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University of Malta Faculty of Theology
Mario Gerada
Uncovering Idolatry:
James Alison in dialogue with Scripture and
John of the Cross
Dissertation presented
in part fulfillment of the requirements for the
Master of Arts in Spirituality (Carmelite)
Malta
April 2012
3
Abstract
‘Uncovering Idolatry’ is a study about the true image of God and false images of him.
One’s own understanding of God has serious implications on an individual and
community level. This study particularly looks at the implications of relating to the true
and living God or to false images of him and how these influence human desires which
can lead to either violence or fraternal love. Idolatry, true image of God, desire and
violence are explored through James Alison’s theology which is brought into dialogue
with biblical texts and John of the Cross’ theology. Envious and rival desires are found
to be deeply problematic forms of attachment that spoil human relationships. At the
same time it is desire itself that can be transformed into life giving attachment, in
imitation of God’s own desire. In this study, God’s desire is found to be a desire for
humans to share life and express fraternal love. Humanity is created for intimacy and
relationships: with God, with one another and with all of creation. However, sin has
changed relationships into a dangerous space. Jesus’ command ‘“Love the Lord your
God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind” and “Love your
neighbour as yourself” (cf. Mt 22, 37-40) is found to be the answer to questions raised
by this study.
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Table of Contents Dedication ........................................................................................................................... 7 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. 8 Declaration of Authenticity................................................................................................. 9 Prayer ................................................................................................................................ 10 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 11
0.1 The Study ............................................................................................................... 11 0.2 Aim ........................................................................................................................ 12 0.3 Texts Explored in this Study .................................................................................. 12 0.4 René Girard – The Founding Murder .................................................................... 15 0. 5 Methodology .......................................................................................................... 18 0.6 Limitations ............................................................................................................. 19 0.7 Definition of Terms................................................................................................ 20
Chapter 1: Idolatry and the True Image of God as found in James Alison’s Theology .. 22 1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 22 1.2 Desire ..................................................................................................................... 23 1.3 Mimesis .................................................................................................................. 25 1.4 The Victim ............................................................................................................. 27 1.5 Scapegoat Mechanism ........................................................................................... 28 1.6 The Principle of Reciprocity .................................................................................. 28 1.7 Violence and Idolatry ............................................................................................. 30 1.8 Revelation .............................................................................................................. 33 1.9 Jesus ....................................................................................................................... 35 1.10 Sermon on the Mount........................................................................................... 39 1.11 Jesus’ Resurrection .............................................................................................. 40 1.12 Forgiveness .......................................................................................................... 41 1.13 Transformation ..................................................................................................... 42 1.14 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 46
Chapter 2: Is Human Sacrifice required by the True Living God? Biblical Perspectives........................................................................................................................................... 47
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 47 2.2 The Character of God as found in the Old Testament ........................................... 48 2.3 Problematic Texts with regards to God’s character in the Pentateuch & Historical Books ............................................................................................................................ 50
2.3.1 Genesis ............................................................................................................ 51 2.3.2 The Historical Books....................................................................................... 54
2.4 Desire, Violence & Murder in the Old Testament ................................................. 56 2.5 Idolatry & True Image of God in the Old Testament ............................................ 61 2.6 Darkness & Transformations in the Old Testament .............................................. 63 2.7 The Character of God as found in the New Testament .......................................... 65 2.8 Jesus’ Desire .......................................................................................................... 67 2.9 Darkness & Transformations in the New Testament ............................................. 69 2.10 The Crucifixion – Idolatry & Conspiracy, Sacrifice or Murder?......................... 71
2.10.1 More of the same… ....................................................................................... 73 2.11 Problematic Texts in the New Testament ............................................................ 75
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2.11.1 Judas ............................................................................................................. 77 2.11.2 Pilate’s Wife .................................................................................................. 78
2.12 Non-Violence ....................................................................................................... 80 2.13 Beyond Darkness, Resurrection - His Image ....................................................... 80 2.14 Universality .......................................................................................................... 82 2. 15 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 83
Chapter 3: Idolatry and the True Image of God as found in John of the Cross ............... 86 3.1 Introduction – John the Poet .................................................................................. 86 3.2 Darkness ................................................................................................................. 91 3.3 Nakedness .............................................................................................................. 96 3.4 Idolatry ................................................................................................................. 101 3.5 Desire & Imitation ............................................................................................... 102 3.6 Non-Violence ....................................................................................................... 104 3.7 Prudence ............................................................................................................... 104 3.8 Growth ................................................................................................................. 105 3.9 Images .................................................................................................................. 105
3.9.1 The Ladder ..................................................................................................... 106 3.9.2 The Garb ....................................................................................................... 107
3.10 God ..................................................................................................................... 108 3.11 The Way ............................................................................................................. 110 3.12 Union.................................................................................................................. 112 3.13 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 113
Chapter 4: James Alison’s Theology in Dialogue with Biblical Texts and John of the Cross’ Theology .............................................................................................................. 115
4.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 115 4.2 Idolatry & Violence ............................................................................................. 116 4.3 Sacrifice ............................................................................................................... 121 4.4 Desire ................................................................................................................... 124 4.5 Love ..................................................................................................................... 127 4.6 Beyond us............................................................................................................. 129 4.7 Another kind of God ............................................................................................ 131 4.8 Purification, Punishments, Misunderstandings .................................................... 133 and other Transformations… ...................................................................................... 133 4.9 Crucifixion & Resurrection.................................................................................. 139 4.10 Non-Violence and Forgiveness .......................................................................... 146 4.13 The Demands of Love ........................................................................................ 150 4.15 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 153
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 155 5.1 Overview .............................................................................................................. 155 5.2 Icon ...................................................................................................................... 158 5.3 A Trinitarian Image of God ................................................................................. 162 5.4 The Meaning of Life, the Meaning of Faith ........................................................ 163 5.5 Chastity ................................................................................................................ 165 5.6 A Way Forward.................................................................................................... 167 5.7 Final Comments ................................................................................................... 168
Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 169
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6.1 Primary Sources ................................................................................................... 169 6.2 Other Articles, Books and Studies ....................................................................... 172 6.3 Magisterial and Episcopal Documents................................................................. 181 6.4 Carmelite Sources ................................................................................................ 182
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Dedication
I dedicate this dissertation to:
Annie, my mother, whose visions of liberation
nurtured me throughout my life
and who crossed-over during these studies of mine.
To Carmel (Charles) my father,
Charmaine and Dorianne my sisters
who supported me through the struggles,
ups and downs of finishing this work.
To Richard Woods, James Alison and Gwann Xerri,
the three giants on whose shoulders I humbly stand.
They showed me the art of friendship
and how it can transform everything.
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Acknowledgements
I am most grateful to my supervisor, Rev. Alexander Vella, O.Carm., for his valuable
guidance, support and encouragement. Working with him was an incredible enriching
experience.
I would like to thank Rev. Dr Charlo Camilleri, O. Carm., for his support and caring
guidance and for his dedication towards us all, students of his.
Finally, I would like to show my appreciation to the Faculty of Theology for giving us
the opportunity to study Spirituality and who strived to give us a true experience, not only
at an academic level but also on a personal level. I would also like to thank the Faculty
for its support and understanding towards me whilst going through bereavement.
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Declaration of Authenticity
The undersigned, Mario Gerada, hereby declares that
the research presented in this dissertation is his own
and has never been submitted for any degree
in any other institution.
_____________________________
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Prayer
O Lord my God.
Teach my heart this day
Where and how to find You.
You have made me and re-made me,
And You have bestowed on me
All the good things I possess,
And still I do not know You.
I have not yet done that for which I was made.
Teach me to seek You,
For I cannot seek You
Unless you teach me,
Or find You
Unless You show Yourself to me.
Let me seek You in my desire;
Let me desire You in my seeking.
Let me find You by loving You;
Let me love You when I find You.
St. Anselm
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Introduction
0.1 The Study
Uncovering Idolatry is a study about idolatry and in search of the true image of God. In
this study James Alison’s theology, texts from Scripture and the theology of John of the
Cross, particularly the Ascent of Mount Carmel and the Dark Night of the Soul are
explored and brought together in dialogue. Since Alison’s theology is based on René
Girard’s anthropology, Girard’s writings are also widely used in this study.
Though in this dissertation idolatry is explored in its various facets through the different
texts, one particular perspective is chosen for the whole dissertation. Alison’s theology
and understanding of idolatry is the starting point of this study, as influenced by René
Girard’s anthropology. Biblical texts were chosen keeping in mind both Alison’s
theology and Carmelite spirituality. Hence, the aim of such a choice was to facilitate
dialogue between James Alison’s theology and Carmelite Spirituality particularly John of
the Cross’ theology. These texts bridge the discussion between the two theologians.
However, Biblical texts selected are also studied on their own and perspectives from
Scripture are brought into this dialogue with Alison’s and John of the Cross’ theology.
At this point I want to clarify that this work is not exegetical work in its classical form as
I am not a biblical scholar and this study does not aim or claim to offer that perspective
on Scripture. Biblical texts selected are stories which inspired the authors I chose to
study. Therefore, the approach of allowing the texts to speak on their own is more for a
‘critical’ approach, asking the following questions when reading them: what are these
texts actually saying? What did René Girard, James Alison and Carmelite Spirituality
find in these texts that inspired them so much? Do these texts contradict or confirm what
these theologians are talking about? Therefore, I tried to allow the texts to speak freely,
answering these questions I had in mind, allowing them to confirm or contradict the
theology discussed in this study.
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0.2 Aim
The aim of this study is to identify characteristics of the true and living God whilst
grasping a deeper understanding of his own desires. All sorts of images of God are
presented to us in various ways. At times it feels that Christians amongst themselves
have difficulty in understanding and agreeing upon who this God is and what his desires
for humanity are.
The aim of this study is to attempt to understand a clearer picture of God as found in
Alison’s theology, revealed in Scripture and in John of the Cross’ theology. Through
these texts I hope to arrive at a clearer understanding of who God reveals himself to be -
as unique and as the one who has no rival.
James Alison, Scripture and John of the Cross uncover false notions about God. They
also highlight the implications that such beliefs can have on human behaviour and
relationships. Such an erroneous understanding of God can lead human beings into
serious negative consequences for one’s own life and that of their own community –
violence being one of them. These negative implications can also be seen at play at an
international level. On the other hand a relationship with the true life-giving-living God
enhances the sharing of life and fraternal love. These texts are studied and brought into
dialogue in an attempt to answer the questions raised by this research.
0.3 Texts Explored in this Study
James Alison tells us that the Christian path is a difficult one because it involves
shedding all sorts of idolatry - wrong conceptions about God and violent projections. In
Alison’s theology we find that the biggest lie believed to be sacred is that God requires a
form of worship that involves the sacrifice, exclusion or expulsion of the other. In
Alison’s theology we find that the true image of God is that of loving inclusion offered to
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all of humanity1. This is God’s desire and demand for humanity. Violence, murder,
rivalry, victimizations, exclusions, expulsions and scapegoat mechanisms are only human
fabrications to resolve our own inner violence - the result of sin and humanity’s turning
away from the true living God. There is nothing sacred or divine about these violent
dynamics2.
In Scripture we find different understandings of idolatry, one of them being the worship
of an object as a god. This theme is widely explored in the Old Testament. In fact, the
Old Testament shows us that turning away from worshiping the living God leads to
disaster, violence and also the killing of another person. Because of sin humanity
degenerated into violent behaviour and this brought about the need for laws, demands,
prohibitions and the principle of retribution to contain such violence and avoid chaos in
society. As Chapter Two progresses into the New Testament, idolatry takes another
shape. Jesus, the image of the true living God for Christians, reveals that idolatry has
deeper roots and is located within the desires of the human person. Obeying laws and
observing traditions is not enough. These can become forms of idol worship themselves.
Jesus’ own life shows how those who believed they were servants and guardians of the
Law given by the living God in actual fact only worshiped their traditions and
themselves. They missed the living God in front of them because their desires were
elsewhere. Mostly, it was the poor and the marginalized who recognized Jesus as the Son
of God. However, most of those who recognized him struggled to reach the fullness of
that recognition themselves, as the passion story reveals to us.
At this point I wish to clarify that for the purpose of this study I mainly chose to look at
one aspect of false worship, that of human sacrifice and its effects; how rivalry, envy and
violence lead towards the murder of one’s own brother as presented by Scripture. The
main question that this study struggles with is if the living and true God requires human
sacrifice. When discussing Biblical texts and idolatry I am specifically referring to
human sacrifice. I am also arguing that human sacrifice, including human exclusions and
1 JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts and New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 92-108. 2 RENÉ GIRARD, The Scapegoat, translated by Yvonne Freccero, United States of America 1989, 125-148.
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expulsions are the result of idolatry. The theme of idolatry as found in Scripture is too
vast a subject and could not be covered within this study. As mentioned in the definition
of terms later on in this Chapter, when using the terms idolatry, murder and human
sacrifice I am not only referring to the killing of another human person but am using
these terms in their widest and deeper meaning, that of one person harming and excluding
another human being. At times the term can also refer to the exclusion of God himself.
Going back to Chapter Two, Scripture tells us that one of the greatest struggles for
humanity is fraternal love. Because of sin human relations degenerated into rivalry and
envy. Cain and Abel, Jesus and Judas, Stephen and Saul play within these same
dynamics of fraternal love and hatred, admiration and envy – with rivalry and envious
desire leading one killing the other. Jesus, through the paschal mystery resolves this
fundamental human error once and for all. He opens up the path of life, reveals the
Father as the good and loving Father-Creator towards all humans including those who
murder their own brothers. Jesus’ resurrection brings back to life all victims of the past,
present and future, and lovingly calls to conversion all persecutors and murderers3.
John of the Cross warns us about the various subtle forms and shapes idolatry can take.
He is inspired by scripture, the whole Carmelite tradition and Teresa of Avila. He
explains in detail how any form of attachment which could also be a good one can come
in the way of our relationship with God. He also tells us that religious ceremonies and
spirituality itself can become frivolous forms of idolatry4. Like Elijah, John reveals the
path which leads us towards recognizing the true image of God as a dark journey across
the night. It is a difficult and tiresome path but it leads us to everlasting life. God is
found to be love and his demands for the human person is to imitate that same love5.
All texts point towards the same direction: Universal inclusive fraternal love and sharing
of life. This is only made possible around the crucified, resurrected-victim given back to
3 JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts and New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 249-279. 4 The Ascent of Mount Carmel, Prologue, 1-9. 5 WILFRID MCGREAL, At the Fountain of Elijah. The Carmelite Tradition, NewYork 1999, 53-70.
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us in forgiveness6. True worship happens at his feet on that glorious dawn after the
darkest of moments - his death on the cross. The cross becomes the definitive symbol of
the victory of life over death, of forgiveness freely offered even to persecutors and
murderers. The cross becomes a call to conversion, beckoning us out of our own
violence resolved sometimes overtly and at other times in subtle and hidden ways. The
cross opens up the gate of eternal life that is flowing, abundant, effervescent and ever
lasting. This life is love but it is also a love that is demanding. Its demands are to
embark on the night journey - to be purified of all false images of God and inner
violence. It also demands that we love our brothers and sisters in that same manner we
found God loving us. This is Christian hope and this is the good news.
0.4 René Girard – The Founding Murder
As previously mentioned, Alison’s theology is the main perspective in this study, brought
into dialogue with perspectives from Biblical texts and John of the Cross’ theology. One
of the main foundations of Alison’s theology is René Girard’s anthropology. In this
section I wish to expand on his theory of the founding murder. In Girard’s anthropology
we find other key notions such as mimesis, the victim, scapegoat mechanisms and the
principle of reciprocity. These are explored in more detail in Chapter One.
René Girard, a professor Emeritus at Stanford University, is recognized worldwide for his
theory on human behaviour and culture. His theory has influenced scholars’ around the
world within the fields of literature, anthropology and religion. He has received a
number of prestigious awards amongst them ‘L’Immortel’ by the Académie Franc ̧aise7.
6 JAMES ALISON, The Joy of Being Wrong. Original Sin Through Easter Eyes, foreword by Sebastian Moore, New York 1998, 210, 235-236. 7 A Very Brief Introduction, in Imitatio Integrating the Human Sciences (on-line) : http://www.imitatio.org/mimetic-theory/a-very-brief-introduction.html, [22 August 2011].
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In his writings Girard uncovers an important understanding of human dynamics hidden
since the foundation of the world but concealed by human culture, mythological stories,
folklore, traditions and religious beliefs themselves. Girard claims that only the Judeo-
Christian text reveals what is hidden: the founding murder, which is covered by all other
cultures, mythologies and religious traditions. He also claims that it is Jesus who fully
uncovers, reveals and resolves this founding murder through the paschal mystery, though
this same action is already present and at work in the Old Testament8. René Girard also
claims that through the ages and up to this day, Christianity itself, at times, did not fully
understand the message of Jesus’ cross, thus falling into that same old trap – that of using
violence to resolve its own struggles and violent desires, falsely believing it is serving the
divine by doing so. This is never in conformity with the message of Jesus and the will of
the Father9.
René Girard uncovers a basic human dynamic, that of one human being murdering
another human being (his brother) as a means to establish his own kingdom or
civilization. This happens dramatically like in the mythological story of Romolus and
Remus or in more hidden and subtle ways in our everyday lives. The erroneous belief is
that such murder is either necessary or even pleasing to the Divine, falsely believing that
a civilization starting in this manner is favoured by the gods. However, killing one’s own
brother always brings guilt and thus this founding murder has to be covered up and
shrouded in mythology10. The victim becomes a divinity himself, a sacrificial figure
whose sacrifice was required for the foundation of a civilization or the resolution of its
chaotic violent conflict11. For René Girard, folk and mythological stories cover up this
basic universal human dynamic which when uncovered is found to be murder. All stories
serve to divinize the scapegoat-victim who was murdered for no real reason but is now
seen as the one who brought ‘peace’. Because violence has been unburdened and
8 RENÉ GIRARD, Things Hidden Since the Foundation of the World. Research undertaken in collaboration with Jean-Michel Oughourlian and Guy Lefort, translated by Stephen Bann (Books II and III) Michael Metteer (Book I), London 2003, 3-47; 141-262. 9 Ibid. 10 RENÉ GIRARD, Things Hidden Since the Foundation of the World. Research undertaken in collaboration with Jean-Michel Oughourlian and Guy Lefort, translated by Stephen Bann (Books II and III) Michael Metteer (Book I), London 2003, 105-138. 11 Ibid.
