionMost Peruvians live now in coastal areas, and migration to the coast continues to increase according to the 2017 Census. The increases in urbanization, the development of ports and tourist infrastructure near the sea, have caused the loss of quality and disappearance of natural coastal habitats. Most of the coastline along the main coastal cities is occupied by constructions and infrastructure that has caused the loss of critical habitats for shore and migratory birds, spaces for reproduction and rest of marine fauna as well as wetlands and natural breakers (COMUMA, 2018). In the absence of urban development policies, expansion only responds to economic interests and market demand. Additionally, in the absence of adequate technical studies, some infrastructure works such as breakwaters and platforms generate problems of coastal erosion with large losses of land such as has happened in Trujillo and Chimbote (Sánchez et al., 2010). In the case of areas with high tourist value such as Paracas Bay, hotel expansion has caused the loss of quality of the nearby protected area for migratory birds (SERNANP, pers. Comm.).

Sewage and non-point source contamination with agriculture fertilizersLess than 30 percent of the wastewater generated in Peru is treated before reaching marine environments. Rivers transport untreated domestic wastewater to the ocean, also carrying traces of fertilizers and pesticides used in agricultural valleys. Wastewater pollution affects natural ecosystems by altering the availability of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus, as well as infecting organisms with pathogens. The increase in nutrients can cause eutrophication (excessive increase in primary productivity) of large areas of the coast in shallow waters and have been associated with the development of Tidal tides that cause massive mortality of aquatic organisms (Martinez, 2018).

Aquaculture, especially in the north of the country, is particularly sensitive to contamination by sewage due to the proliferation of coliforms and other pathogens that can infect crops. These harmful algal blooms can cause losses to aquaculture not only by direct mortality but also by the generation of toxic substances that are accumulated in the filtering organisms and that makes them unsuitable for human consumption (Monja, 2015; Orozco et al., 2017). Areas most affected by this problem include Ferrol, Sechura, Callao, Chancay and Huacho. Marine environments are also polluted by effluents from fishmeal production and waste produced during unloading and cleaning of artisanal fishing.

Solid waste (plastics, litter)The majority (58 percent) of the Peruvian population lives on the coast (INEI, 2018c) and solid waste management is inadequate (Sanchez et al., 2010). MINAM estimates that around 80 percent of marine litter comes from terrestrial sources (Alfaro, 2006). Further of the total generated waste, only 84 percent is collected but more than half of the collected waste goes to informal dumps. Marine litter can act as a refuge for pests and vectors of diseases, and in large quantities affect the operation of ports and ships causing economic damage to fish, tourism and commerce. Litter impacts marine life directly. The case of plastic stands out due to its persistence and wide distribution as microplastics (Purca and Henostrozam, 2017), presence in common fish (Ory et al., 2018), as well as its impact on the diet of birds and sea turtles (Almendras, 2017, Alfaro-Shigeto, comm. Pers.). Phantom fishing by lost and abandoned fishing gear has not yet been studied in the country despite the amount of waste reported mostly in the north of the country (Ganoza et al., 2014).

Pollution from extractive industries Oil activity on the north coast of the country began in 1863 with multiple perforations in the coastline. The first offshore wells were drilled in the 1970s. Currently only three lots are in the exploitation phase in the northern plinth of the country, however, the government is promoting lots throughout of the entire coastline under the premise of a lower potential for social conflict. However, conflicts exist between the hydrocarbons sector and the establishment of new marine protected areas in the north of the country.

The main environmental risks of the activity during the exploratory phase are related to underwater seismic prospecting that generates noise in wavelengths and magnitudes that would affect marine fauna. Although there has been much speculation, and this activity has even been linked to episodes of mass dolphin mortality in 2012, there is no documentation to prove a causal relationship. Oil spills have been detected, but they have been isolated and of little volume. Other points of contamination related to the activity are the sites of embarkation and disembarkation of crude oil and refineries such as Talara, La Pampilla, Puerto Marítimo (Callao) and Conchán (Lima) (Sanchez et al., 2010).

DRIVERS OF THREATS TO MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMSInstitutional arrangementsThe complex network of sectoral competencies, sometimes overlapping, slows down decision-making and is one of the main obstacles to the conservation of marine biodiversity in Peru. This situation is analogous to that of the forestry sector with the complicating fact that the regime of open access for artisanal fishermen hinders needed planning and control.

The management of marine resources lacks a long-term vision and development goals at different scales. As an example, the General Fisheries Law (Table 4) does not have a policy that guides its application or establishes a metric to evaluate its performance. In general, the fisheries sector responds to short-term circumstances and market expectations, which makes it very vulnerable to pressure from interest groups and fragile to public opinion.

Additionally, the implementation of the fisheries management regulation at the species level lacks adaptive management mechanisms, transparency and mechanisms for public participation. Although IMARPE collects, systematizes and analyzes information relevant to public policy, this information is not publicly available, and the reports that support policy decisions are only made available after the corresponding regulations have been issued.