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‘peace’, described as false by René Girard, has been achieved, the murder is divinized
and explained as necessary and willed by the gods. The victim who was an ordinary
person and simply used as a scapegoat becomes a mythological god himself. For René
Girard this is the basis of religion but this understanding of the divinity is both pacifying
and disturbing, an understanding of god who is both good but demands this kind of
murder-sacrifice to resolve conflict12. Thus, Girard tells us that this understanding of
divinity is false and all forms of this kind of worship is simply idolatry. All this has
nothing to do with the true living God, the one revealed in Scripture13.
René Girard explains how Scripture functions in reverse of the above. The Bible
uncovers this dynamic, it tells us that God does not require human sacrifice and he is not
pleased by one brother killing the other. The story of Cain and Abel is presented in stark
contrast to the story of Romolus and Remus and other similar mythological stories
involving fratricide. In Scripture the murder of Abel is presented for what it is, a sordid
crime and God punishes Cain for it14. It is only later that Jesus resolves this founding
murder hidden since the foundation of the world, as James Alison theologically
elaborates. Jesus becomes like an Abel brought back to life, in forgiveness through the
resurrection. Jesus extends his hand to ‘Cain’, in friendship, beckoning him back, calling
him to conversion, forgiving him and inviting him to share life in peace with his brother
Abel, around him, the real forgiving-victim sacrificed for us by us, given back to us by
God the Father. Peace is to live in this spirit of love that is now fully at work since the
New Civilisation was established in Jesus and by Jesus. This spirit, the intelligence of the
victim15, remains at work up to this day undoing from within all of Cain’s civilizations
founded in murder and hidden since the foundation of the world16.
12 Ibid. 13 Ibid. 14 The Girard Reader, edited by J. G. Williams, New York 1996, 149-153. 15 JAMES ALISON, The Joy of Being Wrong. Original Sin Through Easter Eyes, foreword by Sebastian Moore, New York 1998, 139-161. 16 Ibid, 237-265.
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0. 5 Methodology
James Alison’s theology, as influenced by René Girard’s anthropology is the starting
point and dominant perspective within this study. Chapter One explains in detail
Alison’s theology and also explores further key notions from René Girard’s theory. It
highlights key elements found in Alison’s theology which are later re-read through
biblical texts and John of the Cross’ theology. Finally all elements are brought together
in dialogue in Chapter Four. Alison’s notions of idolatry as hidden within violent subtle
scapegoat mechanisms is another main element explored and discussed throughout this
study. Alison also mentions the dark path that needs to be crossed to be free from false
violent notions about God. This is another dominant element explored through the help
of biblical texts particularly that of Elijah and the writings of John of the Cross.
Biblical texts important to both Alison’s theology and Carmelite Spirituality were
selected for Chapter Two. These biblical texts were studied with the aim of trying to
identify who God is, as revealed within these texts, keeping the main elements identified
in Alison’s theology and Carmelite Spirituality in mind. In Chapter Two I try to identify
characteristics of the living God and his desires for humanity. Scripture reveals in great
detail the consequences for humanity when it turns away from the true and living God.
This is idolatry and it can take many forms. It also has a direct effect on human
relationships. As previously mentioned, for this chapter I only use one particular
perspective to study idolatry, that of human sacrifice. Desire plays a significant part in
this particular reading of idolatry. Therefore, in Chapter Two I try to identify God’s
desires for humanity and humanity’s own desires. Scripture shows us that human desire
can be the path which leads humanity towards union with God, because his desire is to be
in union with humans. However, it is desire itself that can lead people away from God,
degenerating their relationships into violence and murder. Thus, violence and non-
violence are themes which strongly emerge through such a reading. Jesus’ crucifixion
and God’s will for Jesus at Gethsemane are explored in depth. Since Alison’s theological
perspective and Girard’s anthropology are the dominant elements within this study, some
biblical texts remain somewhat problematic in this chapter. For instance, the reading of
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the true and living God revealed in Scripture as completely and entirely non-violent.
These texts are highlighted and presented as problematic texts. Such difficulties are re-
discussed in Chapter Four.
John of the Cross’ Ascent of Mount Carmel and the Dark Night are explored in Chapter
Three. Once again, elements identified in Alison’s theology are kept in mind whilst
studying and presenting John of the Cross’ theology. In this Chapter I also explore John
of the Cross’ notions of attachments to false images of God and the dark process that is
required to shed these attachments. For John of the Cross anything that comes in the way
of our relationship with the living God is problematic and a form of idolatry17.
In Chapter Four I attempt to bring Alison’s theology in dialogue with the selected biblical
texts and the theology of John of the Cross’. Elements identified in all texts are brought
together, highlighting where they resonate in harmony with each other and where they
provoke one another. All texts reveal God to be love and love to be his demand for all
humanity, expressed in our own relationships with God himself and one another. Justice
and its understanding is an element that may cause disharmony between the various texts
but as I propose in Chapter Four, John of the Cross’ notion of purification may resolve
such difficulties.
0.6 Limitations
During this study I made use of the word he to refer to God. However, I did not use this
language to limit my understanding of God as only male or to discriminate on the basis of
gender. I recognize that God is beyond our understanding of gender differences and
separations. I only made use of such word for practical reasons and to keep the same
word throughout this study.
17 IAIN MATTHEW, The Impact of God. Soundings from St. John of the Cross, Great Britain 1995, 39-45.
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Another limitation of this study is my prior familiarity with René Girard’s anthropology
and James Alison’s theology. Whilst reading the biblical texts and John of the Cross’
theology I could not avoid the bias of reading these texts through the eyes of Alison’s
theological notions and understanding. I believe that this bias particularly emerges in
Chapter Two.
Another limitation of this study is that the subject is very vast. Authors and texts chosen
for the purpose of this study are already demanding on their own; anything said about
such texts is never enough. As previously discussed the understanding of idolatry and
human sacrifice was particularly selected especially for Chapter Two, to keep the study
focused on one basic question. Looking at idolatry within Scripture is an incredible feat
which this study could not sustain. The theme is vastly explored by Scripture and would
need an intricate and detailed study on its own. Focusing on human sacrifice helped to
keep the study focused and remain within the framework of this work.
0.7 Definition of Terms
True Image: Whilst this study claims to uncover idolatry, it searches for a true image of
God. The imageless ‘image’ of God emerges as the true and dominant ‘image’ within
this study. However, Jesus Christ and all of his life is found to be the true icon given to
us as a true image of this imageless God.
Icon: Throughout this study I grew more uncomfortable with using the word image and
found the word icon to be more suitable to use. The notion of the imageless God
emerged powerfully and therefore I become more uncomfortable with all images. And
yet, God does not leave the human person into oblivion, he gives stories to humans,
stories which he himself inhabits, thus revealing who he is and who the human person is.
I found the use of the word icon more appropriate to describe these story-‘images’ of God
which God himself gives us, of himself.
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Idolatry: In this study reference to idolatry particularly refers to those situations of
worship or ‘relationship’ with God which leads one person killing, harming, or excluding
another person, believing that she or he is pleasing God by doing so.
Human Sacrifice: As mentioned above, for the purpose of this study idolatry
particularly refers to human sacrifice. However, I am using the word human sacrifice in
its widest sense. It refers to one person killing another, but it also refers to one person
excluding, rejecting, oppressing or marginalizing another human being. The use of the
word murder in this study also has this wide interpretation. At times it is also God
himself who is excluded. This fact is dramatically revealed in Jesus’ paschal mystery.
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Chapter 1: Idolatry and the True Image of God as found in James Alison’s Theology
"...the gratuitous self-giving of God into the hands of human (the Johannine 'handing
over') as far as to become a human victim, so that humans can learn to cease killing
each other and come to be participants in the imitation of God, is the true perspective
on creation, revealed by the intelligence of the victim.”18
1.1 Introduction
In this Chapter I will be focusing on Alison’s theology. Of course one needs to study
Girard’s anthropology for a better grasp of Alison’s theological stance. Therefore, I will
be making references to Girard’s main anthropological claims as well. I chose Alison
because as a theologian he intrigues me on many levels.
For instance Alison in his book The Joy of Being Wrong, quotes J. Milbank to emphasize
the point also argued by Girard19 that the total separation of modern social theory from
theology is illusory20. Alison and Girard discuss Catholic theology also as revealed
social theory: ‘It is completely coherent perspective on human social life, but one from a
divine starting point’21.
What is of more interest to me is Girard’s and Alison’s claim that Christianity itself is the
factor that led towards the collapse of belief in the real guilt of mythical victims, opening
up possibilities for scientific theories and secularization itself22. For Alison the only real
concept of freedom is theological. It is made possible by the irruption of a unique and
18 JAMES ALISON, The Joy of Being Wrong. Original Sin Through Easter Eyes, foreword by Sebastian Moore, New York 1998, 99. 19 RENÉ GIRARD, The Scapegoat, translated by Yvonne Freccero, United States of America 1989, 125-148. 20 JAMES ALISON, The Joy of Being Wrong. Original Sin Through Easter Eyes, foreword by Sebastian Moore, New York 1998, 22. 21 Ibid, 23. 22 JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts and New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 73-91.
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different sort of Other, who is Jesus the Son of God, who is massively prior to us, who
sets us free of our worldly structures and religions which bring about a certain peace and
freedom yet cover-up one essential factor, the murder which is the price to be paid for to
bring about that kind of order23.
1.2 Desire
For Alison and Girard desire is a primal energy. Both of them assert that it is essentially
a good force yet it is also problematic and needs restructuring24. Alison quotes Thomas
of Aquinas emphasising that this perspective on desire is tradition within Catholic
teaching. Alison clarifies that desire is anterior to language (reason), will (freedom) and
memory (history). It is a very powerful force25. However, even though desire is
essentially good, it is seriously corrupt26.
Girard highlights that desire is triangular and leads us towards conflicts and expulsions.
The way desire functions, according to him, is universal and humans tend to be blind to
this process. They are blind to the cruel fact that societies and cultures create scapegoats
to resolve violent and rival unconscious desires. They are also blind to the truth that the
victim is hated without cause and real peace cannot be based on sacrifice or murder
through unifying expulsion. Girard claims that we are all implicated in this kind of
scapegoat-violence and at the root of such violence is envious desire27.
23 JAMES ALISON, Knowing Jesus, forward by Rowan Williams, London 1993, 33-87. 24 JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts and New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 109-124. JAMES ALISON, The Joy of Being Wrong. Original Sin Through Easter Eyes, foreword by Sebastian Moore, New York 1998, 12-15. RENÉ GIRARD, I See Satan Fall Like Lightning, translated, with a forward, by James G. Williams, New York 2001, 1-18. RENÉ GIRARD, Battling to the End. Conversations with Benoit Chantre, translated by Mary Baker, Michigan 2010, 30-31. 25 JAMES ALISON, The Joy of Being Wrong. Original Sin Through Easter Eyes, foreword by Sebastian Moore, New York 1998, 2, 40. 26 JAMES ALISON, Living in the End Times. The Last Things Re-Imagined, London 1997, 18-33. 27 RENÉ GIRARD, Things Hidden Since the Foundation of the World, London 2003, 283-325. RENÉ GIRARD, Violence and the Sacred, London 2005, 1-71.
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Our desire functions through attraction and repulsion, through imitation and rivalry. We
look for models but these turn into rivals and conflict arises. According to Girard it is
Mimesis which causes this attraction and separation, which forms individuality and
identity, cohesion and autonomy. Yet, rivalry is present and resolved at all levels through
the expulsion of a victim28.
Alison argues that desire is especially present in the modern world because of the ‘post-
modern’ collapse of social prohibitions. These prohibitions ‘protected us’ from each
other’s violence, even though through violent-sacred means, but now these are no longer
effective. However, this could also be problematic if we do not return to the Gospel
truth29.
Thus, humans need to be reached by a new pattern of desire because our corrupted, rival
and violent desire needs to be curved upwards by the Creator. Envy governs much of
human relationships but all this can be transformed into fruition and joy starting from the
here and now30. If not, violence can become widespread since old prohibitions no longer
hold - desire still needs direction31.
One factor that both Girard and Alison point out is that our pattern of desire is based on a
lie which deeply corrupts our relations with others. For both, it is Jesus who uncovers
this lie and makes available a new pattern of desire which is without ambivalence,
conflict or danger, transforming our gaze32.
28 RENÉ GIRARD, Violence and the Sacred, London 2005, 1-71. 29 JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts and New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 125-139. RENÉ GIRARD, Battling to the End. Conversations with Benoit Chantre, translated by Mary Baker, Michigan 2010, 195-217. 30 JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts and New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 92-108. 31 Ibid, 125-139. 32 Ibid, 109-124.
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This lie covers violent desires and turns them into ‘sacred’. Girard argues that archaic
religions and mythological stories are very good at this cover-up. Alison, whilst
discussing original sin, stresses that we start life from this disordered pattern of desire,
but the good news is that it can be re-learnt to become desire according to the desire of
God33.
Repentance and forgiveness become for Alison two key notions for this process of
transformation of desire. Alison tells us that we need to be brought into God’s self-
interpretative desire, which is himself. Therefore we learn to find elements in our desire
that are indeed of the Creator and stripped off of all sorts of idolatry. This is a process
which is both painful and disorientating34.
1.3 Mimesis
One key notion and major contribution from René Girard is that of Mimesis. This is also
central in Alison’s theology. Mimesis is the theory presented by René Girard in his
various writings which offers a particular understanding of human relationships and
human culture. Mimetic theory tells us about what moves human beings in their
relationships. It also tells us how culture and mythology hide a violent-sacred
understanding of ‘god’ with its scapegoat mechanisms to resolve violence35.
Mimetic theory also uncovers the dependence of human beings upon each other. It
emphasizes realities both historical and personal that precede us in life and how they
affect us, these being ‘keys’ to understand how our desire functions. Through Mimetic
33 RENÉ GIRARD, The Scapegoat, translated by Yvonne Freccero, United States of America 1989, 1-56. JAMES ALISON, The Joy of Being Wrong. Original Sin Through Easter Eyes, foreword by Sebastian Moore, New York 1998, 168-175. 34 JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts and New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 265-279. 35 MICHAEL KIRWAN, Discovering Girard, London 2004, 14-37. What is Mimetic Theory, (on-line) : http://www.ravenfoundation.org/about-us/what-is-mimetic-theory [16 November 2010].
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theory we perceive the function of desire as primarily imitating the desire and intent of
someone else, usually someone whom we perceive as our model. Through this we end
up desiring that same ‘object’ that our model gives value to. This can end up in conflict,
rivalry and violence. Mimetic theory shows us that no one is entirely without some sense
of struggle, some tendency towards violent acquisition, even of self. Peace, according to
Girard can be a very violent kind of reality, based on deceit and covered up violence.
This kind of peace in fact does not last long and tends to break again into conflict because
humans are violent creatures36.
From an anthropological point of view, society learnt to deal with this conflict, violence
and rivalry through a lynch-death murder story. Along the years through various
mythologies, rituals and religious beliefs these stories were told, repeated and written
from the perspective of the persecutor, hiding the core truth. Girard tells us that the
Gospel is a unique text in this sense: it reveals this dynamic for what it is, a murder and a
sordid crime. The Bible shows us that God the Father does not justify it and he is always
on the side of the victim, for instance in the Cain and Abel story. On the other hand
many other stories present these victim stories as necessary, sacred and ‘god’s-will’.
Mimetic rivalry resolved in this manner is thus the distortion of desire and not God’s
created, given desires37.
For Girard and Alison the Scriptures expose this mechanism based on a lie. Thus, being
a Christian becomes deeply intermingled with being non-accusatory, non-exclusive of
others, re-reading stories from an entirely different starting point. For Alison,
Christianity propels humans towards re-creating societies without needing to have
scapegoats or enemies as their foundation, overcoming the trap of being run by death and
murderous desires. This perspective offers us fresh understandings into Jesus’ own
teaching about the Father’s many mansions. His commandment is to create visible, 36 JAMES ALISON, The Joy of Being Wrong. Original Sin Through Easter Eyes, foreword by Sebastian Moore, New York 1998, 7-21. 37 JAMES ALISON (1999), Being Saved and Being Wrong in James Alison.Theology (on-line) : http://www.jamesalison.co.uk/texts/eng18.html [14 November 2010]. JAMES ALISON (1996), Girard’s Breaktrough in James Alison.Theology (on-line) : http://www.jamesalison.co.uk/texts/eng05.html [14 November 2010]. RENÉ GIRARD, Things Hidden Since the Foundation of the World, London 2003, 283-325.
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imitable human history which is not run by the rule of death but empowered by an
imagination in imitation of Jesus38. For Girard and Alison it is important to read texts
with this mimetic understanding of desire. Jesus becomes for us a living fulcrum and
criterion for judgment. Only Jesus is the real hermeneutical principle as he reveals to us
a very inconvenient truth39.
1.4 The Victim
Girard points out that victims across cultures and as found in mythological stories are
believed to be truly guilty yet at the same time they enjoy a divine quality for the
restoration of peace their killing brings about. For Girard, this logic is the basic
understanding of the violent-sacred which is a two-faced divinity, both disturbing and
pacifying40. For René Girard this means an understanding of God, which according to
him is also wrongly found within Christianity, that on the one hand God is benevolent but
on the other hand he might request blood even human sacrifice. For Girard, the Judeo-
Christian text offers a world view with a single benevolent God. Girard supports his
claims through various Biblical stories amongst them that of Cain and Abel, explaining
how Scripture reveals the killing of Abel as merely a sordid murder highlighting that God
is not an accomplice in the killing, a different perspective to other foundational fratricide
mythological stories41.
Girard explains that the victim is arbitrarily chosen by the group or lynch-mob. What is
really going on is that the victim is innocent of his or her attributed guilt. The mob
simply unburdens its violence, rivalry and conflict upon that victim. Peace is simply a
moment of unburdened violence but that same violence is in actual fact not resolved, thus
bound to return. Hence victims are always needed in such societies. The Gospel
38 JAMES ALISON (2005), Show us the Father in James Alison.Theology (on-line) : http://www.jamesalison.co.uk/texts/eng34.html [16 November 2010]. 39 JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts and New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 230-248. 40 RENÉ GIRARD, Violence and the Sacred, London 2005, 1-40. 41 JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts and New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 73-91.
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uncovers this kind of logic for what it is. The Gospel tells us that this mechanism is
murder and God is on the side of victims. Thus Christianity for Girard is the reverse of
all other myths and it undoes the old lie from within42.
1.5 Scapegoat Mechanism
In Jesus’ life, ministry, passion and resurrection both Girard and Alison see that he is
undoing scapegoat mechanisms and dynamics which can also turn into self-destruction.
These dynamics keep ‘order’ and help others in society keep their ‘good’ identities as
compared to the ‘bad’ identity of scapegoat-others. For Girard and Alison both ‘good’
and ‘bad’ identities are false and lead to a destructive dependency of one against the
other. Therefore, the passion of Jesus Christ renders the scapegoat mechanism as source
for human togetherness forever suspect. To work well this system needs a mob blind to
the innocence of the victim. The persecutors need not doubt the righteousness of their
own fury. The Gospel disrupts this dynamic forever43.
1.6 The Principle of Reciprocity
The principle of reciprocity is another key notion in Girard’s anthropology and Alison’s
theology. For both once again this principle is much present in Scriptures. It works in
the following manner: as humans we reciprocate gestures or gifts. For example, one
friend invites another friend to a meal and that kind gesture is reciprocated. Jesus often
makes reference to this dynamic in his parables, disrupting it. In light of Jesus’ teaching
this dynamic is suspect because it can easily degenerate into a violent one. To function
42 PAUL J. NUECHTERLEIN (2002), René Girard: The Anthropology of the Cross as Alternative to Post-Modern Literary Criticism in Girardian Reflections on the Lectionary: Understanding the Bible Anew Through the Mimetic Theory of René Girard (on-line) : http://girardianlectionary.net/girard_postmodern_literary_criticism.htm [6 November 2010]. 43 RENÉ GIRARD, The Scapegoat, translated by Yvonne Freccero, United States of America 1989, 125-148. KATIE SHERROD (2006), James Alison: Scapegoats, Class Fairies, and God in Claiming the Blessing (on-line) : http://www.claimingtheblessing.org/Publications/James_Alison_Article.pdf [6 November 2010].
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within this dynamic is to remain stuck at the level of reactivity towards each other. Thus,
Jesus calls us to move away from it and transform reciprocal violent relationships into
free ones by not being moved by violence. He is able to show us the way into this
because he gives us himself prior and anterior to our violence towards him, hence Jesus is
referred to as Other in Alison’s theology. With and in Jesus we enter into a process of
non-rival imitation free from any reciprocal violent actions, free to love the other
gratuitously in imitation of Jesus who imitates the Father who is perfect44.
Being Christian is about being pulled into learning new ways of relating to God, others
and self. Christianity uncovers for us our own refusal of life, therefore the real ‘getting it
right’ is done by someone else. We are simply those undergoing ‘something else’ and
not protagonists of the story45.
Alison argues that both the ‘good’ and the ‘bad’ are in need to be humanized, freed from
any bondage of desire, one way or another. For Jesus everything is in the light of day. He
is beyond social constructs of goodness and badness and leads us to relate to him and
others beyond these social constructs as well46.
In light of Gospel teaching, insisting on being right is dangerous because it confirms our
being bound in original murderous complicity and sin. For Alison, being wrong is in fact
good news because it can be forgiven. Sin displaces responsibility and evil leads us into
44 JAMES ALISON, The Joy of Being Wrong. Original Sin Through Easter Eyes, foreword by Sebastian Moore, New York 1998, 104-105, 144. RENÉ GIRARD, Battling to the End. Conversations with Benoit Chantre, translated by Mary Baker, Michigan 2010, 1-86. In an article entitled ‘Bin Laden warns French of killings in ‘revenge’ attacks’ in The Times of Malta of Thursday 28 October 2010 one can notice what René Girard talks about and ‘fears’. Violent reciprocity that can degenerate even at a global level in our own age. Bin Laden’s words are referring to this violent reciprocity in this message he sent to the French and reported globally. Bin Laden warns French of killings in ‘revenge’ attacks in The Times of Malta Thursday, 28th October 2010 (on-line) : http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20101028/world-news/bin-laden-warns-french-of-killings-in-revenge-attacks [28 October 2010]. 45 JAMES ALISON (2005), Deliver us from evil in James Alison. Theology (on-line) : http://www.jamesalison.co.uk/texts/eng04.html [15 November 2010]. James Alison (2006) , Is it ethical to be Catholic? – Queer perspectives in in James Alison. Theology (on-line) : http://www.jamesalison.co.uk/texts/eng27.html [15 November 2010]. 46 JAMES ALISON, The Joy of Being Wrong. Original Sin Through Easter Eyes, foreword by Sebastian Moore, New York 1998, 119-125.
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the corruption of our desire. It keeps us blind to scapegoat mechanisms and the dangers
of reciprocity. For God violence is an abomination which disrupts humanity’s freedom.
Forgiveness is one way out of this trap. I will elaborate about forgiveness further on47.
1.7 Violence and Idolatry
Alison’s theology tells us that whereas in pagan cultures humans offered sacrifices to the
divinity, in Scripture YHWH reveals himself as offering sacrifice to humans, again a
reversal of another human mechanism, in this case idol rituals. Another revelation is that
it is humans who need blood in order to keep murderous systems in place, for peace
keeping and order - to keep society’s violence in check. However, Jesus breaks this
deathly human culture and opens up new possibilities full of life. Scripture teaches that
God is entirely beyond death. He touches our murderous desires and cultures with love,
to help us out of these systems. Of course, Jesus knew about our violent condition and he
deliberately went to his death, but as someone entirely free, to detoxify the reality of
death, revealing it to be without power, and that is good news48.
The Father is horrified at the cruelty unleashed on Jesus yet remains present as a source
of loving self-giving to bring into existence fresh possibilities for us to become able to
overcome death and its dominion49.
Alison elaborates on how the law itself can justify and cover up violence. It can create
ambivalence. Moreover righteous people can hide their violence and fool themselves
about it because they are law abiding. In actual fact, they are merely violent people good
at manipulating laws and traditions and this the Gospel reveals50.
47 Ibid, 147-156. 48 JAMES ALISON, Living in the End Times. The Last Things Re-Imagined, London 1997, 44-48. JAMES ALISON, Undergoing God. Dispatches from the scene of a break-in, London 2006, 33-67. 49 JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts and New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 140-159. 50 Ibid, 92-108.
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Not only do we manipulate the law but as humans we are often and mistakenly enclosed
in identifying the Father with an ambiguous god, good on the one hand but somewhat
violent on the other. This god is mixed with the satanic figure that justifies human
violence, murder and expulsion for peace and order. The idea of the Father as good and
providential whilst at the same time demanding human-sacrifice and blood is a common
understanding for Christians and a dangerous double-bind. For both Girard and Alison,
this kind of thinking does not serve God and they warn us about this false notion51.
Through his anthropology Girard exposes one of the greatest fears of society, that of
uncontrollable violence. The violent-world-sacred order emerges from this fear, a culture
which disguises violence whilst at the same time allowing it to unleash its repressed
murderous desires onto a scapegoat for the sake of peace and order. Jesus offers us the
possibility for the non-violent sacred, subverting from within systems of goodness which
are as dangerous as the ‘bad’ ones. Jesus relocates the sacred, collapsing group frontiers
and setting both victims and persecutors free. He brings forgiveness to Cain who can
stop wondering after encountering Jesus. Cain can be like the Son of man who has no
place because the new Jerusalem is given, it comes down from heaven52. He can stop
building violent foundations for civilization.
Alison highlights that the real choice is not between theism and atheism but rather
between the true God and idolatry. Since all desire originates in the Father, all love
originates in this imageless God whose only particular image given to us is that of the
human victim. Therefore, the real life-giving God becomes a threat to our stability and
security of our identities: personal, cultural, societal and global. For Alison, the Church
is the coming into being of this new way of forming unity between us humans, a unity
around the ‘Other’, God as the self-giving victim. It is always a new and fresh
possibility, a new way of relating with much implications: that of uncovering forgivingly
our complicity in victimizing others. In believing we cease to see ourselves as victims
and changed into penitent persecutors.
51 Ibid, 140-159. 52 JAMES ALISON, The Joy of Being Wrong. Original Sin Through Easter Eyes, foreword by Sebastian Moore, New York 1998, 96-97; 119-125; 139-146; 248-250.
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‘It does mean that humans who think they are in some way pleasing God by
putting such people to death are mired in idolatry, and can never learn
anything about themselves or other people while this is their solution to their
group problems.’53
Alison argues strongly on the point that we are objects in God’s ken and he is massively
prior to us. In this light it is God who gives us his own criterion for what it looks like to
be non-idolatrous. Alison states that ‘we are all very markedly idolatrous, and that our
idolatry is principally linked to the way in which death and its fear clouds our
imaginations, our minds, our judgments and our passions. It really does mean that there
is no simple way to read off from the powers and glories of this world to the power and
glory to God. Rather the reverse’.54 The criterion is that of the forgiving human victim.
Therefore, to be non-idolatrous is to refrain from creating victim created circles.
Alison’s theology shows us how Christianity enables us to become aware of our own
idolatry and thus how to become free to relate with others without idols. All this can
happen through the slaughtered victim kept alive, for us to see and receive him to be
forgiven. Jesus does not hold on to any sense of victimhood and so he is the King of an
entirely different story55.
For Girard, Jesus’ sacrifice undid the whole world of sacrifices, taking away all group
barriers. Both Girard and Alison strongly argue that Jesus’ death did not happen to
please the Father but to reach out to us. Therefore, the passion of Jesus becomes for us
the primordial Christian experience: to undergo a form of dying-in-advance so that we
are no longer driven by death in our living. In this context Jesus speaks of being in this
world but not for it. He teaches us about a way of life where we are not afraid to lose. A
life where it is better to be ‘sacrificed’ than collude in violence56.
53 JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts and New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 272. 54 Ibid, 270-271. 55 Ibid, 109-124. 56 Ibid, 231-264.
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Alison states that what lies behind the Eucharistic dynamic is the invitation out of
idolatry and into being. Jesus Christ anticipated our anger, hatred and violence but this
little upset him and he moved on with his plan of salvation for us. He brought us through
it all and called us, calling us even now, into being57.
1.8 Revelation
The resurrection is for Alison, like other theologians the fullness of Jesus’ revelation. For
him this revelation makes available for us the intelligence of the victim which is a certain
perspective on how society and our desire function. Revelation is for Alison a form of
subversion from within of human violence. Jesus also sets us free from a violent
understanding of God. The Resurrection is the climax of insight and telling humanity it
is wrong about its violent understanding of God; violence is only part of the human
condition58. Mimetic theory and Alison’s theology uncover one basic dynamic, that it is
not God who expels human beings from paradise but rather the reverse, it is humans who
expel God. Thus the Adam and Eve story is re-read as the expulsion of God from Eden,
destroying paradise rather than God expelling them out of Eden59.
Alison tells us that at the core of the theology of original sin is the learning that we can
either receive gratuitously or acquire violently through appropriation - building identities
over and against others. Sin is about violent mechanism within us that lead to the
expulsion of others rather than allowing others to become beneficent influences upon us.
Through such mechanism we remain bound in violence, our memory is distorted, and we
misread stories of victimization, even the gospel itself60.
57 Ibid, 209-279. 58 JAMES ALISON, Undergoing God. Dispatches from the scene of a beak-in, London 2006, 33-49. JAMES ALISON (1999), Being Saved and Being Wrong in James Alison. Theology (on-line) : http://www.jamesalison.co.uk/texts/eng18.html [12 November 2010]. 59 JAMES ALISON, The Joy of Being Wrong. Original Sin Through Easter Eyes, foreword by Sebastian Moore, New York 1998, 94-102. 60 Ibid, 102-111.
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Therefore Jesus’ revelation lays the choice in front of us clearly and squarely. Either we
continue with our condemnations and casting out, bringing judgment on ourselves
through the choice of the old murderous lie or accept light, committing ourselves to
cultivating in the here and now Christian hope. Alison points out that Christian hope
always begins in terror and utter disorientation because it starts from the collapse of all
that is familiar and well known61. However I will elaborate further on this point in the
section about transformation.
Thus revelation contained within the Catholic faith is not a rival sacrificial system
amongst others but an undoing from within of all sacred-violence found in all cultures.
Revelation shows us that systems of goodness are terribly dangerous things and the only
sort of goodness is to become a penitent62.
The Christian faith becomes a path where we cultivate a way of life that should not be
involved in any worldly power and violence. Of course, taking such a step in a violent
world makes us immensely vulnerable and because of this we can be turned into victims
ourselves63.
Therefore, at the core of revelation we find that all human societies and not only pagan
societies are based on deicide, the killing of God. For a society to be based on sacrifice -
killing and casting out, is to be based on the exclusion of God. The great deceit lies in
JAMES ALISON (2010), From Impossibility to Responsibility: Developing New Narratives for Gay Catholic Living in James Alison. Theology (on-line) : http://www.jamesalison.co.uk/texts/eng63.html [12 November 2010]. JAMES ALISON (2002), Beyond Theory: A Salvific Unpicking of Atonement’s Knots in Girardian Reflections on the Lectionary: Understanding the Bible Anew Through the Mimetic Theory of René Girard (on-line) : http://girardianlectionary.net/theology/alison_atonement.htm [13 October 2010]. 61 JAMES ALISON (2009), Navigating in Unchartered Waters: The Gift of Faith and Growing Up LGBT in James Alison.Theology (on-line) : http://www.jamesalison.co.uk/texts/eng61.html [20 October 2010]. JAMES ALISON (2002), Ecclesiology and Indifference: Challenges for Gay and Lesbian Ministry in James Alison.Theology (on-line) : http://www.jamesalison.co.uk/texts/eng44.html [20 October 2010]. JAMES ALISON, Living in the End Times. The Last Things Re-Imagined, London 1997, 98-116; 154-158 JAMES ALISON, The Joy of Being Wrong. Original Sin Through Easter Eyes, foreword by Sebastian Moore, New York 1998, 211-236. 62 Ibid, 70-111. 63 JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts and New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 73-91. JAMES ALISON, Living in the End Times. The Last Things Re-Imagined, London 1997, 98-137.
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the fact that humans too often believe that this violent way is the right way to serve
God64.
Jesus experienced this in his own flesh, not only did he live among violent human beings,
but amongst people who had persecutory projections about God. It is in this context that
he reveals the depth of his love, uncovering our sin-mechanisms of murderous
expulsions. Humans are always blind to this justification of our violent behaviour,
believing it as good and coming from God. Interestingly guilt always remains65.
1.9 Jesus
“Everyone who commits sin is a child of the devil; for the devil has been sinning from
the beginning. The Son of God was revealed for this purpose, to destroy the works of the
devil” (1 John 3, 8).
In Alison’s theology Jesus is obviously central. Alison describes Jesus as Just Is, the Son
of God who was in no need of conversion because he is purely given, revelation66. Jesus
is God’s visitation of his people and this visitation brings about life, health and
forgiveness. He is actively kind to the ungrateful and selfish67. It is within this context
that Alison explains how Jesus exposes our violent natures and structures of desire. He
shows us that up to that point (and unfortunately even later) humans resolved (and still
do) violence through victim-processes and scapegoat mechanisms. Alison describes the
64 Ibid, 98-197. 65 JAMES ALISON, Faith Beyond Resentment: Fragments Catholic and Gay, New York 2001, 27-85. JAMES ALISON, The Joy of Being Wrong. Original Sin Through Easter Eyes, foreword by Sebastian Moore, New York 1998, 102-111. 66 JAMES ALISON, Knowing Jesus, foreword by Rowan Williams, London 1998, 1-32. 67 JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts and New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 92-108; 186-279. JAMES ALISON, The Joy of Being Wrong. Original Sin Through Easter Eyes, foreword by Sebastian Moore, New York 1998, 102-111.
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passion and resurrection of Jesus as bringing about a rapture to help us overcome our
violent patterns of relating68.
Alison highly stresses the point that Jesus gives himself gratuitously, that in him there is
no appropriation. Therefore, salvation is also a critical counter history and story. For
Alison salvation is a historical undoing of the satanic dynamic all humanity was and in so
many ways still is trapped into69.
Alison explains how Jesus aware of his death and fully knowledgeable that his way of
life would lead to his murder, chooses to remain faithful to his own sermon, his Father’s
will: to choose a life not formed within the violent and powerful structures of this world
but in solidarity with those of no account, even if this leads to victimization. Thus the
Christian path is a way of learning to live gratuitously and not be run by violence in
relation to others, even with those who victimize us70.
However, Alison along with René Girard do point out that Christians have not quite fully
understood this point: ‘What Jesus did has for too long been described in emotionally
blackmailing terms, pushing people into contorted forms of asceticism and fake
goodness.’71
For Alison and Girard the implicated understanding that God the Father needs the
‘sacrifice’ of Jesus and that he was in need of somebody’s blood in reparation of
humanity’s sin is problematic. Girard and Alison expose an ambivalent understanding of
God by Christians of this Father who is good, and yet somehow maneuvers the story of
Jesus behind the scenes to lead to his death-sacrifice72. Alison’s theology liberates us
from this contorted understanding of God the Father.
68 JAMES ALISON, Knowing Jesus, foreword by Rowan Williams, London 1998, 1-31. 69 JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts and New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 73-91. 70 Ibid, 160-175. 71 Ibid, 228. 72 JAMES ALISON, Knowing Jesus, foreword by Rowan Williams, London 1998. The Girard Reader, edited by J. G. Williams, New York 1996.
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Thus Jesus becomes for us the second Adam and in Jesus we find the fullness of
revelation, the image of YHWH fully revealed in Jesus here on earth and not corrupted as
in the image of God given by Adam and his offspring. Jesus occupies the space of death,
of all victims both past and future, up to Abel. He reveals and occupies the full cultural
human reality of death, murder, shame, violence, mob-rule and of a violent understanding
of God. He is not run by any of these dynamics and in him we can become the temple,
forming a new unity. Around him we form a new path to holiness which has nothing to
do with the violent-sacred structures of old. Jesus brings into being as-yet-unimagined
good. Jesus restores our lost fraternity and gives us back relations the way they always
were meant to be73.
To achieve this fraternity he sets us free from any tribal sense of belonging because true
belonging is purely given; in him there is only a ‘we’. Therefore, the good news is that
Jesus is the self-giving of God into the hands of murderous men rather than the giving by
murderous men of something or someone to God. The murder-sacrifice dynamic has
been definitively revealed74.
For Alison, knowing Jesus is key to knowing the Father. It is from knowing Jesus as a
victim that a new humanity can emerge. Thus, Jesus reveals his Father by his obedient
imitation even to the point of death, to liberate us from all our fantasies about God who is
somewhat violent or murderous. For Alison, from this understanding the Holy Spirit is
outpoured to us as the intelligence of the victim75.
Alison explains how Jesus in his passion fully drinks the cup of wrath containing all
systems of prohibitions, rituals, sacrifices and myths – the ways societies and religions
keep violence in check. Therefore, the slain lamb through his death and resurrection
73 JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts and New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 249-279. 74 Ibid, 34-53. JAMES ALISON (1999), Being Saved and Being Wrong in James Alison.Theology (on-line) : http://www.jamesalison.co.uk/texts/eng18.html [14 November 2010]. 75 JAMES ALISON, Knowing Jesus, foreword by Rowan Williams, London 1998, 33-58. JAMES ALISON (2005), Show us the Father in James Alison.Theology (on-line) : http://www.jamesalison.co.uk/texts/eng34.html [14 October 2010].