Artisanal fishing is managed by regional governments, which often do not allocate enough resources for this purpose. Similarly, the exchange of information between regional governments and PRODUCE is not efficient and the information that should feed the regulatory framework is of poor quality. The low transparency of the sector contributes to this situation, which is evident during interdictions against illegal fishing, illegal trade, and diversion of anchovy for direct human consumption towards the production of fishmeal. Additionally, the fishing rights are only required for industrial fishing and currently not enough to cover the costs associated with managing the resource.

Inadequate management capacityIn addition to overlapping competencies, management capacities at the local and regional levels are often inadequate to implement the measures needed to ensure the sustainability of marine resources. Often staff is hired based on political affinities and clientelism rather than by professional merits. This situation results in poor management of the public budget and a high turnover of officials that hinders the continuity of the few development plans in the sector.

ANNEXES

Although protocols exist for the implementation of policies and regulations, there are ongoing disputes between sectors regarding competencies in situations such as the control of illegality or the allocation of permits for the use of resources or urbanization. This situation has allowed an active expansion of urban and recreational areas, compromising coastal habitats such as breakers and wetlands even if these environments have been previously identified as priorities for conservation. Similarly, solid waste management is the responsibility of local governments that often have inadequate capacity and resources to do so.

Corruption exacerbates the issues mentioned above. Corruption is facilitated by factors such as lack of transparency, overlap and multiplicity of institutional competencies and weaknesses in regulatory governance regarding IUU fishing (Proética, 2019). One aspect in which this activity is very evident in the fisheries sector is the limited (to practically nil in some areas) control of fishing landings on the coast. A high percentage of what is recorded is reported by the interested parties themselves and data is not collected on minimum size or bycatch. Consequently, the landing figures are lower than the real values (Mendo and Wosnitza-Mendo, 2014) and, in the absence of traceability, it is possible that massive levels of IUU fish is entering the national market.

Inadequate technical capacities Despite the importance of the fishing sector for the economy of the coast, there is a limited technical capacity available to meet the development needs of the industry. Scientific research focuses on the most exploited species such as anchovy, sardine, hake and mackerel. There are few resources available for the investigation of other resources that could replace or complement the fishery of traditional resources. Similarly, industrial fishing activity has concentrated on having vessels, rigs and processing infrastructure required for these few species and allocates very few resources to explore other resources.

Technical limitations are exacerbated at the subnational government level due to lack of qualified staff. High turnover of officials and unstable hiring mechanisms make government positions less attractive to professionals than private sector positions (which generally offer higher salaries and greater job stability). Some emerging issues such as adaptation to climate change, integrated spatial planning to identify priority areas, valuation of environmental services, reduction of bycatch, among others are completely absent from the university curricula sector and young professionals have few opportunities to learn about them.

The large majority of the over 67,000 fishermen in Peru lack formal training and technical capacity to manage their businesses in an effective and efficient way, but also implement personal security measures. This issue is prevalent among artisanal fishermen (Marin, 2018).

In general, marine ecosystems are undervalued. There is a general perception of the seas as spaces that generate wealth in an inexhaustible way and that if one resource is scarce another will appear to replace it. Most of the investment and innovation in the fisheries sector has focused on transformation and commercialization, while little attention is given to improving the health of the marine ecosystem that sustains the stocks. This goes hand in hand with the undervaluation of fisheries and the biodiversity that sustains them when compared to the development of hydrocarbon extraction operations or large port infrastructure.

Sociopolitical factors As noted above, the Peruvian coast concentrates the largest proportion of the country’s population in part due to migration from the andean highlands. According to IMARPE (2018), between 2012 and 2015, the number of artisanal fishermen increased from 44,161 to 67,427, which indicates that fishing absorbed a high percentage of labor from other sectors or unemployment. Fishing serves as a refuge for workers during periods of high labor demand, complementing other income generating activities such as agriculture, construction, or family businesses.

As a result of this increase in the number of fishermen, the number of illegal vessels has also increased. Efforts led by the government to formalize artisanal fishermen have not been successful due in part by opposition from regional governments that claim competence on the issue as well as by fishermen not willing to follow the rules of formalization. The most recent formalization effort began in September 2018 (Decree Law No. 1392) to incorporate artisanal vessels in the Artisanal Fishing Formalization System in a period of two years.

Economic factorsIndustrial fishing in Peru is highly concentrated in a single product: anchovy to produce fishmeal and fish oil. On average 85 to 90 percent of the landings in the country is anchovy. For this reason, the fishing industry is particularly susceptible to the climatic variability caused by El Niño and to climate change in general. Unfortunately, despite the perception of the problem, there is little has been done to develop productive alternatives, shelter employment opportunities or even insurance that helps mitigate the consequences of lower anchovy fishing yield. For this reason, the industry is very sensitive to any initiative that may compromise the allocation of quotas that do not meet their expectations and is very active by pressing media on the risks to the sector in terms of employment or the possible reduction of GDP if the quotas recommended by IMARPE to PRODUCE are not high enough.

China is the main destination of fishmeal produced by Peru, Europe and Chile for fish oil. In recent years, the decline in flour production caused by El Niño has caused a reduction in Peru’s participation in Chinese market. Emerging producers such as Vietnam, Thailand and African countries are now competing with Peru in the Chinese market. The fishing industry is susceptible to the levels of Chinese consumption (Han et al., 2018). A reduction in Chinese consumption will affect the main fishing activity of the country if alternative markets are not found or fishing efforts are not directed to other resources.