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‘pulled the plug’ on this whole sacred-violent system. Jesus becomes a place where we
can be nourished and find wholeness and life. He becomes for us a story to live by and
the place of springs. From ‘now’ on we cannot divinize anger any longer76.
Thus, Jesus fulfills a creation where we are projections of God - he who is not part of
anything that is. In fact Alison describes God more like nothing at all than like anything
that is because only by God not being like anything that is, that everything that is can be
a function of God, Alison argues. Therefore accepting him is accepting life, an
understanding that there is a point to everything, that it is good and it will end in
rejoicing. But by rejecting him we remain stuck in vanity and violent-sacred desires,
ways of relating and structures77.
In Jesus we become someone who is loved, honestly and openly able to perform creative
works of love for others. Jesus has no need to run away from the world of sinners
because he is not threatened by the world. He is at peace with human desire. People for
him are capable of being transformed if touched by his love and he leads us into
responsible brotherhood, unbinding us from each others’ desire which is intrinsically
disordered78.
76 JAMES ALISON (2010), From Impossibility to Responsibility: Developing New Narratives for Gay Catholic Living in James Alison. Theology (on-line) : http://www.jamesalison.co.uk/texts/eng63.html [12 November 2010]. JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts and New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 34-53. 77 Ibid, 34-53, 265-279. 78 JAMES ALISON, On Being Liked, London 2003, 100-146.
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1.10 Sermon on the Mount
The sermon on the Mount has a prominent place in Alison’s theology. Alison
understands this sermon as Jesus primarily making an anthropology of desire available
rather then teaching morals. Through this sermon he uncovers who we are and the way
we are constituted, teaching us how to refrain from patterns of desire run by what the
other is doing. Only in this way can we be free to receive our identity by the Father who
is able to hold us and love us into being. If we apply this teaching we find out that we
have more similarities with our enemies, rather than our perceived or imagined
exaggerated differences. Thus our hostile reciprocity can be transformed into a friendly
one. Through living this sermon we learn how to be for the other but in way that does not
define us over against him or her. Interestingly Alison points out that this process is also
experienced as a form of death because we ‘lose’ our sense of identity for the possibility
to receive another one79.
Alison stresses that the Bible is not primarily teaching us about feelings but rather about
patterns of relating with an emphasis on particular relations to the poor, the naked, the
imprisoned and the sick. It is with these that Jesus identifies and it is these relations that
uncover who we really are. In fact Scripture teaches us that one small work of charity is
more valuable than the highest degree any spiritual experience of God one may have
which does not lead that person to become more loving and inclusive of others rather
making him or her more violent towards others by excluding them for being ‘less holy’80.
The Sermon of the Mount is the centre of Jesus’ ethics for Alison’s theology. In this
sermon Alison finds Jesus teaching about human society, that it is a violent place which
resolves its own violence through victims. Interestingly, revelation is found in the midst
of that violence but always on the side of victims. The Sermon of the Mount tells us that
79 JAMES ALISON, The Joy of Being Wrong. Original Sin Through Easter Eyes, foreword by Sebastian Moore, New York 1998, 139-146. JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts and New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 160-175. 80 Ibid, 92-175.
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humans are utterly constituted in violence, anger, lust and quarrel but Jesus points out the
way outside of this violent cycle81.
1.11 Jesus’ Resurrection
For James Alison’s theology the Resurrection is in actual fact the starting point and of
course central. The resurrection becomes for Alison God’s interpretation of the life of
Jesus, as the one who was hated without cause. Therefore it is the Risen Lord who re-
reads and re-interprets all of Scripture82.
The resurrection of Jesus opened up possibilities for the Apostles to re-think their own
lives, relationships, homeland, culture and values. It altered their understanding of who
God is. The resurrection of Jesus should do the same to us. By raising Jesus from the
dead God confirmed his life and death, affirming his freedom and truth. A post-
resurrection understanding of God the Father is therefore defined as he who raised Jesus
from the dead - a radical insight into who God is. The resurrection teaches us that we
need not flee our human existence but need to learn about love - how the life of Jesus
Christ transforms all83.
The resurrection is the climax of revelation, a revelation about God who is entirely
without violence and who wants to liberate us from any distorted understanding of him
such as being complicit in violent activity. Girard and Alison explain how human
violence is often unrecognized thus transferred and projected onto God. The resurrection
corrects once and for all this distortion. The intelligence of the victim reveals this reality
81 JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts and New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 209-248. 82 JAMES ALISON, Knowing Jesus, foreword by Rowan Williams, London 1998, 3-31. JAMES ALISON, Living in the End Times. The Last Things Re-Imagined, London 1997, 25-28; 30-36; 51-54. JAMES ALISON, The Joy of Being Wrong. Original Sin Through Easter Eyes, foreword by Sebastian Moore, New York 1998, 70-94. 83 Ibid, 70-83. JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts and New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 92-108; 125-159; 209-229.
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about human-God relations demystifying God for us, correcting this human distorted
understanding of him84. Therefore, Pentecost becomes the un-telling and re-telling of the
story of Babel - from human-unity built against God to unity derived from serving and
worshipping the victim85.
Alison stresses the point that in the resurrection we find no vindication but only
eschatological pardon because God is outside human reciprocity. He has no desire for
control or dominion and his gratuitous giving of self is anterior to anything or anyone.
Therefore the Christian message after all is to cease killing each other and become
participants in the imitation of God86.
1.12 Forgiveness
Within Alison’s theology and Girard’s anthropology the command to forgive is key to set
us free from being locked in violent systems and structures of relating. Forgiveness helps
us re-learn through the imitation of the forgiving self-giving victim, to act gratuitously, to
do works of service, to be in solidarity with others and to acquire new desires. In
Christianity the whole person is formed by these new desires where there are no
stumbling blocks, no rivalry, we become more common but inclusive in our love for the
human race. We learn to acknowledge our dependence on each other and we become less
inclined to judge and to be divided87.
84 JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts and New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 230-248. JAMES ALISON (2005), Girard’s Breaktrough in James Alison.Theology (on-line) : http://www.jamesalison.co.uk/texts/eng05.html [14 November 2010]. JAMES ALISON, Undergoing God. Dispatches from the scene of a beak-in, London 2006, 73-83. 85 JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts and New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 249-264. JAMES ALISON, The Joy of Being Wrong. Original Sin Through Easter Eyes, foreword by Sebastian Moore, New York 1998, 162-221. 86 JAMES ALISON, Knowing Jesus, foreword by Rowan Williams, London 1998, 33-59. JAMES ALISON, The Joy of Being Wrong. Original Sin Through Easter Eyes, foreword by Sebastian Moore, New York 1998, 94-111. 87 JAMES ALISON, Knowing Jesus, foreword by Rowan Williams, London 1998, 26-27; 43-45; 94-113. JAMES ALISON, Living in the End Times. The Last Things Re-Imagined, London 1997, 65-68; 132; 177-178; 185-189.
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Jesus becomes for us the presence of the rejected victim who returns in the midst of his
own group showing them that they are forgiven and that he has nothing against them. In
accepting him back, his apostles and disciples find themselves free and empowered to
build new lives and societies. Alison argues that God’s uniqueness is not as we thought it
is, that of a well disguised human form of exclusion but a process of losing idols, of
learning to cease to grasp onto insecurities, a total re-structuring of the internal life, of
letting go of our anger and envy. Divine paternity is recast in a fraternal shape familiar to
us. The resurrected Jesus teaches us that wrath is wrongly attributed to God and it is
always purely human. In God there is no room for vengeance. Wrath in fact leads one
brother to kill another.
Since Alison sees the resurrection as the starting point he also sees that the forgiving
principle is present from the beginning of the world. For instance Alison states that we
need to re-read the initial murder of Abel from the murder story of Jesus. In this way we
can get to know about our complicity88.
1.13 Transformation
Transformation is not a word that one finds in Alison’s texts but I believe that his
theology, like that of John of the Cross and the Bible itself, is pointing towards this
notion. In Chapter four I shall be attempting to compare the two, along side Scripture,
particularly on this point. One of the main cornerstones in Alison’s theology is that as
humans we tend to be violent creatures. Not only are we violent towards others but we
can also turn that violence inwards; violence can be internalized. To explain this point
Alison uses the story of Jonah as a case in point. He explains how Jonah hid in the midst
of darkness, fear and suicidal depression. This was a place where he could find no
remedy, experienced disintegration and could see no light and yet found himself held by
a force which was not his own. Alison tells us that Scripture teaches that in the midst of JAMES ALISON, The Joy of Being Wrong. Original Sin Through Easter Eyes, foreword by Sebastian Moore, New York 1998, 210, 235-236. 88 Ibid, 115-138.
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that darkness, without being fully aware of it, like Jonah we are held into being, stitched
together, reached and held at a depth which we are unable to imagine89. Of course this
echoes incredibly with the whole Carmelite tradition and spirituality and that of John of
the Cross, but more on this point in Chapter Four.
The space Jonah found himself in is a terribly fearful place. Jonah felt without being or
belonging. Scripture points out that we humans refuse to accept being created, to accept
God as creator and Lover of all humanity who brings people into a mutual rejoicing.
Alison emphasizes this point, that as humans we tend to have an aversion to creation
itself, resisting being completely re-created to become completely and joyfully dependent
on God. For Alison the Christian call is to have our minds fixed on the vivacious, living,
effervescent God who sets us free from the trap of an all-against-one kind of peace.90.
Violent and mimetic desire can be transformed into another sort of desire – a pacific
desire which is neither envious nor scandalized. Hence the good news: freedom coming
from the forgiving-revelation of what was hidden, our complicity in murder. Therefore
only the one who is open to be transformed and leave behind his or her violent complicity
can speak in the name of Christianity91.
The apostles themselves who lived with Jesus were not free from these violent
mechanisms or patterns of desire. They too had to undergo transformation of desire. It is
thanks to their transformation that we have Christianity today. Between the death of
Jesus and prior to his resurrection we see them feeling guilty of betrayal, mournful, afraid
of somehow having become semi-traitors and guilty of abandoning the one they followed
and loved. They are disillusioned and frightened: Easter Sunday starts from this very
place. Jesus even after his death remains totally gratuitous and opens up the possibility of
a new human history and story. God through the passion and resurrection of Jesus made 89 JAMES ALISON, Faith Beyond Resentment: Fragments Catholic and Gay, New York 2001, 86-104. 90 Ibid. JAMES ALISON, Living in the End Times. The Last Things Re-Imagined, London 1997, 72-76; 149-158. JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts and New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 73-91. 91 IBID, 209-279. JAMES ALISON (2007), How do we talk about the Spirit in James Alison. Theology (on-line) : http://www.jamesalison.co.uk/pdf/eng47.pdf [20 October 2010].
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death an empty threat, revealing love beyond death and offering a fresh re-reading of all
human stories from a radical perspective previously hidden by death92.
God takes us from where we are, slowly and gently he completely undoes our mindset.
This contact can be a terrible place. It brings about a definitive alteration within us in
which we lose our sense of goodness, belonging, worth and reputation. Jesus is a
constant critical voice of the ‘we’ which is based in violence by excluding someone or a
‘we’ in relation to a perceived enemy. Jesus gives us a completely different mindset and
a new place for togetherness93.
Thus true worship is to find ourselves subverted from within. The true God needs no
worship because he has no ego that needs flattering and yet it is important for us to
worship him because only like this we open up a space for him to guide us out of our own
prisons, to reach us and to strip us of our bound imaginations. Alison describes prayer as
a form of detox, a space where we re-learn how to build up our desires in imitation of the
desire of someone who likes us. It brings about a reformed heart, transforms our desires
and helps us relate with each other. It is a therapy for our distorted desires. Transformed
we become the temples which takes place in inter-individual relationships between
people wherever they are94.
92 JAMES ALISON, The Joy of Being Wrong. Original Sin Through Easter Eyes, foreword by Sebastian Moore, New York 1998, 64-111. 93 JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts and New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 92-108; 160-175. JAMES ALISON (2002), Ecclesiology and Indifference: Challenges for Gay and Lesbian Ministry in James Alison.Theology (on-line) : http://www.jamesalison.co.uk/texts/eng44.html [20 October 2010]. JAMES ALISON (2005), Girard’s Breaktrough in James Alison.Theology (on-line) : http://www.jamesalison.co.uk/texts/eng05.html [14 November 2010]. JAMES ALISON, Living in the End Times. The Last Things Re-Imagined, London 1997, 34-56. 94 JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts and New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 17-175; 209-279.
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The Christian way is more about being de-constructed and re-constructed, a process of
undergoing the loss of idols to be able to hear a different kind of God, the one who is true
and living. Our perspective and perception of God itself is in need of purification. Only
through this purification can we become perfect as our Father is perfect95.
Alison points out how Christian talk sounds very beautiful but in reality it brings about
the collapse of our whole worldly world. Through this collapse something new does
come to birth. Truth undoes the sacred lie in which we are trapped but it is a painful
process for the person, group or society undergoing it. Yet only through this painful and
dark process we learn that we are held by someone who is much bigger than us, beyond
our grasping. We learn that Jesus plays the game of life on entirely different terms,
teaching us to live from within, in an utterly non-rival way. Through this darkness we are
set free, we taste the reality of being alive forever. Christianity brings us into a story
beyond our imagination96.
Jesus is the only Other able to move us entirely from within our freedom without
displacing us. He gratuitously calls us into being, to rejoice, to be made human, at home,
among friends. He transforms us into peaceful gratuitous human beings without any
rivalry for belonging. He takes us to that place where we can let go of approval and a
need to belong to this world. He helps us resolve ambivalence. Jesus-God gives us the
gift of story, which is not a reaction to something or someone else but a calling into being
to be rejoiced in. Jesus is the one who drags us into an unimagined narrative97.
95 Ibid, 209-279. 96 JAMES ALISON, Living in the End Times. The Last Things Re-Imagined, London 1997, 159-178. 97 JAMES ALISON, Faith Beyond Resentment: Fragments Catholic and Gay, New York 2001, 56-85; 125-143, 209-235.
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1.14 Conclusion
Alison and Girard argue that only the religion which reveals the universal is capable of
being universal, a claim which made Girard unpopular in some academic circles. For
both it is Christianity that reveals the foundational original sin of the cosmos - distorted
desire. Christianity is a recovery of fraternity, an arduous creative struggle to unbury
Abel. In Jesus we recover the primordial peace of the Creator98.
Alison tells us that in Christianity we learn about creative forgiveness, about the Father’s
deathless nature and that only he can satisfy our real desires. Knowledge of each other
such as mimetic theory help us accept our similarities, that we are driven by similar
forces and we are all to some degree complicit in ‘murder’. Alison concludes that Jesus
gives us the new commandment, to see each other as alike in the light of a non-
appropriative mimesis. He also highlights that sin is always against fellow human
beings. He emphasizes that the law itself can be turned into an instrument of murder as
happened in the Jesus’ trial. Alison describes the true living God as the master of
suspicion99.
For Alison and myself, Girard is key in reading the Gospels. A reading of Scriptures
through the perspective of René Girard’s anthropology and Alison’s theology help us
understand how we humans can forge civilizations through grace, learning pacific
mimesis of the Father through obedience and thus finally correcting Adam’s
disobedience100.
98 JAMES ALISON, The Joy of Being Wrong. Original Sin Through Easter Eyes, foreword by Sebastian Moore, New York 1998, 237-265. RENÉ GIRARD, Battling to the End. Conversations with Benoit Chantre, translated by Mary Baker, Michigan 2010, 195-210. 99 JAMES ALISON, The Joy of Being Wrong. Original Sin Through Easter Eyes, foreword by Sebastian Moore, New York 1998, 9-63; 186-265. 100 JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts and New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 230-248. JAMES ALISON, The Joy of Being Wrong. Original Sin Through Easter Eyes, foreword by Sebastian Moore, New York 1998, 15-21; 83-88; 130-138; 161-168; 222-229.
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Chapter 2: Is Human Sacrifice required by the True Living God? Biblical Perspectives
2.1 Introduction
“If we say we have no sin, we deceive ourselves, and the truth is not in us” (1 John 1, 8).
In this chapter I will look at what the Bible has to say on idolatry and the true image of
God particularly in relation to human sacrifice. I will be looking at the following texts:
Genesis 4, 1-16; 22, 1-18; 1 Kings 17; 18; 19, Matthew 5, 1-48; 12, 7; 21, 33-46; 26; 27;
28 giving special attention to Mt 27, 19. Finally, I will also explore Acts 7, 1-60; 10. In
my choice of Biblical texts I have attempted to select key texts that reflect ideas to be
explored in this study such as: the idea of sacrifice, murder, idolatry and God. Key
notions within Alison’s theology and Carmelite Spirituality were kept in mind whilst
keeping the reading of desire central. Moreover, whilst reading these texts I will try to
identify references to desire, violence and non-violence as related to the issue of idolatry.
Idolatry in this chapter particularly refers to that which leads one human being murdering
another. Perspectives from these texts will be brought in dialogue with Alison’s and John
of the Cross’ theology in Chapter Four. David Jensen says that he prefers the “narratives
of desire approach” to “the hermeneutics-of-suspicion approach”. He argues that
“narratives of desire” value “God’s desire for humankind and of humankind’s desire for
communion with God and for relationship with one another.”101 I found this perspective
helpful especially for this study. However, through this chapter I will also try to identify
those situations were desire takes us away from the living God.
101 DAVID JENSEN, The Embrace of Eros: Bodies, Desires, and Sexuality in Christianity, in BJORN KRONDORFER, Review of Margaret D. Kamitsuka (ed.), The Embrace of Eros: Bodies, Desires, and Sexuality in Christianity(Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2010) xi + 356pp., in Journal of Men, Masculinities and Spirituality 5, 2 (2011) 119 (on-line) : http://www.jmmsweb.org/ [11 August 2011].
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2.2 The Character of God as found in the Old Testament
The Genesis stories present us with an active God whose actions are all related to
humans. The Genesis stories tell us something about how life was meant to be and
something about the reality of the lives of the Israelites as well - a hard life to grow crops,
a life where women suffered pain in childbirth and where snakes bit humans102.
Genesis presents us with a garden of abundant fruit, of no inhibitions and conflicts
spoiling male-female relationships and of no difficulties between humankind and the
animal kingdom. Eden was a delightful place, a beautiful paradise where God, the source
of life dwelt with humans, a place where order and harmony reigned. However, because
of disobedience, possibly idolatry103, Adam and Eve were expelled from this garden and
this idyllic state became beyond the grasp of human beings. The consequences are
serious. Outside of Eden woman’s role as wife is marred by tension and childbirth is
painful. Man’s work becomes hard work and frustrating and his life leads to death104.
Genesis retells familiar ancient Near Eastern stories about the origins of the world yet
dramatically transforms them theologically. They are stories with a serious purpose
which affirm monotheism and God’s almighty power. These stories place human beings
as central to the divine purpose and affirm that it is God who looks after humans
supplying them with food and not the other way round, as in the pagan myths. God
blesses humanity, encouraging all creation to be fertile105.
102 GORDON WENHAM, Exploring the Old Testament. The Pentateuch, vol 1., Great Britain 2003, 23. 103 Beale argues that Adam and Eve’s sin is primarily a sin of idolatry. That is, their hearts turned away from God, their reverence towards another ‘object’. Even though this is not explicitly found in the bible, it is obvious that they shifted their allegiance to Satan and thus became like him bringing disorder and chaos. They became liars and deceivers. A very strong theme in the Bible is that idol worshipers become like the idols they worship; spiritually insensitive and dead, whereas worshipers of the living God resemble him, a glorious reflection. See G. K. BEALE, We Become What We Worship. A Biblical Theology of Idolatry, United States of America, 2008 127-140. 104 GORDON WENHAM, Exploring the Old Testament. The Pentateuch, vol 1., Great Britain 2003 21-23. 105 Ibid, 16.
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In Genesis we find other lessons about the character of God. He remembers righteous
human beings; he is in control of the forces of nature: his word brings the world into
existence stage by stage; everything in creation including the sun and moon are his
creation and not gods. The human being is the climax of creation. In fact, humans are
the image of God - his representatives on earth. Genesis clearly sets in place a
comprehensible understanding about who God is and the meaning of his creation.
However, humans managed to spoil this beautiful picture and throughout the Bible we
find various dynamics and negative consequences resulting from this disobedience -
idolatry and violence being prominently among them. Scripture show us that violence
can be traced back to the first days of human history106.
Beale states that Adam and Eve were created to reflect God, his glory and “fill the earth
with it”107. Adam was created as the priest-king, commissioned to cultivate, guard the
garden and mirror divine glory. However, Adam and Eve failed allowing sin to enter the
garden. Rather than ruling over the serpent, they allowed it to rule over them. Beale
argues that though there is no direct reference to idol worship in Adam and Eve’s fall, the
implication is there. Idol worship refers to the reverence of anything other than God.
Adam and Eve’s allegiance shifted from God to Satan and thus became a reflection of
Satan’s image rather than that of God108.
In the Historical books YHWH is revealed as a personal God, the One who created men
and women to relate to him. Covenants are established and Israel is rescued from Egypt.
The laws reflect YHWH’s character. He reveals himself to be patient in unexpected
ways, responding to his people when they repent. He rescues Israel again and again,
holds back judgment, but also reveals himself as a ruler of all nations. In the Historical
books we do find ‘contests’ between YHWH and other gods. Of course his power is
revealed as superior and unique. However, at times he seems to stand back and let events
106 GORDON WENHAM, Exploring the Old Testament. The Pentateuch, vol 1., Great Britain 2003, 27-32. STUART WEEKS, Man-made Gods? Idolatry in the Old Testament, in Idolatry. False Worship in the Bible, Early Judaism and Christianity, planned and edited by STEPHEN C. BARTON, London 2007, 7-21. 107 G. K. BEALE, We Become What We Worship. A Biblical Theology of Idolatry, United States of America, 2008, 128. 108 Ibid, 128-135.
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take their course109. Satterthwaite and McConville argue that “In short, the Histories
claim that to turn away from YHWH is to reject what is good and right for what is
twisted, cruel, wicked, oppressive and dehumanizing.”110
In the Historical books we find other themes such as that of political shrewdness, that
Israel is to be known as the nation which worships YHWH in his temple, that Israel often
needs to seek YHWH’s forgiveness and that he forgives covenant violations if people
repent. We also find running a tension between judgment and grace through the books of
Kings. Another lesson is that inordinate love can lead us to worship false gods and that
kings have a tendency to adopt forms of worship that suit their own interests. Again
pointing out that the worship of gods is in fact a problem of the heart’s wanderings and
its various desires111.
2.3 Problematic Texts with regards to God’s character in the Pentateuch & Historical Books
Some biblical texts about the character of God are in fact problematic if read from René
Girard’s and Alison’s perspective. René Girard argues that violence in the Bible
particularly in the Old Testament is human projection. Based on this understanding,
James Alison claims that we need to understand God through the fullness of his
revelation, through Jesus Christ’s resurrection. The ‘violent’ God we encounter in the
Old Testament is a God who is not yet fully understood by the human person of that time,
culture and context112. However, some texts are problematic for such a claim. In this
section I will look at some of these texts.
109 PHILIP SATTERTHWAITE – GORDON MCCONVILLE , Exploring the Old Testament. The Histories, Vol 2., Great Britain 2007, 21; 150-155; 161-163; 175. 110 Ibid, 21. 111 Ibid, 150-155; 161-163; 175. 112 RENÉ GIRARD, The Girard Reader, edited by James G. Williams, New York 1996, 145-221. JAMES ALISON, Knowing Jesus, forward by Rowan Williams, London 1998, 3-30.
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2.3.1 Genesis
In the Abraham story we find that he is asked to leave his comfortable homeland and he
responds in faith. Scripture shows us that this is a giant leap forward for humankind.
Words spoken to Abraham are the first words since the flood and they sum up the theme
of Genesis. In them we find four promises: a land, numerous descendants, protection and
success (blessing). These promises do come about yet Scripture also teaches us that these
may not have been fulfilled as expected. Their coming about is a painful and slow
process113. For instance, the promised land remains a struggle and reason for much
conflict throughout Scripture, up to this day. And yet, Abraham’s faith becomes the rock
upon which God decides to build the world. A rock that as Pope Benedict XVI tells us
holds back chaos and destruction. This faith sustains the world114.
One needs to keep in mind that the long-term vision of Genesis is that ultimately the
reign of sin will be broken and the world will become what its Creator originally intended
it to be – Eden, where God’s rich supply including land, food and fellowship satisfies
humanity’s needs115.
However, one theme that emerges from this story and which touches on the ‘cruel’ is
obedience, that is God’s request to sacrifice Isaac. God asks Abraham to walk before
him and be blameless. He asks for circumcision - a sign of the covenant, but also asks
Abraham to kill Isaac, the long awaited son, in sacrifice. Abraham’s response is told with
sparse detail; of course no words can do justice to his feelings at this request, yet he
obeys blindly116. However, Scripture also says that God made this request to test
Abraham and not because he wanted Isaac to be sacrificed (cf. Gen 22, 1).
However, in his request to sacrifice Isaac, God points out “whom you love” (Gen 22, 1-
2). I am afraid that this image of God has captured our imagination and not in a positive 113 GORDON WENHAM, Exploring the Old Testament. The Pentateuch vol 1., Great Britain 2003, 35-45. 114 Benedictus. Day by Day with Pope Benedict XVI, edited by Rev. Peter John Cameron, O.P., France, 201. 115
Ibid. 116 Ibid. Abraham, in New Advent. (on-line) : http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01051a.htm [15 September 2010].
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manner. A cruel voice asking for the killing/sacrifice of that which our heart most loves.
Abraham obeys God’s request and because of his obedience he receives the blessing –
“because you have obeyed my voice” (Gen 22, 15-18). Having said that, in this story we
find a twofold obedience: the first one to kill but the second not to kill. One could argue
that in the second command ‘do not kill’ is a fuller revelation and true image of God.
The first command sounds like a set up or trick played on Abraham, in fact it is ‘only’ a
test. Maybe God is ‘mimicking’ idol worship - a demand which humans felt and
practiced at the time - to reveal himself fully and show who he really is, in his second do-
not-kill command. Maybe God is teaching Abraham that his heart should love God first
and not make an idol, even of his beloved son - the long awaited son, the fulfillment of
God’s promise to Abraham117. Matthew Nederlanden states that “for Abraham (and
Abraham's time) the abrupt, unexpected event was not a God who asked for a sacrifice
(every god did that) but a God who stopped one”. Nederlanden argues that “The story of
God asking Abraham to sacrifice Isaac is about replacing all those old, false ideas of a
God who is out to get us, with the true story of a God who cares for us”118.
The story of Abraham and Isaac highlights the fact that Isaac was burdened to carry the
wood and knife, a common story we find in situations of torture or concentration camps
where humans are brutally killed119. It seems that for Abraham and his culture there was
already a very good knowledge on how to carry out that kind of sacrifice. Human
sacrifice was present, if not in Abraham’s family and ‘religion’ surely in other pagan
rituals. God seems to be establishing through Isaac the replacement of animal sacrifice to
117 Jewish Midrash tell us that Abraham struggled and searched for the true God all his life and understood that what others considered as idols were finite things. See Stories of Our Ancestors, in MyJewishLearning. (on-line) : http://www.myjewishlearning.com/texts/Rabbinics/Midrash/Midrash_Aggadah/How_Midrash_Functions/Abraham_and_Sarah_in_Midrash.shtml?TSRB [5 September 2010]. 118 MATTHEW NEDERLANDEN, Coming Out of Ur - How the story of Abraham sacrificing Isaac defined God for all of us, in MatthewNederlanden, (on-line) : http://www.matthewnederlanden.com/bible-commentary/abraham-sacrificing-isaac-genesis-22.php [10 September 2010]. 119 One can find various references to prisoners having to dig their own graves before their execution. See: Cambodian Communities Out of Crisis. Cambodia’s Holocaust, (on-line) : http://www.cambcomm.org.uk/kflf.html [16 September 2010]. Poniatowa, in Aktion Reinhard Camps, (2006) (on-line) : http://www.deathcamps.org/occupation/poniatowa.html [16 September 2010]. WW2 People’s War. An Archive of World War Two Memories – written by the public, gathered by the BBC, in BBC, (on-line) : http://www.bbc.co.uk/ww2peopleswar/stories/06/a2013706.shtml [16 September 2010].
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the pagan human sacrifice for Abraham and future Israel. Through this story God is
clear. Human sacrifice is not pleasing to him, but for the time being animal sacrifice is
accepted, though later through Jesus Christ he will do away with this entirely. Jesus
fulfills that kind of sacrifice120. And yet God tests the human heart and its desires.
In the dialogue between Abraham and Isaac we can also glimpse upon a certain kind of
trust in God whilst at the same time loss for words. Isaac asks Abraham where the lamb
is – so animal sacrifice was already a common practice in Abraham’s family121.
Abraham answers that God will provide. It is not clear from the text if Abraham is lying
to Isaac or if he is lost for words or if he is simply hiding God’s true request. It seems
that the text is pointing towards a deeper irrational trust in God, a deeper hope in
Abraham’s heart. However one may also glimpse a sense of disappointment,
helplessness and hopelessness. God’s desires are not yet clear for Abraham.
However, God intervenes when Isaac is already tied, obviously understanding that he is
the offering by now. Silence is tick in the text. However, the angel stops Abraham yet
approves his action and obedience “for now I know that you fear God and did not
withheld your son” (Gen 22, 12). One wonders about the impact of all this on Isaac. It is
not clear why God needs this kind of proof from the human person. Maybe God knows
that it is the human heart that needs to go so far. Scripture often makes references to sin
as having its root in the desires of the human heart. Isaac is not sacrificed yet there is
another kind of sacrifice going on here. The request itself must have cost both Abraham
and Isaac much. In this story God approves of Abraham’s actions. At the same time
Abraham’s hope that “the Lord will provide” (Gen 22, 14) is fulfilled – the ram replaces
the child. Scripture stress Abraham’s obedience and that blessings came forth from it (cf.
Gen 22, 15-19). One could also argue that Abraham had a very deep and profound desire
for this God to go so far and fulfill his desires.
120 RENÉ GIRARD, Violence and the Sacred, translated by Patrick Gregory, London 2005, 4-6. 121 René Girard claims that animal sacrifice is simply a replacement of human sacrifice but the dynamic at work (“victimage mechanisms”) is still the same. See RENÉ GIRARD, Violence and the Sacred, translated by Patrick Gregory, London 2005, 1-40.
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2.3.2 The Historical Books In the Historical Books, Scripture tells us that King Ahab promoted Baal (god-of-
fertility) worship, raising it to a state religion. Ahab persecuted YHWH’s prophets and
viewed them as trouble makers. Ironically the land is hit by great famine and we see
Elijah and Elisha struggling against Baal worship122.
Alongside the command of God and Elijah’s obedience we also find God’s providence -
the ravens and the widow feed Elijah. For instance the widow who had lost all hope was
able to be generous and trust the word of the prophet, thus finding life and blessings123.
This is another insight into the character of God as revealed by Scripture.
As the story develops, the widow’s son is dying and she asks Elijah why he brought
remembrance of her sin and thus her sons’ death as punishment. I find this very
interesting. Somehow it echoes the fear of Abraham’s God who asks for the sacrifice of
those we love. We find here a fear of God as the one who punishes, as the one who needs
human sacrifice of that loved human being as atonement and the understanding of him as
the one who brings death. The same logic seems to be present once again in this text, a
God demanding the human sacrifice of those we mostly love. Yet God reveals himself
once more as Other124 to this. He is the one who brings healing, life and gives ‘us’ back
those we love. In front of this revelation the widow proclaims: “Now I know that you are
a man of God, and that the word of the Lord in your mouth is truth” (1 Kings 17, 24).
The unique God of life is recognized and there is joy. It is also interesting to note that the
widow makes reference to sin. One wonders if she is carrying any guilt, the root of her 122 PHILIP SATTERTHWAITE – GORDON MCCONVILLE , Exploring the Old Testament. The Histories, Vol 2., Great Britain 2007, 161. Idol, Idolatry, in The Anchor Bible Dictionary, 6 vols., editor-in chief David Noel Freedman, (1992) III-376-III-381. 123 PHILIP SATTERTHWAITE – GORDON MCCONVILLE , Exploring the Old Testament. The Histories, Vol 2., Great Britain 2007, 163-169. RENE CAMILLERI, Faith’s Gentle Call. Thirty-second Sunday of the Year (8th November 2009), in TimesofMalta.com (on-line) : http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20091108/religion/faiths-gentle-call [17 September 2010]. 124 The term ‘Other’ is often used by James Alison to identify God as the Unique, True and Life-Giving God who is in no way similar to anything or anyone the human person knows. See JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts & New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 160-175.
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fear. It seems to me that one could also read the healing of the widow’s son possibly also
as an act of forgiveness and liberation from guilt, fear and sin itself.
Moreover, tied to Elijah’s obedience we find the promise of rain [life]. On the road
Obadiah meets Elijah and we find once more an expression of that fear of punishment
and death, expressed by the widow earlier on. Both express a concern about sin and the
fear of its consequence, punishment and death. In this case God is not punishing nor
correcting Obadiah but approaching him for co-action. Is Scripture telling us that
YWHW is grossly misunderstood? It seems to me that Scripture is pointing towards the
fact that instead of worshipped as the true God who brings life, YWHW is feared as the
god of death. Human desire leans towards life and yet this Other God who is the source
of life is feared and believed to be the one who brings death, the one who asks us to
‘sacrifice’ and give him those we mostly love and desire. On the other hand, it seems to
me that Scripture is hinting towards the fact that matters of the heart are problematic and
that they can lead us away from God, thus misleading us into idolatry125 and death.
God’s action is purifying to the heart, but his action seems to be grossly misunderstood.
God always invites humans into a fuller experience of life where death is no more –
however this process involves detachment (sacrifice?) and re-attachment126.
Maybe looking at the first letter of John we can find a re-telling of these fears of ours as
human and misunderstandings of God, “Beloved, let us love one another, because love is
from God; everyone who loves is born of God and knows God. Whoever does not love
does not know God, for God is love” (1 John 4, 7). Later in that same letter John
explains, “There is no fear in love, but perfect love casts out fear; for fear has to do with
punishment, and whoever fears has not reached perfection in love. We love because he
first loved us” (1 John 4, 18).
One of the important elements within the Elijah’s story is the contest with the prophets of
Baal. God consents to all of Elijah’s requests. During the preparation for the sacrifice 125 NATHAN MACDONALD, Recasting the Golden Calf: The Imaginative Potential of the Old Testament’s Portrayal of Idolatry, in Idolatry False Worship in the Bible, Early Judaism and Christianity – Stephen C.Barton, London 2007, 22-39. 126 IAIN MATTHEW, The Impact of God. Soundings from St. John of the Cross, Great Britain 1995, 28-34.
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and its execution God is silent yet he responds to all of Elijah’s prayers. In an almost
disturbing way, the story ends with Elijah ordering the killing of the false prophets. The
order fulfills the Law but it is Elijah’s command and not coming from God (cf. 1 Kings
18, 40). Did Elijah fall into that same old trap of believing that murdering another human
being, even if he is an ‘enemy’ of God is pleasing and the way to serve the true and living
God? Following this command and killing something else happens for Elijah.
However, later on in this same story God does request the killing of people, following the
anointing of new kings and a prophet (cf. 1 Kings 19, 15-18). Yet, we hear nothing of
these killings. A new beginning is approaching for Israel, new foundations are to be laid
once more but murder is yet present. Some of these texts remain problematic unless read
as Girard and Alison point out, that such commands from God are not in actual fact his
commands but human projections and a ‘primitive’ understanding of this same God and
his desires127. And yet, these texts remain problematic with regards to the understanding
of God’s character as entirely without violence.
2.4 Desire, Violence & Murder in the Old Testament
“No one, when tempted, should say, ‘I am being tempted by God’; for God cannot be
tempted by evil and he himself tempts no one. But one is tempted by one’s own desire,
being lured and enticed by it; then, when that desire has conceived, it gives birth to sin,
and that sin, when it is fully grown, gives birth to death” (James 1, 13-15).
Scripture shows us that from Adam and Eve’s fall, humanity starts degenerating and Cain
is presented to us as worse than his father Adam. Genesis tells us that both Cain and
Abel offer sacrifices to God. Interestingly this practice is not mentioned as happening in
the garden of Eden. For some reason Cain is failing and his offer is rejected. It also
seems that Cain enters a pattern of desire which is destructive. Scripture indicates that
127 RENÉ GIRARD, I See Satan Fall Like Lightning, translated with a foreword, by James G. Williams, United States 2001, 103-160.
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Cain is envious of Abel; rivalry entered between the two brothers. Cain ends up
murdering Abel (cf. Gen 4, 8). Proverbs tells us “A friend loves at all times, and kinsfolk
are born to share adversity” (Prov 17, 17). Genesis seems to be telling us that turning
away from genuinely worshiping the true living God leads to violence, to the extent of
being able to murder one’s own brother.128 It is also telling us that family relations can
be deeply problematic and sin takes root within fraternal relations.