China is also the main destination of various illegally traded marine products. These include dried shark fins, seahorses and sea cucumbers, swim bladders and seaweed. The main use is in traditional Chinese medicine in which they are used to treat various ailments without any scientific evidence of sustenance. Shark fins, cucumbers and swim bladders are very precious in Chinese food and are also attributed aphrodisiac and disease prevention effects.

In the case of shark fins, Peru acts as a crossing point for laundering of fins obtained in Ecuador where directed fishing is not allowed. Once the fins are admitted to Peru with confusing documentation or by contraband they are regularly exported from Peru. The shark fin export business reaches around 50 million dollars annually, but this value is multiplied by up to ten in Chinese markets. The extraction and trade of seahorses has been prohibited in Peru since 2004, but export practice persists as contraband camouflaged within other products. In the last three years, between 8 and 10 million specimens have been seized for an approximate value of USD 4 million each year. Finally, the Chinese market concentrates 99.9 percent of brown seaweed exports for alginate production in the food industry. They are exported on average between 25 and 30 thousand tons per year, but the official collection and processing figures account for only a quarter of this export. It is estimated that the rest comes from informal or illegal sources.

ANNEXES

ANNEXE 5ADDITIONAL TABLES AND FIGURES

ECOSYSTEM CATEGORY

ECOSYSTEM AREA (HA)% OF THE

NATIONAL TERRITORY

% PROTECTED

Inland freshwater

Rivers 1,474,389.46 1.14 9.22

Lakes and ponds 891,921.67 0.69 13.05

Coastal wetlands 56,769.34 0.04 1.91

Marine and coastal

Mangroves 6,943.31 0.01 42.69

Marine islands - - 99.90

Tropical sea - - -

Cold sea - - -

High mountain

Jalca 1,340,320.57 1.04 8.25

Bofedal 548,174.41 0.42 6.10

Pajonales de puna húmeda 11,981,914.03 9.26 3.18

Pajonales de puna seca 4,887,186.88 3.78 10.06

Páramo 82,948.54 0.06 7.39

Glacier and periglacier area 2,959,578.37 2.29 18.00

Arid and semiarid

Matorral xérico 64,175.98 0.05 38.58

Matorral andino 10,304,035.94 7.96 2.02

Coastal desert 7,107,338.2 5.49 3.66

Loma costera 294,033.05 0.23 0.87

Table A5 1Ecosystem Categories

ECOSYSTEM CATEGORY

ECOSYSTEM AREA (HA)% OF THE

NATIONAL TERRITORY

% PROTECTED

Forest ecosystems

Seasonally dry eastern forest 87,254.76 0.07 0.00

Seasonally dry interandean forest 535,871.6 0.41 0.00

Seasonally dry plain forest 1,452,575.98 1.12 0.50

Seasonally dry riparian forest 52,152.65 0.04 7.00

Seasonally dry hill and montane forest 1,897,483.31 1.47 11.60

Pacific Tropical Forest 20,692.06 0.02 99.99

High-andean relict forest 156,973.41 0.12 10.09

Occidental relict forest 90,703.86 0.07 12.85

Inter-andean relict forest 24,964.55 0.02 1.10

Midmontane yunga forest 8,237,633.88 6.36 33.56

Montane yunga forest 4,528,359.89 3.5 24.60

Highmontane yunga forest 2,377,288.52 1.84 17.86

Whitewater floodplain flooded forest

9,038,741.41 6.98 17.92Blackwater floodplain flooded forest

Low hill forest 31,801,303.37 24.57 22.20

High hill forest 3,862,298.23 2.98 32.82

Sierra del Divisor hill forest 71,428.28 0.06 69.90

Non-flood terrace forest 4,805,993 3.71 22.11

Wet savanna with palms 6,631.15 0.01 100.00

Varillal 571.36 0.04 17.14

Shrubby swamp 795,573.87 0.61 13.84

Palm swamps 5,527,523.42 4.27 17.05

Pacal 29,721.44 0.02 22.04

Other Underground caves, and karstic wetlands

Source: MINAM, 2019

ANNEXES

Table A5 2National Natural Protected Areas

CATEGORY LOCATION AREA (HECTARES)