The Bible tells us that Cain got angry because God had no regard for his offering. On the
other hand we also see God entering in dialogue with Cain, asking him about his anger.
God warns him that sin was lurking behind the door. He also tells him that if he does
well his offering will be accepted. And then God utters a phrase which for the purposes
of this study seems to be key “its desire is for you, but you must master it” (Gen 4, 7).
Interestingly, God does not warn Abel about the risk of his pending murder129. Much is
revealed in this story, yet many gaps are left unfilled. It is clear that the problem has
something to do with Cain’s heart - anger, envy, rivalry and violent desire130 are present.
As James says in his letter, desire can bring forth sin. Another insight is found into this
story if read in parallel to the fratricide story of Romulus killing Remus, which obtained
divine favour. René Girard tells us that the Cain and Abel story is similar to other stories
of fratricide. However, in other mythological stories, the gods favour the one who killed
128 GORDON WENHAM, Exploring the Old Testament. The Pentateuch vol 1., Great Britain 2003, 22-27. STEPHEN C. BARTON, Humanity and the Idols of the Gods in Pseudo-Philo’s Biblical Antiquities, in Idolatry. False Worship in the Bible, Early Judaism and Christianity, London 2007, 58-72. 129 Abel in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch, editors: T. Desmond Alexander – David W. Baker, USA 2003, 5. 130 It is interesting to note that rivalry is very much present in Cain and Abel’s quarrel in the story as described by the Jewish Midrash.: RABBI ISCAH WALDMAN, Filling in the Gaps, in MyJewishLearning (on-line) : http://www.myjewishlearning.com/texts/Rabbinics/Midrash/Midrash_Aggadah/How_Midrash_Functions.shtml [18 September 2010]. Moreover, Girard argues that the story of Cain and Abel is a story like other mythological stories of ‘warring brothers’ and that the death of one brother represents the start of a civilization (ex: Romulus & Remus). However, what’s unique in the Bible is that the story condemns this violence, exposing it for what it is. Scripture tells us that Abel was innocent. God clearly denounces such violence and it happened because Cain took leave from God. God forbids all murder. See RENÉ GIRARD, Things Hidden Since the Foundation of the World. Research undertaken in collaboration with Jean-Michel Oughourlian and Guy Lefort, translated by Stephen Bann (Books II and III) Michael Metteer (Book I), London 2003, 3-46; 105-125; 141-179.
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his brother and blessings come forth out of that ‘sacrifice’131. René Girard tells us that in
Cain and Abel’s story Scripture changes its theological lesson. Something different is
revealed about the true and living God.132 He does not bless Cain for killing his brother
Abel but punishes him. The interpretation that God gives for Abel’s killing is not that of
sacrifice which pleases him, bringing about blessings for Cain, but that of murder which
brings about punishments for Cain133.
Moreover, if one searches Scriptures to look for passages where God refuses sacrifices
we might glimpse on the reasons why Cain’s offering might have been refused. In
Deuteronomy 12, 31; 18, 9-12; Psalms 106, 38, Jeremiah 19, 4-5 we find that in pagan
culture sacrifice meant human sacrifice or the killing of the innocent. God clearly states
that this is not acceptable to him. In other texts of the Old Testament such as 1 Samuel
15, 22-23, Proverbs 21, 3, Isaiah 1, 11; 16-17, Jeremiah 7, 22-23, Hosea 6, 6 and Micah
6,8 we find that God only accepts burnt offerings if these are an expression of faithful
love towards God, obedience, love and justice towards one’s own neighbour, especially
the weak and vulnerable. If such conditions are missing the sacrifice is not pleasing.
God’s desire for humanity is to be humble and practice love and justice towards each
other; sacrifice in itself is unimportant, what matters is the disposition of one’s own heart.
Jesus in Matthew 5, 23-24 and in Mark 12, 41-44 follows this tradition and again gives
this kind of command – revealing God’s heart and desires for humanity. Clearly, the
above mentioned conditions are missing in Cain’s sacrifice. He misplaced priorities and
missed what is really important and pleasing to God in his own zeal for that same God.
In Matthew 25, 41-46 we have again an expanded explanation of this same lesson. It
seems to me that God’s word to Cain “its desire is for you, but you must master it” (Gen
4, 7) is reminding Cain about his parents’ sin, hoping that he does not commit the same
mistake. As pointed earlier, Adam and Eve allow the serpent to rule over them rather
131 RENÉ GIRARD, The Scapegoat, translated by Yvonne Freccero, United States of America 1986, 88-94. 132 Abel in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch, editors: T. Desmond Alexander – David W. Baker, USA 2003, 5. 133 RENÉ GIRARD, The Girard Reader, edited by James G. Williams, New York 1996, 149.
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than ruling over it themselves. Cain falls into the same pitfall with grave consequences
for Abel, himself and future generations.
Genesis shows us that the desire which Cain was not able to master, the sin lurking
behind his door, was the desire to murder his brother probably because of envy.
Scripture records this ‘first’ murder in human history. Interestingly, Jesus often refers to
Satan as murderer134. Scripture seems to be showing us again that by not worshiping the
true-living-God we move allegiance and become an image of Satan. The book Wisdom
of Solomon elaborates much about this and Cyprian reflecting and writing extensively
about it 135.
Going back to Cain and Abel’s story, the murder of Abel brings consequences for Cain.
Perpetual nomadism is Cain’s punishment and the ground does not yield to him. The
latter was already a punishment after the first fall of humankind. The intensity of the
punishment seems to get the worst at this point. Cain is to be a fugitive and a wanderer.
It is interesting to note that he is afraid of being killed. Scripture seems to be hinting that
violence is contagious and works on principles of reciprocity136. God intervenes to mark
Cain and intervenes to stop this violent cycle (cf. Gen, 4, 15-16). One could also read
134 In John 8, 44 Jesus makes reference to Satan as murderer and liar. He points out that those who follow his desires are like him – the reference is to those desiring to kill Him. Moreover, Jesus tells them that Satan is their father. 135 Cyprian in De zelo et livore, warns Christians about jealousy and envy, reminding them that the devil fell and destroyed others through these vices. He also claims that these same vices rob man of the grace of immortality. He argues that through the envy of the devil death penetrated into the world and says that those who are envious imitate the devil. Cyprian tells us that envy is the source of many other sins such as hatred, discord, ambition, avarice and disobedience. All these are enemies for the unity of the church. He also argues that the bond of the Lord’s peace is broken through these vices, they violate brotherly charity, truth is adulterated and unity divided. Envy and jealousy bring about heresies and schisms. Cyprian’s remedy for envy is love of neighbour, especially those previously hated. He instructs to favor those envied, to imitate good man, to rejoice with them, to congratulate those who are better and share with them in united love. Becoming their associate is for Cyprian a remedy which he describes as an alliance of charity and the bond of brotherhood. See JOHANNES QUASTEN, Patrology, Christian Classics, vol 2., United States of America, 1959, 360-361. 136 GORDON WENHAM, Exploring the Old Testament. The Pentateuch vol 1., Great Britain 2003, 22-27. René Girard argues that Cain was jealous of his brother but unlike his brother he did not have the sacrificial outlet that Abel had, that of animal sacrifice. Moreover scripture reveals to us that a culture that starts with violence will returns to violence. See RENÉ GIRARD, The Girard Reader, edited by James G. Williams, New York 1996, 74-76.
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this text as a revelation about who God is – the one who does not reciprocate violence
with violence but breaks its cycle though he still punishes the wrongdoer.
The theme of desire, envy and jealousy is a recurrent one within Scripture. It is a human
problem of great concern. James in his first letter again reflects upon this,
“Those conflicts and disputes among you, where do they come from? Do they not
come from your cravings that are at war within you? You want something and do
not have it; so you commit murder. And you covet something and cannot obtain
it; so you engage in disputes and conflicts. You do not have, because you do not
ask. You ask and do not receive, because you ask wrongly, in order to spend
what you get on your pleasures” (James 4, 1-3).
Soon after the Cain story the Bible tells us about the flood story. The flood is sent
because of the perversity of human thoughts and uncontrollable universal violence
amongst all creatures, especially humans. Wenham argues that human thought tended
inexorably towards evil because of misguided worship which also involved cult
prostitution. Scripture describes this cult as the mating of the sons of gods with human
women137. It seems to me that here we find a reference to idolatry and sexual practices.
This grieved God to his heart, (cf. Gn 6, 5-6; 11), and because of this the world had to be
returned to original chaos138.
On the other hand, the Noah story also teaches us that a righteous man’s sacrifice can
atone for the sins of others, actually for the sins of the whole human race. Scripture also
teaches us that the world of harmony that God originally created is a forlorn hope.
Though the flood purifies the earth, humanity’s thought still tends towards sin. Thus,
God lays down the principles to stop violence from getting out of hand. Primal
vegetarianism is replaced by permission to eat meat – no animal blood can be consumed
though. Benevolent supremacy is replaced by fear and dread. Moreover, the principle of
137 GORDON WENHAM, Exploring the Old Testament. The Pentateuch vol 1., Great Britain 2003, 28-29. 138 Ibid.
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retribution is introduced, a punishment to match the crime committed mainly to stop
retaliation and violence getting out of hand once more139.
2.5 Idolatry & True Image of God in the Old Testament
In the miracle accounts of Elijah and Elisha we find the inter-play between life and death.
Like in Genesis, YHWH is presented as the one who is associated with life, provides
food, enables barren woman to conceive and if kings listen to the prophets, all Israel
would find life140.
Elijah is presented as the second Moses. With him lies the hope that sick Israel may be
restored to life but the Books of Kings also suggest that Elijah and Elisha basically did
not manage to transform Israel’s situation141.
In the story of Elijah it is clear that it is not acceptable to worship other gods alongside
YHMH and religious unfaithfulness is the greatest failing. Yet being righteous is also not
a guarantee against disaster. The Historical books teach us that the human response to
prophecy is as significant as the prophecy itself – repentance is one such response. The
Historical books, like Genesis tell us that prophecy is always fulfilled but sometimes this
happens immediately and at other times over generations142. Elijah’s own life is a fight
against false images of God, a struggle that also becomes an internal one because he
himself had constructed an image of this same God he so ardently loved, a God who is
always beyond the grasp of the human person 143.
139 Ibid. 140 PHILIP SATTERTHWAITE – GORDON MCCONVILLE , The Histories (Exploring the Old Testament.), 4 Vols., Great Britain 2007, 161-164. 141 Ibid, 161-164.. ALEXANDER VELLA, OCARM, Elia Profeta, in Dizionario Carmelitano, diretto da Emanuele Boaga, O.Carm - Luigi Borriello, O.C.D., Roma 2008, 310-314. 142 PHILIP SATTERTHWAITE – GORDON MCCONVILLE , Exploring the Old Testament. The Histories, 4 Vols., Great Britain 2007, 175-178. 143 ALEXANDER VELLA, OCARM, Elia Profeta – Elia nella Bibbia, in Dizionario Carmelitano, diretto da EmanueleBoaga, O.Carn - Luigi Borriello, O.C.D., Roma 2008, 312. PERRIN, B. DAVID, Studying Christian Spirituality, New York 2007.
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At God’s request Elijah confronts Ahab and the people placing before them a clear
question, “For how long will you limp?” (1 Kings 18, 21). He is encouraging them to
choose. Here we find a clear and direct confrontation with idolatry. One could argue that
throughout Scripture we find that the problem of idolatry is linked to human desire, that
is, the heart desiring more than one god maybe depending on who satisfies our own
desires most.
Later, a dramatic contest between YHWH and the prophets of Baal follows. Bulls are
sacrificed. In this contest rivalry is present once more; one sacrifice is pleasing to God -
he reveals himself, the other sacrifice is not and nothing happens. The two groups of
people144 are competing with each other, also for power, might and dominion – to re-
establish a civilisation. I wonder if this sacrifice story echoes something of Abel and
Cain. In this story the false worshippers end up being killed, unlike the story of Cain and
Abel, where Abel the true worshiper of God is the one who is murdered. However,
killing is present in both stories.
In this part of the Elijah story we find that on the one hand God is presented very much as
the stereotypical ‘God’, the one who by fire, might and power shows himself. However,
it seems that in this bit of the story God is very silent, though acting. It is Elijah who is
doing much of the talking, requests and demands (prayers). Elijah takes centre stage and
God performs.
In this narrative we also find exposed an interesting ritual which Elijah mocks, that of the
idolaters cutting themselves and the Bible points out, “as was their custom” (1 Kings 18,
28). Something in their sacrifice is not working. It seems that the blood of their bulls is
not pleasing to the gods, so would human blood satisfy their desires? It seems to me that
this ritual uncovers an unconscious fear and understanding within the pagan rituals, that
really and truly the gods desire human blood.
144 It also seems that Kings views Israel as ideally a single 12-tribe entity. This comes across in the narrative of Elijah on Mt. Carmel where he builds an altar using “twelve stones, according to the number of the tribes of the sons of Jacob”. See PHILIP SATTERTHWAITE - GORDON MCCONVILLE, Exploring the Old Testament TheHistories, 4 vols., Great Britain 2007, 180.
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The Elijah story seems to tell us something about two forms of idolatry; there is for sure
the worshiping of images, of animals or other created things. Secondly about a more
subtle form of idolatry that the righteous person and worshiper of the true-living God can
also be trapped into. God, who responds with fire to Elijah’s request seems to be telling
Elijah something else, that the fullness of his presence is not to be found in that fire but in
sheer silence – an encounter with God after the experience of darkness and night. The
theme of this subtle idolatry is further explored in the New Testament. I will touch upon
this theme also when discussing John of the Cross in Chapter Three. However, the Elijah
account leaves us in a problematic state from a Girardian point of view. Both idol
worshipers and worshipers of the true living God are violent; murder is present on both
sides of the camp.
2.6 Darkness & Transformations in the Old Testament
In the Historical Books we find that following the contest-sacrifice Elijah falls off centre
stage. Afraid, he flees. Ironically, a threat from Jezebel shakes him to this point. He
moves to the solitary wilderness and asks for death. A ‘strange’ anti-climax to the
previous story of might and power. It seems that something is being revealed in Elijah’s
heart. He appears to be tired and exhausted but there seems to be an echo of guilt as well
- that whilst fighting idolatry he too fell in that kind of sin in its subtlest form. Elijah
points out that he is not better than his ancestors (cf. 1 Kings 19, 4-5), this often referring
to sins of idolatry145.
Suddenly a messenger of God commands Elijah to get up and eat otherwise the journey
will be too hard. Again, God reveals himself as the One who sustains and demands
movement and journeying. It seems that it is through this journey that Elijah will get to
know God and himself more. For Elijah, this journey seems to be the cut off point
between life and death. Elijah seems to be purified once more. He goes through a desert
experience. Elijah arrives at mount Horeb where he settles in a cave. I think that the 145 G. K. BEALE, We Become What We Worship. A Biblical Theology of Idolatry, United States of America 2008, 141-160.
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symbolism of the cave is an important one. Another important element is the night.
Here, we find Elijah, in a cave alone at night in total darkness146. Possibly, this is also a
reference to a womb or a tomb, maybe to both at the same time. It seems that this is a
place where something is dying yet something is being born. Scripture is telling us about
that mystical space for transformation147
At this point Elijah reminds God about his zealous action and how alone he also feels.
Elijah seems to be feeling abandoned, even by God. Later on God answers him about
this, almost in a humoristic way, pointing out there were seven thousand who did not fall
into idolatry (cf. 1 Kings 19, 18).
From the positions of lying down God commands Elijah to go out of the cave and stand
(cf. 1 Kings 19, 11-12). God is revealing something ‘more’ of himself, something
‘fuller’148. Elijah witnesses the wind, an earthquake and fire. I find the use of fire here
as very interesting. During the sacrifice-contest, God did reveal himself as fire at Elijah’s
command – showing people that he was accepting Elijah’s offering and that he was the
true God. Yet now God is showing Elijah that he is not to be found in fire. At Horeb,
God reveals himself in sheer silence. Possibly God is teaching Elijah that even though he
responded with fire during the sacrifice-contest-game, he is not after all that kind of god,
and that kind of sacrifice is not according to the desire of his heart.149 The contest-
sacrifice might reflect Elijah’s own ‘primitive’ cultural understanding of the living God, 146 Night is of course a very powerful symbol within Carmelite tradition particularly in John of the Cross. See IAIN MATTHEW, The Impact of God. Soundings from St. John of the Cross, Great Britain 1995, 51-93. RUTH BURROWS OCD, Essence of Prayer, London 2006, 99-105. The Dark Night, 1. 1-14; 2. 1-25. The cave, often a symbol of the unconscious or female sexuality in psychology. See C. G. JUNG, Psychology and Alchemy, second edition translated by R.F.C Hull, London 1993, 153; 186-187; 333. ROSALIND POWELL, Dream Therapy interpretations and insights into the power of dreams, London 2000, 52-63. 147 KEES WAAIJMAN, The Mystical Space of Carmel. A Commentary on the Carmelite Rule, Leuven 1999, 169-196. 148 The idea of an anthropological understanding of gradual revelation is strong both within René Girard and James Alison. It seems to me that this is also true within this text, that of God showing himself slowly and gradually according to the capacity of the human person over time. See JAMES ALISON, Knowing Jesus, forward by Rowan Williams, London 1998, 33-59. A Very Brief Introduction, in Imitatio Integrating the Human Sciences (on-line) : http://www.imitatio.org/mimetic-theory/a-very-brief-introduction.html, [22 August 2011]. 149 In Scriptures we also find various references to God’s request that it is mercy that he wants and not sacrifice, amongst them: 1 Sam 15, 22. Pr 21, 3. Ho 6, 6. Is 1, 11. Jer 7, 22. Mi 6, 8. Mt 9, 13; 12, 7.
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his desires and demands, yet God’s true image is to be found elsewhere; in the sheer
silence, following a journey across darkness. James’ letter tells us that “Elijah was a
human being like us, and he prayed fervently that it might not rain, and for three years
and six months it did not rain on the earth. Then he prayed again, and the heaven gave
rain and the earth yielded its harvest” (James 5, 17-18). The real power of Elijah seems
to have been his prayer life and yet he was human like ourselves.
2.7 The Character of God as found in the New Testament
In the New Testament, Matthew presents Jesus as the one who teaches with divine power
and authority. He brings the possibility of a new existence to humanity and all creation.
As Moses encountered God on a mountain, so Jesus meets and speaks to his disciples on
a mountain. Matthew adds a spiritual dimension to the sermon on the Mount, probably
because he was addressing a community who were not physically poor and hungry. The
Matthean Jesus presents God’s demands, not by dispensing with the Law but by asking
for a deeper observance that gets to the reason of such demands – “be perfect, therefore,
as your heavenly Father is perfect” (Mt 5, 48). Matthew shows us that Jesus dares
explicitly to modify or correct what God said through Moses, showing us that he is more
authoritative than Moses. Jesus legislates with all the assurance of the God of Sinai. He
explains that the coming of the Kingdom will involve a dangerous struggle with Satan.
His prayer includes the asking for deliverance from this apocalyptic trial and the Evil
One150.
I personally feel that here Jesus is locating violence and revealing to us where it is
coming from. Like him, we have to confront ourselves with this violence which comes
from the murderer, the one who hates Jesus and humanity. Jesus urges his followers to
dedicate themselves totally to God as opposed to worrying about things of this world and
to examine themselves carefully instead of judging others. He assures us of God’s
generous answer to our prayers. He also teaches us to do to others what we would have
150 RAYMOND E. BROWN, An Introduction to the New Testament, New York 1997, 171-224.
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them do to us and cautions his followers about the narrowness of the gate and against
false prophets151.
Jesus demands clarity such as yes-yes and no-no answers and to go beyond the Law
itself. He tells his disciples not to offer violent resistance to the evil doer, to turn one’s
own cheek, to give one’s cloak, to walk the second mile and to give and not refuse those
who want to borrow. It is interesting that Jesus gives very clear examples of where we
might offer violent and angry resistance (cf. Mt 6. 7. 8) and he urges us to break the cycle
of violence. Jesus’ teaching tells us not to reciprocate violence with violence. He
teaches, later with his own life how to subvert these negative powers152.
He goes as far as commanding to love one’s enemies and to pray for those who persecute
us (cf. Mt 5, 43-44). A command he himself fulfills at the end of his earthly life (cf. Mt
26, 51-56). He tells us that the Father makes his sun shine and sends rain on the evil and
good ones, the righteous and the unrighteous (cf. Mt 5, 45-48). To do this non-violent
more is to receive the reward. He urges us to become non-violent, to go beyond human
judgment and a superficial understanding of situations, which often are marked with
shallowness. For Jesus this is the way of perfection, to be like the Father. Jesus is
teaching us that worshiping the true living God leads us into this non-violent way of
being and this kind of brotherly love. Yet violence will confront us; to be like the Father
is to desire no violence and hatred. One should not reciprocate it either.
Origen elaborates on this notion of perfection of likeness. He stresses that this is our
highest goal. It is the aim for Christians, to achieve this perfect likeness in the end, to
become as like God as far as possible; for this Christians need grace and one’s own
efforts, we achieve it through imitation of Christ.153
151 Ibid. J.R. PORTER, Jesus Christ, London 2007, 50-61. 152 JAMES ALISON, Living in the End Times. The Last Things Re-Imagined, London 1997, 41-44. 153 JOHANNES QUASTEN, Patrology, Christian Classics, vol 2., United States of America 1959, 94.
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Jesus emphasizes this more in our understanding of God throughout the Gospels. Jesus’
demands are to exceed the righteousness of the Scribes and Pharisees which he uncovers
as false. Such fulfillment involves not merely not committing murder but not getting
angry or insulting one’s own brother and sister – Jesus tells us that we can also kill in this
way. As mentioned earlier on, he says that one should reconcile with one’s own brother
and sister first, then offer one’s offering (cf. Mt 5, 23). The Old Testament is full of such
stories of rivalry between brothers and sisters - Cain and Abel, Jacob’s wives and the
story of Joseph are other examples. Jesus explains that giving an offering with an angry
heart might lead to murder anyway, the offering per se offers no magic solution, but all
depends on what is going on in one’s heart. Interestingly, from murder Jesus moves on to
adultery and lust. He warns men that looking lustfully at a woman is also adultery of the
heart. Personally I feel that Jesus links lust to violence154. I wonder if this is also a
reference to humanity’s sins before the flood pointed out in section 2.4. Later on he goes
on to give a rather difficult speech where he claims that it is better to destroy part of one’s
own body than be thrown in hell. Clearly he is teaching us to avoid harming others.
2.8 Jesus’ Desire
“Religion that is pure and undefiled before God, the Father is this: to care for orphans and
widows in their distress, and to keep oneself unstained by the world” (James 1, 27).
In the New Testament one can also find something of what Jesus desires for humankind.
One of the important texts of the New Testament which seems to refer to the desire of
Jesus-God as pointed out by James Alison, is the Sermon on the Mount155. In this text
154 RAYMOND E. BROWN, An Introduction to the New Testament, New York 1997, 171-224. In an article written for a web-based magazine I reflected about the connection and link between lust and violence. See MARIO GERADA, (2008), The Gay Body – Incarnating Christianity in The Epistle, (on-line) : http://epistle.us/, 155 JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts & New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 160-175. JAMES ALISON, Knowing Jesus, forward by Rowan Williams, London 1998, 42-45.
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we see a reversal of all that society upholds. One may call it a subversive text156. Jesus
teaches how the way of the Kingdom works. Its desires are diametrically opposed to the
way the world functions. All that the Empire presents as desirable, Jesus abhors.
The poor (in spirit), those who mourn, the meek, those who hunger and thirst (for
righteousness), the merciful, the pure in heart, the peacemakers, the persecuted because
of righteousness and those who are reviled and persecuted are in actual fact the ones
blessed by God. Jesus tells us that it is these who are the salt and light of the world (cf.
Mt 5, 1-48).
In another text found in Matthew 12, 1-8, Jesus shows us himself as the one who is
greater than the Temple, above the Sabbath, guiltless and the image of God holding the
Priesthood function – also forewarning his unjust condemnation. Here he reveals his
desire, “I desire mercy and not sacrifice” (Mt 12, 7). A phrase that ties with a logic that
seems to be running within Scriptures. Jesus is revealing to us what the heart of YHWH
desires, a message found throughout the Old Testament as pointed out in section 2.4.
Moreover, Amos 4; 5 accentuates this same message once more. In Amos, God is very
clear “Seek me and live” (Am 5, 4), a statement often repeated within this book. It seems
to me that the fullness of these teachings about God’s desires are difficult to
‘comprehend’ even for many humans today. As Elizabeth Stuart claims, “our desire is
too easily perverted into lust”,157 and lust is usually not only sexual but also for power,
riches, prestige and other ‘worldly’ things. It is here that lies the key to problem with
human desires. When our desires are no longer modeled according to the desires of God,
they become perverted into envy, lust and violence as subtle and hidden these may be.
Jesus through his Sermon on the Mount reveals God’s desires. This in turn reveals
problematic human desires which forge societies by excluding some, rejecting or
156 SHANE CLAIBORNE, The Irresistible Revolution. Living as an Ordinary Radical, United States of America 2006, 157-189. SHANE CLAIBORNE – CHRIS HAW, Jesus for President, United States of America 2008, 71-124. James Alison also argues that in the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus was not teaching morals but rather making available an anthropology of desire. See JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts & New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 164. 157 ELIZABETH STUART and others, Religion is a Queer Thing. A Guide to the Christian Faith for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgendered People, London 1997, 54.
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committing violence to others. Societies modeled on that kind of civilization built by
Cain. Jesus shows us that it is amongst those who society rejects and oppresses that
God’s own desires are to be found, understood and fulfilled. It is about loving inclusion
of those who are rejected and not oppression.
2.9 Darkness & Transformations in the New Testament
Darkness is also present in the New Testament. Jesus himself walks through darkness.
In Gethsemane he was grieved, agitated and asked the three apostles accompanying him
to stay awake with him. He prayed that if possible he would not go through this. He is
pained that his three companions could not stay awake. It is a very tragic part of Jesus’
own story and reveals the weakness and fragility of human nature. Not only it is a time
of trial but also a time where the vulnerability of the human person including that of
Jesus, in front of violence is revealed. It is interesting to note the dynamic at play: Jesus
was awake and alert, he knew what was going to happen and he suffered. The apostles
were sleeping, not only insensitive to Jesus’ pain, fear and needs, but oblivious to the
violence that soon was going to be unleashed. Their reaction reveals that even though
Jesus was trying to prepare them, they were not listening.
The Chief Priests and Elders, who are supposed to hold wisdom and protect society, in
actual fact confer together to bring about the death of Jesus. They manage to do so.
Proverbs tells us “One who justifies the wicked and one who condemns the righteous are
both alike an abomination to the Lord” (Prov 17, 15). Matthew goes into details about
the tortures and brutality Jesus had to endure, the display of manly power and lynching.
The story particularly shows how patriarchic religious and civil powers can destroy one
human person and how vulnerable that individual is in front of all that kind of power.
The passion of Jesus is a dramatic and tragic unfolding of brutality, cruelty and violence
unleashed on him. We see how men humiliate, torture, abuse and use violence against
him. He is rendered vulnerable, powerless and victimized158.
158 Balthasar argues that Girard’s theory fails on some points primarily with regards to God’s demand for justice and ‘atoning sacrifice’ concept, which according to Balthasar, Girard neglects. He holds on to the idea of God’s ‘wrath’ and ability to exact retribution. Balthasar also claims that the idea of ‘solidarity’ to
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It also important to note that Scripture is pointing out to us that it is those who reject the
Son of God who are violent towards him and kill him. Yet the Son of God and the one
who teaches us true worship of the Father has no violence in him. On the other hand, the
Gospel presents women-disciples-of-Jesus as those who can somehow identify with him,
pity him, understand what is happening at a deeper level and in their own way try to
protect him. They cry for him and reach out. They also take bold and courageous steps,
like Claudia, Pilate’s wife. Women in various ways and at different degrees were victims
(and at times still are) of that patriarchal society159. Elizabeth Stuart claims “patriarchy
has created us in its image”.160 Women knew something of men’s violence and brutality
often being the objects of that kind of violence161.
Like René Girard and James Alison, I also feel that the Gospel reveals the trial and
passion of Jesus for what it is - an evil conspiracy that is being unleashed on a guiltless
and innocent victim killed to protect the establishment and the powers to be162.
Moreover, it is also revealing humanity’s rejection of God and men’s violence towards
him. James Alison speaks of deicide163. Even most of his men-disciples, those who
recognize him as the Son of God abandon him. Only the women and the beloved
disciple, from those who recognize him as the Son of God, stay.
Jesus on the cross is taunted, mocked and challenged to prove that he is the Son of God.
And yet, the elements and earth herself witness that Jesus is God. The Gospel speaks of
three hours of darkness, earthquakes and rocks splitting. Moreover, the temple curtain is
torn from top to bottom. The tombs are opened, with all of its eschatological meaning,
understand Jesus’ saving action is ‘insufficient’. He also states that Girard fails to play significance to the crucifixion as an event between the Father and the Son. Balthasar thus insists on attributing some form of complicity and violence to God for Jesus’ crucifixion. Having said that, Balthasar recognizes Girard’s original approach and the way he can ‘resolve’ particular difficulties with regards to the theology of atonement. See MICHAEL KIRWAN, Discovering Girard, London 2004, 108-111. 159 BEVERLY J. LANZETTA, Radical Wisdom. A Feminist Mystical Theology, U.S.A 2005, 7-26. 160 ELIZABETH STUART and others, Religion is a Queer Thing. A Guide to the Christian Faith for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgendered People, London 1997, 31. 161 BEVERLY J. LANZETTA, Radical Wisdom. A Feminist Mystical Theology, U.S.A 2005, 7-26. 162 RENÉ GIRARD, I See Satan Fall Like Lightning, translated with a foreword, by James G. Williams, United States 2001, 121-153. JAMES ALISON, Knowing Jesus, forward by Rowan Williams, London 1998, 61-87. 163 Ibid, 33-59.
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and the body of saints raised. After his resurrection these bodies go to the city to give the
good news. The death of Jesus immediately brought an outburst of life which is dramatic
yet always non-violent164. St Paul in his letter to the Colossians tells us that in Jesus
dwells the fullness of divinity bodily (cf. Col 2, 8-10).
2.10 The Crucifixion – Idolatry & Conspiracy, Sacrifice or Murder?
“Whoever loves a brother or sister lives in the light and in such a person there is no cause
for stumbling. But whoever hates another believer is in the darkness, walks in the
darkness, and does not know the way to go, because the darkness has brought on
blindness” (1 John 2, 10-11).
In Matthew Chapter 26 we see an escalation of violence and conspiracy to kill Jesus. In
this story a woman pours oil on his head. She seems to understand what is going to
happen. Jesus faces violence without reciprocating it. She learnt well Jesus’ command
and imitates him in her gesture. Whilst not reciprocating violence towards those who
were hostile towards Jesus, she creatively acts out one small gesture of love. She does
not try to protect him through violent means. She probably knows that she could not stop
that kind violence anyway.
Interestingly the disciples react angrily but Jesus defends her, warning them that she is
preparing him for burial and that this gesture of love will be remembered. He uses the
word remembrance later, in the breaking of the bread and sharing of wine as recorded in
Lk 22, 19 and 1 Co 11, 24-25. Jesus seems to be teaching us that only gestures of love
have substance and are remembered165.
Later, the text shows us the exchange between Jesus and Judas. In Jesus once again we
find no violence yet there seems to be hurt in his voice. However, Jesus does warn his
164 RAYMOND E. BROWN, An Introduction to the New Testament, New York 1997, 199-203. 165 Julian of Norwich mentions that Love is the only substance and therefore since evil and sin are not rooted in love they have no substance in themselves. See JULIAN OF NORWICH, Revelations of Divine Love, England 1998, 12.
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disciples in a strong tone of voice about Judas’ betrayal “woe to that one by whom the
Son of Man is betrayed! It would have been better for that one not to have been born”
(Mt 26, 24).
Jesus explains in a masterfully way what is going to happen. He explains the New
Covenant and that it is his blood that will be poured out for the forgiveness of sins. He
also explains what is going to happen once he is arrested and falsely accused - that the
apostles will desert him. Peter denies this but it seems that he is still relying much on his
own strength and Jesus knows that this strength will fail him during that moment of
lynching (cf. Mt 26).
I wish to particularly point out that the Gospel highlights the fact that during the Jesus’
trial false testimony takes place. The Gospel also tells us that the death sentence is unjust
and false. In fact it is not very clear in terms of Jewish and Roman laws. Pilate is aware
of this. He also asks Jesus if he is the Messiah. It seems that Pilate was in fact doubting,
afraid that Jesus might be the one. Jesus answers him “From now on you will see the Son
of Man seated at the right hand of Power and coming on the clouds of heaven” (Mt 26,
64). However, the violent mechanism had been unleashed. The victim is chosen and the
dynamic is too strong even for Pilate to stop it. In fact he falls for it. As predicted, Peter
betrays Jesus as the cock crows, he remembers the words of the Lord and goes out
weeping bitterly (cf. Mt 26, 75). The text not only reveals how alone Jesus was and how
weak human nature is, but also what power the mob holds and how powerful lynching is,
even powerful characters like Pilate and Peter are unable to resist it166.
It is also interesting to note that Pilate tries to save Jesus by offering Barabbas as a
replacement-victim, as was custom (cf. Mt 27, 15-16). Pilate seems to be trying to
channel the violence of the mob onto somebody else, someone who at least is ‘justified’
to become such a victim. It is interesting to note that Pilate seems to have a deeper
insight into what is going on and the way the mob moves – the dynamics of lynching167.
The Gospel tells us that “He realized that it was out of jealousy that they had handed him 166 RENÉ GIRARD, The Scapegoat, translated by Yvonne Freccero, United States of America 1986, 149-164. 167 Ibid, 105-106.
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over” (Mt 27, 18). Even though Pilate is aware of the dynamic at play here, he is not able
to stop the ‘game’. Jealousy brings about murder once more.
Returning to Pilate, Matthew tells us that he attempted to dialogue with the crowd yet
there was no possibility for that. The crowd was in a frenzy and the only option Pilate
found was to declare the innocence of this man and choose not to have anything to do
with his killing: yet he gives in to the crowd’s request. The pull is too strong. “I am
innocent of this man’s blood; see to it yourselves” (Mt 27, 24). The blood of Jesus
forgives and washes away all of this violence. John, in his first letter tells us “The Son of
God was revealed for this purpose, to destroy the works of the devil” (1 John 3, 8).
2.10.1 More of the same… In Act 7 Scripture tells us about the murder of Stephen – the first Christian martyr. Acts
presents this in parallel to the death of Jesus. Very similar dynamics are revealed such as
the elders and scribes stirring up the people and false witness given at the trial. In
Stephen we see someone who during his ‘trial’ gives a long witness and explanation of
Scripture and how Jesus fulfills them. For example, Stephen exposes the Patriarchs’
jealousy towards Joseph and how he was rescued from all his afflictions, how Moses the
one who was “beautiful before God”168 was rescued from violence and murder. Of
168 RAYMOND E. BROWN, An Introduction to the New Testament, New York 1997, 293-296. It is interesting to remember that the story of Moses includes the killing of an Egyptian and yet Moses is challenged and rejected by his Jewish brothers. He runs away and at this moment he encounters YHWH, who reveals to him that he has seen the mistreatment of the Israelites, heard their groaning and wants to rescue them. He tells Moses that he will re-send him to Egypt to deliver his people. The rejected one is in fact re-sent to become the liberator. Moses is the one who murders his Egyptian brother and at the same time liberates his Jewish brothers and sisters. Of course in Egypt the Israelites had become accustomed to their gods and heavily involved in practices of idolatry. The climax of this is revealed in the desert when they did not know what happened to Moses, sculpted a calf and offered sacrifices. Of course this shows that they knew what the practice was and ‘how to do it’, thus they returned to it. God is also angry about this and expresses that nothing human hands build can become his home or contain him because he created all. We also find references to characteristics God uses when referring to idolaters such as being stiff-necked, uncircumcised in heart and ears, people opposing the holy spirit, and a key phrase as your ancestors which Stephen uses in this text. See: BEALE G. K., We Become What We Worship. A Biblical Theology of Idolatry, United States of America, 2008, 36-160.
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course all of this meant to reveal much about what was going on during his own trial169.
Once more, jealousy is presented as a root-cause-problem.
Stephen refers to ‘our ancestors’ with all its heavy meaning; having persecuted prophets,
betrayed and murdered them. The ancestors are also the ones who received the Law and
have not kept it. As mentioned earlier this could also have links with idolatry170.
Through this story Scripture reveals once more how those turning away from the living
God fall into the trap of violence and murder, ending up killing one’s own brother. Soon
after the resurrection of Jesus Christ we have yet again another killing, another Abel.
John in his first letter says, “Whoever does not love abides in death. All who hate a
brother or sister are murderers, and you know that murderers do not have eternal life
abiding in them” (1 John 3, 15).
Stephen’s speech uncovers the reality about those persecuting him, showing them they
are repeating what their ancestors had done. He is telling the high priests that they are
not worshipers of the true living God and are murderers themselves. When this is
‘revealed’ they become angry and grind their teeth. At this point Stephen sees the Lord
in a vision but they cover their ears, shout and rush against him.