Total 19,456,485.32

National Parks 10,394,366.70

Alto Purús Ucayali y Madre de Dios 2,510,694.41

Manu Cusco y Madre de Dios 1,716,295.22

Cordillera Azul San Martín, Loreto, Ucayali y Huánuco 1,353,190.85

Bahuaja – Sonene Madre de Dios y Puno 1,091,416.00

Huascarán Áncash 340,000.00

Otishi Junín y Cusco 305,973.05

Río Abiseo San Martín 274,520.00

Güeppi-Sekime Loreto 203,628.51

Cerros de Amotape Tumbes y Piura 151,767.49

Yanachaga – Chemillén Pasco 122,000.00

Ichigkat Muja - Cordillera del Cóndor Amazonas 88,477.00

Cutervo Cajamarca 8,214.23

Tingo María Huánuco 4,777.00

Sierra del Divisor Loreto y Ucayali 1,354,485.10

Yaguas Loreto 868,927.84

National Reserves 4,652,851.63

Pacaya – Samiria Loreto 2,080,000.00

Pucacuro Loreto 637,953.83

Matsés Loreto 420,635.34

Salinas y Aguada Blanca Arequipa y Moquegua 366,936.00

Paracas Ica 335,000.00

Tambopata Madre de Dios 274,690.00

San Fernando Ica 154,716.37

Sistema de Islas, islotes y puntas guaneras

Áncash, Arequipa, Ica, La Libertad, Lambayeque, Lima, Moquegua, Piura 140,833.47

Calipuy La Libertad 64,000.00

Allpahuayo - Mishana Loreto 58,069.90

Junín Junín y Pasco 53,000.00

Titicaca Puno 36,180.00

Tumbes Tumbes 19,266.72

Pampa Galeras Bárbara D' Achille Ayacucho 6,500.00

Lachay Lima 5,070.00

Reserved Areas 636,717.39

Santiago Comaina Amazonas y Loreto 398,449.44

Cordillera Huayhuash Áncash, Huánuco, Lima 67,589.76

Sierra del Divisor Loreto 62,234.62

Illescas Piura 37,452.58

Río Nieva Amazonas 36,348.30

Reserva Paisajística Cerro Khapia Puno 18,313.79

Lomas de Ancón Lima 10,962.14

Chancaybaños Cajamarca 2,628.00

Ancón Lima 2,193.01

Bosque de Zárate Lima 545.75

Communal Reserves 2,166,588.44

El Sira Huánuco, Pasco y Ucayali 616,413.41

Amarakaeri Madre de Dios 402,335.62

Airo Pai Loreto 247,887.59

Machiguenga Cusco y Junín 218,905.63

Purús Ucayali y Madre de Dios 202,033.21

Asháninka Junín y Cusco 184,468.38

Huimeki Loreto 141,234.46

Tuntanain Amazonas 94,967.68

Yanesha Pasco 34,744.70

Chayu Nain Amazonas 23,597.76

Landscape Reserves 711,818.48

Sub Cuenca del Cotahuasi Arequipa 490,550.00

Nor Yauyos - Cochas Lima y Junín 221,268.48

ANNEXES

Protection Forest 389,986.99

Alto Mayo San Martín 182,000.00

San Matías - San Carlos Pasco 145,818.00

Pui Pui Junín 60,000.00

Pagaibamba Cajamarca 2,078.38

Puquio - Santa Rosa La Libertad 72.50

Aledaño a la Bocatoma del Canal Nuevo Imperial Lima 18.11

National Sanctuaries 389,986.99

Megantoni Cusco 215,868.96

Cordillera de Colán Amazonas 39,215.80

Tabaconas - Namballe Cajamarca 32,124.87

Pampa Hermosa Junín 11,543.74

Huayllay Pasco 6,815.00

Calipuy La Libertad 4,500.00

Ampay Apurímac 3,635.50

Manglares de Tumbes Tumbes 2,972.00

Lagunas de Mejía Arequipa 690.60

Hunting Areas 124,735.00

El Angolo Piura 65,000.00

Sunchubamba Cajamarca 59,735.00

Historic Sanctuaries 41,279.38

Machu Picchu Cusco 32,592.00

Bosque de Pómac Lambayeque 5,887.38

Chacamarca Junín 2,500.00

Pampas de Ayacucho Ayacucho 300.00

Wildlife Refuge 20,775.11

Bosques Nublados de Udima Cajamarca 12,183.20

Laquipampa Lambayeque 8,328.64

Pantanos de Villa Lima 263.27

Table A5 3CITES Listed Animal Species

Table A5 4CITES Listed Plant Species

CLASS APPENDIX I APPENDIX II TOTAL

Actinopterygii 0 2 2

Amphibians 1 45 46

Anthozoa 0 5 5

Birds 10 274 284

Chondrichthyes 1 17 18

Mammals 29 84 113

Reptiles 7 21 28

TOTAL 48 448 496

CLASS APPENDIX I APPENDIX II APPENDIX III TOTAL

Actinopterygii 0 186 0 186

Cyatheaceae 0 79 0 79

Dicksoniaceae 0 2 0 2

Euphorbiaceae 0 1 0 1

Fabaceae 0 11 0 11

Lauraceae 0 1 0 1

Meliaceae 0 1 1 2

Orchidaceae 11 2,203 0 2,214

Zamiaceae 0 9 0 9

TOTAL 11 2,493 1 2,505

Source: MINAM, 2019

ANNEXES

Table A5 5Classification of Ecosystem Services

CATEGORY LOCATION

Regulation Services

Regulation of air quality

Water quality regulation

Climate regulation (including carbon sequestration)

Disease and pest control

Water regulation

Pollination

Erosion control

Regulation of natural risks

Provisioning Services

Food (from wild sources: fishing, hunting, gathering)

Freshwater

Wood and fiber

Pharmaceutical and products used in traditional medicine

Fuels, energy supply

Geotic materials (salt and others)

Genetic resources

Ornamental resources

Pastures and soil for cultivation

Cultural Services

Aesthetics - landscape beauty

Spiritual and religious

Educational

Recreational and ecotourism

Supporting Services

Nutrient cycle

Soil formation

Primary production

Biodiversity maintenance

Source: MINAM, 2018

AmazonasAyacuchoCajamarcaCuscoHuánucoLoretoMadre de DiosSan MartínUcayali

2009 20172016201520142013201220112010

45,000

40,000

35,000

30,000

25,000

20,000

15,000

10,000

Figure A5 1Forest Loss in Selected Regions

Source: MINAM, Forests Program. Figure elaborated by Analysis Authors

Office of the Comptroller General This is the lead office for the National Control System and is responsible for ensuring efficiency in the use of public monies. It includes an Environmental and Cultural Heritage Management Office, under Resolution 345-2-2-CG, for planning, organizing, administering, executing, and evaluating the activities of decentralized government institutions and investment projects. This is achieved through environmental audits, the prioritization of critical natural and national heritage areas (e.g., protected areas, watersheds, and archeological sites), and the enforcement of international agreements to which Peru is party.

Regional and local governments These governments are responsible for establishing local natural resource and environmental management administrative units. The administrative units are responsible for local forests and environmental management in general. Regional and municipal governments also approve the scope, composition, and operation of regional and municipal environmental committees.

National Center for Strategic Planning (CEPLAN)CEPLAN is the lead agency in charge of coordinating the National Strategic Planning System, whose aim is to pursue sustainable development for Peru. CEPLAN is responsible for the current National Plan for Strategic Development (PEDN), the updating of the PEDN looking down the road to 2030, and Peru’s Vision for 2050.

Ministry of Agriculture (MINAGRI)MINAGRI manages agricultural and grazing lands and is responsible for developing national policies, strategies, regulations, plans, programs, and projects related to the sustainable use of forest resources and wildlife.

ANNEXE 6DESCRIPTION OF GOVERNMENT AGENCIES

ANNEXES

National Forest and Wildlife Service (SERFOR)SERFOR’s mission is to provide coordinated and effective technical and regulatory leadership in managing and promoting the sustainability and competitiveness of the forest and wildlife sector for the benefit of the public and the environment. It is Peru’s national forest and wildlife authority and the lead agency of the National Forest and Wildlife Management System (SINAFOR).

National Water Authority (ANA)Pursuant to Law 29338 (Law on Water Resources), ANA is the lead agency and senior technical-regulatory authority of the National Water Resource Management System. Its functions include management and oversight of natural water sources, granting water use rights, and authorizing the discharge and reuse of treated wastewater.

Ministry of Environment (MINAM)MINAM was created in 2008 to promote environmental sustainability in Peru through the conservation, protection, and restoration of its ecosystems and natural resources. Its mission is to ensure the sustainable use and conservation of natural resources, as well as environmental quality, for the benefit of the public and the environment in a standardized, effective, decentralized, and coordinated manner with public, private, and civil society organizations, in the context of green growth and environmental governance. Seven environmental institutions comprise the specialized agencies that fall under MINAM:• Research Institute of the Peruvian Amazon (IIAP): IIAP’s objective is to help improve socioeconomic

conditions in the communities of Peru’s Amazon basin through research focused on sustainable development. It is Peru’s main public research institute in the Amazon.

• Environmental Assessment and Enforcement Agency (OEFA): OEFA is responsible for monitoring the enforcement of environmental laws and regulations and penalizing environmental infractions. It also serves as lead agency for the National Environmental Enforcement System.

• National Service for Protected Natural Areas (SERNANP): SERNANP is responsible for administering Peru’s National System of Protected Natural Areas (SINANPE), which involves both technical and legal enforcement functions. While it does fall under MINAM, SERNANP has both budgetary and functional autonomy.

• National Environmental Certification Service (SENACE): Through SENACE, the Ministry of Environment now has the authority to review and certify environmental impact assessments (EIAs) for large projects, regardless of the sector.

• National Institute for Research on Glaciers and Mountain Ecosystems (INAIGEM): INAIGEM’s mission is to promote and expand scientific and technological research on glaciers and mountain ecosystems, promoting the sustainable management thereof for the benefit of the communities that live in or benefit from such ecosystems.

Marine Institute of Peru (IMARPE)IMARPE conducts research on marine and coastal areas in close coordination with the Ministry of Environment. Currently, IMARPE is in charge of the Coastal Marine Biodiversity Program. It is also responsible for the environmental monitoring of Peru’s coasts and territorial waters. IMARPE’s monitoring and research work leans toward marine production.

National Institute for Agricultural Research (INIA) INIA implements an agrobiodiversity management and conservation program.

Council on Science and Technology (CONCYTEC) CONCYTEC is a government institution attached to the Ministry of Education whose mission is to promote, coordinate, and guide scientific and technological research. CONCYTEC can and should play an active role in promoting applied research to guide environmental management. Currently, however, no formally coordinated research program exists to bring together academic and government institutions responsible for biodiversity conservation and management.

Committee for Andean, Amazonian, and Afro-Peruvian Peoples, the Environment and Ecology (CPAAAAE) This congressional committee has the exclusive function of creating, amending, interpreting, or repealing laws. Draft bills are decided on by the special committees, in this case the CPAAAAE, and passed by the full Congress to become law. The CPAAAAE also engages in political supervision or oversight to evaluate actions taken by government agencies (ministries, regional and local governments, etc.), as well as the political conduct of public officials to help solve Peru’s main issues.

Office of the Special Prosecutor for Environmental Matters (FEMA)FEMA was created in 2008 and began to operate in 2010. It is responsible for preventing and investigating environmental crimes and has field offices in all of Peru’s judicial districts. The signing of the Trade Promotion Agreement prompted the creation of FEMA, which marked an important change in Peru’s environmental institutional framework.

The Office of the OmbudspersonIs an autonomous governmental institution created under the 1993 Constitution with the mission to defend the constitutional rights of persons and communities. This Office includes a division responsible for the environment, public services, and indigenous peoples. Among other rights, this division guarantees the right of all Peruvian citizens to a healthy environment. To that end, the Office of the Ombudsperson ensures that the government meets its administrative obligations concerning the environment.

Ministry of Production - Vice Ministry for Fisheries Oversees the management and control of the harvest of aquatic biota, as well as cultivation of aquatic species with economic value.

Ministry of Foreign Trade and Tourism (MINCETUR)MINCETUR is relevant to the environment in terms of its objective of making sustainable tourism a means for socioeconomic development in Peru. MINCETUR is also responsible for the U.S.-Peru Trade Promotion Agreement, including its environmental chapter.

National Commission for Development and Drug-free Life (DEVIDA)DEVIDA is a decentralized government agency whose mandate is to develop income-generating activities with local communities in watersheds prone to illicit crop cultivation. These activities must be compatible with biodiversity conservation and deter increased illicit crop cover.

Ministry of the InteriorThis is the Executive Branch ministry responsible for governance inside Peru, and for law enforcement and public order, through the Peruvian National Police (PNP). Under the provisions of Peru’s constitution and Legislative Decrees 1095 and 1100, the PNP works with the Public Prosecution Ministry to carry out operations to stop illegal logging and mining. In addition, the PNP has an Executive Directorate on the Environment (DIREJMA–PNP), whose mission is to plan, organize, manage, execute, monitor, and supervise police activities nationwide related to environmental protection.

Ministry of Defense (MIMDEF)MIMDEF requests from the Ministry of Energy and Mining or the regional governments, as necessary, detailed information on mine owners under their purview who have the necessary authorization. It also requests accounts of the authorized machinery, and its owners, in the case of small-scale mining. MIMDEF further supports the police in carrying out operations to stop illegal mining and illegal logging through the Directorate General of the Coast Guard (DICAPI).

ANNEXES

Forest and Wildlife Resources Oversight Agency (OSINFOR)OSINFOR falls under the Office of the President of the Council of Ministers and is the national agency responsible for overseeing and monitoring the sustainable use and conservation of forest resources and wildlife. OSINFOR takes immediate special enforcement actions in forest concessions in order to verify that concession holders are not engaging in illegal mining activities or have encouraged such activities by proxy or by allowing them to occur without authorization within the area of their concession. Should evidence be found that a concession holder has engaged in or encouraged illegal mining, OSINFOR will revoke the forest concession in question.

Office of the Special Solicitor for Environmental Crime (under MINAM) This Office defends the Government’s interests when these are impacted by environmental crimes. In this regard, it is involved in preliminary and/or preparatory investigations and legal proceedings already underway, or set to begin, for environmental crimes, such as crimes pertaining to contamination and natural resources.

Tax Administration Superintendency (SUNAT) SUNAT is responsible for prevention, inspection, and enforcement when it comes to the smuggling and illegal trafficking of goods nationally, whatever their origin and nature, and for punishing those who violate legal and administrative tax and customs provisions. SUNAT oversees enforcement operations in retail fuel establishments to prevent the indiscriminate sale of fuel primarily destined for illegal mining activities. It is likewise responsible for establishing so-called “fiscal routes,” with checkpoints that make it possible to stem the irregular supply of chemicals and machinery, to fight illegal mining. In addition to playing a role in the international gold and timber trade, through its customs division, SUNAT is also in charge of detecting and seizing gold of illegal origin.

Financial Intelligence Unit (FIU) of the Superintendency of Banking and Insurance (SBS) and Pension Fund Managers (AF) The FIU’s legal mandate is to protect financial integrity, understood as protecting the public via the creation of anti-money laundering and countering the financing of terrorism (AML/CFT) regulations in order to reduce the likelihood of financial crime and its potential impact. This mandate involves all persons defined as regulated entities. In order to verify implementation of an AML/CFT system, both the SBS and the FIU conduct on-site and off-site inspections of the following regulated entities: companies in the financial and insurance systems and private pension fund managers; savings and loans cooperatives and correspondent offices; and regulated entities under their purview (like gold mining and trade companies).

ANNEXE 7CONSERVATION INITIATIVES

ORGANIZATION DESCRIPTION ADDITIONAL

INFORMATION

World Bank Integrated Forest Landscape Management Project in Atalaya, Ucayali,2019- 2024

The Project seeks to strengthen sustainable management and use of forest landscapes in the Raimondi, Sepahua, and Tahuanía districts of the Atalaya province.

USD 12.20 million

World Bank Integrated Water Resources Management in Ten Watersheds of Peru Project 2017- 2022

The Project seeks to strengthen the capacity of targeted water resources management related institutions to plan, monitor and manage water resources at the national level and in selected river basins in Peru.

USD 88.15 million

World Bank Improvement of Environmental Quality Services 2017 - 2022

The Project seeks to generate and share information for environmental quality control at the national level, by supporting the Government of Peru to improve its environmental monitoring and analytical capacity, increase public access to environmental quality information, and promote informed public participation in environmental quality management.

USD 70.41 million

World BankSpecific Donation Mechanism for Saweto, Peru2015 - 2021

Grant Mechanism for Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities in Peru improve sustainable forest management practices.

USD 5.50 million

European Union - Food and Agriculture Organization Regional Program 2015 - 2021

The Program supports government institutions (in Peru and Colombia), civil society organizations, representatives of indigenous peoples and private sector organizations to address their priority needs for forest governance and law enforcement. Focus areas include illegal logging, promote trade in timber products of legal origin and contribute to sustainable forest management and poverty reduction.

USD 7.4 million

European Union Amazonia 2.0 2017 - 2021

The objective of the Program is to contain the deforestation and degradation of Amazonian forests, the loss of their biodiversity and ecosystem services, including climatic services, empowering indigenous and campesino organizations in Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, Guyana and Suriname.

USD 7.4 million

Figure A7 1Conservation Initiatives

ANNEXES

INFORMATION

European UnionIntegration of the Protected Areas of the Amazon Biome 2015 - 2019

The general objective is that by 2020, the protected area systems of the Amazon biome increase the resilience of ecosystems to the effects of climate change and maintain the provision of goods and services in Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, Suriname, Guyana, French Guyana, Venezuela.

USD 5.8 million

European UnionIncreased capacity for execution and cooperation to combat wildlife and timber trafficking in the Andes Amazon region 2018 - 2021

The Project seeks to increase the commitment of civil society to strengthen the application of the law and cooperation with and between authorities in Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia, Peru, with the border areas of Brazil to combat illegal trafficking of wildlife and timber.

USD 7.7 million

GEF - UN EnvironmentProject “Effective implementation of the regime of access and participation in the benefits and traditional knowledge in Peru in accordance with the Nagoya protocol”2017 - to date

The project seeks to strengthen national capacities for the effective implementation of access regimes to genetic resources and traditional knowledge in accordance with the Nagoya protocol and thus contribute to the conservation of biological diversity and human well-being in the country.

USD 2.19 million

Pluspetrol Paracas Fund 2004 - 2044

The purpose of the Paracas Fund is to support the management and recovery of the Paracas National Reserve, in accordance with its Master Plan.

USD 7.0 million

GEF - IADB Mitigation of deforestation in Brazil nut concessions in Madre de Dios, Peru 2014 - 2019

The Project seeks to implement a sustainable forest management and preservation model for Brazil nut concessions in Madre de Dios, which contributes to reducing greenhouse gas emissions caused by deforestation and degradation.

USD 1.57 million

The Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund Partnership fund for the tropical hotspot critical ecosystems of the Tropical Andes 2015 - 2020

The project seeks to ensure that civil society is involved in biodiversity conservation initiatives in hotspots or “hot spots” of biodiversity.

USD 253,100

Green Climate FundBuilding wetland resilience in the Datem del Marañón province, Peru 2016 - 2022

The project seeks to enhance the resilience capacity of the indigenous communities living in the rich carbon stock wetland ecosystem in the Province of Datem del Marañón in Loreto. The project aims to create social capital and agreed plans to entrust the management of the natural resource base to the indigenous communities.

USD 6.2 million

INFORMATION

GEF - FAOSustainable management of agro-biodiversity and recurrence of vulnerable ecosystems in the andean region of Peru through the focus of important systems of the World Agricultural Heritage 2016 - 2023

The objective of the project is to conserve in-situ and to sustainably use globally-important agro-biodiversity through the preservation of traditional agricultural systems, the integrated management of forests, water, and land resources, and the maintenance of ecosystem services.

USD 9.2 million

KfWProtection of Natural Areas - Phase III - Conservation of marine biodiversity2017 - 2022

The program seeks to contribute to the consolidation of the network of protected natural areas in the marine and coastal areas; and contribute to the consolidation of the Peruvian system of protected areas with a view to meeting the objectives of the Convention on Biological Diversity. It also seeks the maintenance of environmental services provided by these ecosystems, including those associated with mitigation and adaptation to climate change.

USD 11.8 million

Adaptation FundAdaptation to the impacts of climate change on coastal marine ecosystems and fisheries in Peru 2017 - 2022

The project aims to support the Peruvian Government in reducing the vulnerability of coastal communities to the impacts of climate change on coastal marine ecosystems and their fishery resources.

USD 6.9 million

Joint Declaration of Intent between Governments of Norway, Germany and Peru 2014 - 2020

Efforts under the Joint Declaration seek to mitigate the impacts of climate change by reducing emission from land use change and contribute to Peru’s sustainable development.

Norway committed up to USD 230 million

IUCN - Vilcanota Polepys Vilcanota Polylepis FundStarted in 2017 and continues to date

The overall objective of the project is to work with local indigenous communities to protect and restore Polylepis native forests.

USD 938,866

Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation - Patrimonio Natural del Peru or Peru’s Legacy initiative Started in 2014

Project Finance for Permanence mechanism established to secure long-term financing and management for national-scale protected area systems. Led by the Government of Peru in partnership with multiple organizations.

Over USD 40 million raised by 2018

GEF - WWF Ensuring the future of Peru’s ANP 2018 - 2022

The objective of the project is to promote long-term financial sustainability for the effective management of the National System of Natural Protected Areas of Peru (SINANPE) for the protection of globally important biodiversity and ecosystem services in the Amazon Biome.

USD 9.0 Million

ANNEXES

PHOTOS:Diego Pérez / USAID-USFS FORESTpixabay.com

Juan Carlos RiverosJuan Carlos Riveros is a Biologist graduated from the National Agrarian University La Molina, with a Master of Science in Forest Resources Conservation. He has over 25 years of experience in biodiversity conservation with a strong background in the application of scientific principles to the design and implementation of conservation actions.

Mr. Riveros has worked extensively with local NGOs and research institutions as well as international conservation organizations to conduct species and ecosystems assessments. He is recognized by his expertise in landscape ecology, geographical information systems, remote sensing and modeling tools for systematic conservation planning, conservation status assessments and climate change scenarios. He was particularly renowned for his work as Science Leader of WWF Peru’s Amazon Program, whose team developed the Amazonian biodiversity conservation vision and the Hydrological Information System to assess the impact of hydropower development in the region. In recent years he has specialized in the use of science to support political decision-making on energy and adaptation to climate change in tropical forests and marine areas.

Maina Martir-TorresMaina Martir-Torres is a Biologist with a Ph.D. in Soil Science and Biochemistry from Penn State University and a Master of Science in Soil Science from the University of Minnesota.

Dr. Maina Martir-Torres worked for the U.S. Agency for International Development from 2014-2019 as a Science and Technology Policy Fellow, assigned to the Peru Mission. While in Peru, she managed biodiversity conservation and climate change adaptation activities and served as the technical expert on illegal gold mining issues with a focus on the environmental degradation. Before joining USAID, Dr. Martir-Torres worked for the U.S. Department of State supporting trade-related environmental cooperation programs in Latin America and Asia. She has over eight years of experience supporting and conducting research in biodiversity, ecosystem processes, and forest dynamics.

César IpenzaCésar Ipenza is a lawyer graduated from the San Martín de Porres University in Lima, with a Master in Conservation of Protected Natural Spaces by the Autonomous University of Madrid and Complutense University of Madrid.

He has over twenty years of practical experience with environmental law at the international, national, and community-based levels, and has frequently worked with indigenous groups and other traditionally excluded communities. Mr. Ipenza also has conducted participatory and analytical processes in the public sector and civil society in the area of biodiversity, natural resources, mining and hydrocarbons, lands, and indigenous peoples. He has served as key negotiator for Peru on issues of the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Regional Agreement on Access to Information, Public Participation and Justice in Environmental Matters in Latin America and the Caribbean (Escazú Agreement).

Patricia TelloPatricia Tello is a Renewable Natural Resources Engineer with a Masters in Agroecology and a minor in Environmental Management from the Universidad Nacional Agraria de la Selva in Peru.

She has over 12 years of experience in agroforestry and environmental management working in the regions of San Martin, Huánuco, Ucayali, Junín, Loreto and Puno (PERU). Patricia has worked for multiple USAID-funded projects serving as environmental coordinator for alternative development activities, helping meet environmental compliance requirements, and contributing to the design and implementation of innovative agroforestry systems for cocoa and coffee crops. She has also supported forest management activities in native communities in tropical forests, and developed protocols for the restoration of soils degraded by coca cultivation in areas formerly covered by tropical forests in Peru.

www.usaid.gov

USAID/PERU 118/119 TROPICAL FOREST AND

Documents

Tran.sforming - USAID

PA00WRT7.pdf - USAID

Pdaak411b1.pdf - USAID

118 RTRCGroup Size

Normativ P 118-3 - 2015

GENESYS - USAID

Spa Opportunities issue 119

xdaaq654a.pdf - USAID

Deloitte - USAID

Jordan - USAID

XDAAJ601A.pdf - USAID

WK $118$/ 5(3257 - BSE

memorandum - USAID

REVIEW OF - USAID

I18 800 - USAID

PDABE875.pdf - USAID

Pnadw258.pdf - USAID

PMK 118 PMK

FORECAST/CAUCASUS - USAID

Quarterly Report - USAID