Scripture tells us that they dragged him out and stoned him whilst he asks God not to
hold this sin against them – like Jesus. It is also interesting to note that the text makes it a
point to tell us that Saul a young man was present and that the crowd put their coats at his
feet. He approved of their murder (cf. Ac 7, 58; 8, 1) and the crowd honoured him. Like
in the killing of Jesus, all of them believed that they were serving and pleasing God by
killing Stephen. Scripture once more tells us that this is inappropriate worship. Saul who
had a deep zeal for the Law, like the rest of them missed on the essential meaning of that
same Law. Like Cain he understood worship wrongly and approves the killing of his
own brother believing he will receive God’s favour by doing so. However, Chapter nine
describes Saul as breathing threats and murder. It is only later that Saul learns that his
169 RAYMOND E. BROWN, An Introduction to the New Testament, New York 1997, 293-296. 170 Ibid. BARTON C. STEPHEN, Idolatry. False Worship in the Bible, Early Judaism and Christianity, London 2007, 7-57.
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desire and zeal for God was problematic and in actual fact he was persecuting that same
God he was so eagerly trying to please (cf. Ac 9, 4-5).
Of course Stephen was challenging much of what was dear to the leaders, suggesting that
the Temple has no more meaning for instance. Brown points out that Stephen’s
interpretation of the Old Testament does not reflect standard understanding. He argues
that some scholars suggest that this is due to Stephen’s Samaritan background171 which
from Girard’s perspective makes him the ‘ideal’ scapegoat and victim within such a
dynamic. One needs to point out how the above mentioned texts expose group dynamics
of imitation around the killing and ‘sacrifice’ of one person172.
The text points at two continuations; that of Jesus’ death - the dynamic that led to his
killing is not over and ironically, it will be Saul who will also continue this story of
undoing. What Scripture clearly reveals in these texts is that even worshipers of the true-
living God may fall into idolatry and end up murdering their own brother, in the case of
Jesus their own God whom they did not recognize out of jealousy and zeal. God-given-
laws can become a source of idol worship themselves. Stuart states that “other queer
theologians have paid close attention to the God of traditional theology, interrogating him
(for this is an idol usually shaped as man), asking what right he has to be called God, and
re-imagining God in ways that are consistent with a focus on the here and now”.173
2.11 Problematic Texts in the New Testament
One of the parables used by James Alison to defend his position and which I chose to use
for this dissertation is about the man who planted a vineyard and leased it to tenants.
Later he sends servants to collect the produce but the tenants seize them, beat one, kill
another and stone another. They also kill the bigger number of servants sent a second
171 RAYMOND E. BROWN, An Introduction to the New Testament, New York 1997, 296. 172 RENÉ GIRARD, Things Hidden Since the Foundation of the World. Research undertaken in collaboration with Jean-Michel Oughourlian and Guy Lefort, translated by Stephen Bann (Books II and III) Michael Metteer (Book I), London 2003, 3-47. 173 ELIZABETH STUART and others, Religion is a Queer Thing. A Guide to the Christian Faith for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgendered People, London 1997, 69.
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time round. Finally the Son is sent and we have this key phrase: “They will respect my
Son” (Mt 21, 37). The tenants knowing he is the heir kill him, believing they will get his
inheritance.
The above mentioned parable seems to reveal in fullness the intentions of the Father
sending us his son, and the evil intentions of those [us] who murdered him. It is also
about taking by force rather than being able to receive gratuitously174. This parable tells
us nothing of ‘sacrifice’ or of God’s need for human blood as ransom for humanity’s sins.
It seems to me that at the end of the parable there is another twist. Jesus asks those
around him what will the owner do and the answer is immediately that he will kill the
tenants. However, Jesus’ first reply is “‘The Stone that the builders rejected has become
the cornerstone; this was the Lord’s doing and it is amazing in our eyes’” (Mt 21, 42).
Jesus does not speak of violent murderous reciprocity but of something else. Yet later he
does mention that the Kingdom of God will be taken away from ‘you’ and given to a
people who produces the fruits. Similar to what we find in the Old Testament, murder
does bring about consequences. Life does not continue ‘as if nothing really happened’.
Those who murdered need to turn around and face their victim. Forgiveness is possible
but if not, the Kingdom is no longer available and moves elsewhere.
The description of the stone is another powerful image. Jesus says that the one who falls
on this stone will be broken to pieces; it will crush anyone on whom it falls (Mt 21, 44).
Consequences are present fashioned in strong Semitic expression but these are present for
those who reject of the Son of God.
Of course the chief priests and the Pharisees understand themselves to be the target of the
warning that the Kingdom of God will be taken away and given to a nation that will
produce fruits. They also understand that this sharp judgment is for them. Whilst
writing, Matthew is thinking of his church composed of Jews and Gentiles who believe in
174 JAMES ALISON (2007), The shape of daring imagination: coming out and coming home in James Alison.Theology (on-line) : http://www.jamesalison.co.uk/texts/eng44.html, [26 August 2011].
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Jesus. Thus, for Matthew to be worthy is primarily to respond to the demands of Jesus
for the Kingdom and not to be a Jew175. Jesus’ message is a universal one.
2.11.1 Judas Another problematic text within the New Testament is Judas’ despair and hanging
himself. This text shows that the betrayal and rejection of the other, in this case the Son
of God brings about serious consequences for one’s own life. It is interesting to note that
whilst the Jesus’ trial is in motion Judas repents (cf. Mt 27, 3). He actually tries to stop
what he himself started. However, he despairs in front of the fact that he cannot stop the
killing of Jesus, knowing that the game is not in his hands any longer. He cannot prevent
this murder. Matthew tells us that Judas hangs himself out of despair (cf. Mt 27, 3-5).
Again, Matthew uses similar language of conspiracy by the priests and elders when
discussing the blood money - they conferred together (cf. Mt 27, 7). The tragic ending of
Judas leaves many questions unanswered. Unlike the Cain story, God does not directly
intervene to either try and stop or punish Judas. The life of Judas ends up tragically in
the darkness of despair. Again Scripture uses strong Semitic expressions to describe such
event making it clear that it was him who betrayed and cast out Jesus. It was Judas who
handed over Jesus into the hands of those who wanted to murder him. Following that
action he does that very same thing to himself. In Scripture Judas remains remembered
as the traitor. In the Gospels Judas also represents those who ultimately reject the Son of
God even after knowing him176. Like Cain, Judas fails to understand what true worship
is all about. Though he lived with and recognized the true and living Son of God – the
messiah, he still failed to recognize his deeper true image and the implications of being in
relation to the true and living God. Judas once again reminds us that even those who live
close to the Son of God and worship him can fall into that same old trap of idolatry and
fail to offer true worship. The true worshiper of the living God does not betray his
brother leading him into murder.
175 RAYMOND E. BROWN, An Introduction to the New Testament, New York 1997, 196. 176 Ibid, 200-222.
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2.11.2 Pilate’s Wife
On the other hand, another interesting element in the Gospel of Matthew is the story of
Pilate’s wife. It is in fact the only gospel that mentions her, hence my choice to use this
gospel. Matthew’s Gospel tells us that Pilate’s wife sent word to him “Have nothing to
do with that Innocent man, for today I have suffered a great deal because of a dream
about him” (Mt 27, 19). Interestingly God is communicating with her, a Gentile. It is not
clear if God the Father is trying to stop the murder of Jesus. He is surely revealing Jesus’
innocence, a message Pilate’s wife clearly understands and recognizes. It is interesting to
note that she points out that she ‘suffered’ in the dream. One wonders if this suffering
was also her suffering, if she was a victim herself. Historically, Pilate seems to have
been greedy, inflexible and cruel in character. He had no qualms to use robbery and
oppression in his rule177. In literature we also find references to this, of course this is
more imaginative rather than exegetical or historical. Charlotte Bronte in her poem
“Pilate’s Wife’s Dream” tells us that Pilate had crushed his wife’s mind and taken away
her freedom. A common experience for many women in their relations to men178.
Bronte also points out the sins of both the Roman and Jewish worlds that killed Jesus.
Interestingly she points at sins of lust, gold and power. In Bronte’s poem Pilate’s wife
recognizes Jesus God-like goodness, as a stainless man who brings about a new
ordinance and who is wise and mild179.
The real name of Pilate’s wife remains unclear. The name Procula derives from the
translation of the apocryphal Acts of Pilate180. However, the name Claudia is ascribed to
her much later, in the seventh century in The Chronicle of Psuedo-Dexter181. However,
Pilate’s wife dream is also mentioned in the Gospel of Nicodemus. Interestingly Jesus is
177 Pilate, in Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospel. A Compendium of Contemporary Biblical Scholarship, editors: Joel B. Green – Scot McKnight – I. Howard Marshall, England 1992, 616. 178 BEVERLY J. LANZETTA, Radical Wisdom. A Feminist Mystical Theology, U.S.A 2005, 7-26. SHIVA VANDANA, Earth Democracy. Justice, Sustainability and Peace, London 2005, 120. 179 BRONTE CHARLOTTE, Pilate’s Wife Dream, in A Celebration of Women Writers (on-line) : http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/bronte/poems/pbc-pilate.html [ 20 September 2010]. 180 Acts of Pilate, from Information on Acts of Pilate, in Early Christian Writings (on-line) : http://www.earlychristianwritings.com, [01 July 2012]. 181 Pontius Pilate’s Wife, in ENotes. Study Smarter, (on-line) : http://www.enotes.com/topic/Pontius_Pilate's_wife, [01 July 2012].
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described to Pilate as sorcerer there, hence explaining the way he ‘tricked’ her182. I
believe that the words of Judith of the Old Testament sits nicely next to this figure “You
are putting the Lord Almighty to the test, but you will never learn anything!” (Judith 8,
13). Pilate’s wife does not manage to prevent the killing of Jesus.
In the Greek Orthodox Church Claudia Procula is a canonized saint183. In some
Orthodox traditions it is believed that Pilate committed suicide184, yet in some other
traditions he is revered as a saint along side Claudia185. In his writings, Origen suggests
that Claudia became a Christian. Several theologians of antiquity and the Middle Ages
share this view. It is interesting to note that some rival theologians contended that the
dream was sent to Claudia by Satan in an attempt to thwart the salvation plan that was
going to result from the death of Christ, John of the Cross being one of them186. An
interpretation of Claudia’s dream depends on how one reads the meaning of the
crucifixion, and here we return to Girard’s and Balthasar’s disagreement on God-the-
Father’s complicity or not in the death of Jesus187.
182 The Gospel of Nicodemus (1924) from the “Apocryphal New Testament”, M.R. James-translation and notes, Oxford: Clarendon Press, in Early Christian Writings (on-line) : http://www.earlychristianwritings.com, [20 September 2010]. 183 Pontius Pilate’s Wife in Academic Dictionaries and Encyclopedias (on-line) : http://en.academic.ru/dic.nsf/enwiki/802656 [20 September 2010] DANIEL BURKE, In Pilate’s Wife, some see an unlikely saint (2009), in Religion News Service (on-line) : http://www.religionnews.com/index.php?/rnstext/in_pilates_wife_some_see_an_unlikely_saint2/ [20 September 2010]. 184 Christian tradition reported by Eusebius report that Pilate committed suicide after the trial of Jesus. See: Pilate, in Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospel. A Compendium of Contemporary Biblical Scholarship, editors: Joel B. Green – Scot McKnight – I. Howard Marshall, England 1992, 616. 185 Claudia Procula in eNotes.com, (on-line) : http://www.enotes.com/topic/Claudia_Procula [21 September 2010]. 186 Pontius Pilate’s Wife (2009) in Women in the Scriptures, (on-line) : http://womeninthescriptures.blogspot.com/2009/05/pontius-pilates-wife.html [21 September 2010]. St. John of the Cross is one such theologian. He describes Claudia’s vision as a deceptive vision coming from the devil under the guise of a ‘good vision’ - ‘And then there are the visions Pilate’s wife had about not condemning Christ [Mt 27, 19]. See The Ascent of Mount Carmel, 2. 16, 3. 187 MICHAEL KIRWAN, Discovering Girard, London 2004, 108-110.
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2.12 Non-Violence
One of the striking characteristics of Jesus is in fact his non-violent approach even at the
point where he was being lynched and led to his own death. Jesus does not retaliate
against his aggressors and corrects Peter for using his sword. Judas betrays Jesus with a
kiss. Brown points out that Judas addresses Jesus as ‘Rabbi’ when Jesus had prohibited
this specifically. Judas uses this term at the last supper as well. Amidst all of this, Jesus
commands Peter to put his sword back. Even at this moment he teaches that those who
take the sword will perish by the sword, he heals the wounded soldier. In front of all this,
the disciples flee, yet Jesus keeps on creating ‘something else’188. The image of Jesus at
this moment in his life has captured the imagination of Christians and non-Christians
alike. For many it is a scandalous and troubling image to ‘see’, a man who accepts
without resistance and violent reciprocity such an end. On the other hand, Jesus’ non-
violence has been and still is a great source of inspiration for many others. Having said
that the New Testament is not rid of violence entirely either. In the book of Revelation
powerful violent texts are once again present. However, Jesus sets this model for us for
both the fulfillment of the Law and to be perfect like the Father is. The standards are
high and a struggle to get there but only through this struggle are we to recognize the true
image of God.
2.13 Beyond Darkness, Resurrection - His Image
“God is light and in him there is no darkness at all” (1 John 1, 5).
As mentioned earlier on, Matthew presents us with various admirable characters, people
who have not fallen into the trap of the lynch dynamic or mob pull, particularly women.
However, Joseph of Arimathea is another figure which manages to act outside the cycle -
188 BROWN E. RAYMOND, An Introduction to the New Testament, New York 1997, 199-202. RENÉ GIRARD, I See Satan Fall Like Lightning, translated with a foreword, by James G. Williams, United States 2001, 188.
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asking for the body of Jesus. Pilate accepts, the women witness the burial. Interestingly
the Gospel tells us that Pilate also accepts the request to put guards at the tomb. It seems
that Pilate remains very much of a divided man by recognizing the truth but wanting to
keep everyone happy at the same time, pleasing the various powers at play.
Matthew also tells us that Mary Magdalene and the other Mary went to see the tomb.
Another act of courage knowing that soldiers are present. An earthquake welcomes
them, whilst an angel descends from heaven, rolls the stone and sits on it. Matthew goes
into detail as telling us that his appearance was like lightning, that his cloths looked like
snow and of course the guards were afraid and became like dead, whereas he invited the
women not to be afraid. Yet the women did feel fear, but also great joy. It is interesting
to point out that it is those same people who stood by Jesus and were not driven by the
pull of the lynch-mod that experience the good news of the resurrection first. Those who
are given the good news first, are those whose desire remained united with the desire of
Jesus even when it all become dark, the women’s desire remained unshakable throughout
and seems that their desire and Jesus’ desire for each other unites them once more at the
dawn of the resurrection.
Jesus appears to the women and they worship him. He asks them to tell the apostles to go
to Galilee for it is there that he will meet them. The apostles have some more journeying
to do before encountering the resurrected Jesus. Once again Matthew tells us about the
conspiracy of the elders to buy the soldiers’ silence, a lie to cover up the truth but also to
cover up their murder which now has been revealed for what it is. The victim was the
Son of God189.
The Gospel of Matthew concludes with a final command where Jesus proclaims that all
authority of heaven and earth are given to him and commands the apostles to go and
make disciples in all nations, to baptize them in the name of the Father, Son and Holy
Spirit and to teach them to obey everything he commands. His last reassuring words are
189 James Alison argues that the resurrection of Jesus is God’s confirmation of Jesus’ life and death. An affirmation of his freedom and truth, whilst at the same time offers ‘a new and completely unexpected and radical new insight into who God is’. See JAMES ALISON, Knowing Jesus, forward by Rowan Williams, London 1998, 12.
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“And remember, I am with you always, to the end of the age” (Mt 28, 18-20). The
founding murder has been revealed for what it is and resolved forever. Through this
same process the fullness of the image of God is also revealed and is found to be love,
forgiveness and inclusion. However, it is also a demand that makes its own demands.
2.14 Universality
In Acts 10 we find a huge leap forward in terms of Christianity and the early Church. As
with Claudia, God communicates with Gentiles and some gentiles are more able to
respond to him. The pagan Roman is presented to us as someone who feared God, gave
alms and prayed constantly. He used to participate in synagogue prayers and accepted
the moral demands of Judaism. He has a vision (later on he has to defend his behaviour
before the Jerusalem Christians). The vision takes place whilst Peter is praying on the
roof and he also has a vision that reveals to him in a detailed way what is going to
occur190.
Acts tells us that the circumcised were astonished that the gift of the Holy Spirit was
poured out on these Gentiles; “Can anyone withhold the water for baptizing these people
who have received the Holy Spirit, just as we have?” (Ac 10, 47).
The text clearly shows us that what is happening is uniquely God’s will. Of course this is
very controversial because it also implies a break from Jewish practice - no more kosher
food. Jesus’ saying that no new wine can be put into old wineskins becomes strikingly
apparent in this text191. Peter rejects by word and deed that to be a Jew has primacy over
faith in Christ. A learning process that took time and much struggle in the early Church.
However, Peter was foremost in displaying openness towards this new reality, a major
step during the beginning of the Church of the Gentiles as the beginning of the church of
the renewed Israel is happening at the same time192.
190 BROWN E. RAYMOND, An Introduction to the New Testament, New York 1997, 299-303. 191 Ibid. 192 Ibid.
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The Jesus story and the fullness of revelation in the paschal mystery have a universal
quality about them that need to be shared. The founding murder implicates all of
humanity within it. Violence, scapegoat mechanisms, victimization and problematic
desires that bring about but ‘resolve’ violence have a universal quality about them as
René Girard points out193. Hence, the resolution of this basic universal problematic
dynamic within human relationships and societies cannot be given only to one group of
people belonging to one privileged religion. Desire is universal hence the good news
about its resolution is for all of humanity across time194. Following the paschal mystery
the new outpouring of the Spirit cannot be contained as Acts 10 testifies. The liberating
act of Jesus is for all of humanity. The story of Israel has reached its fullness and
fulfillment in Jesus Christ, for all nations. Now, they too can stop building civilizations
through murder, resolving violence through victimization and building unity by
excluding or turning others into scapegoats. What is revealed is essentially human,
essentially divine, essentially universal and Jesus Christ has done something in the
history of humankind that is truly Good News – a Good News that needs to be told and
re-told - shared with all people since we are all trapped in that same original murderous
sinfulness195. It is in this paschal mystery of Jesus Christ that something of the fullness
and truth about the image of God can be glimpsed.
2. 15 Conclusion
In this Chapter I have attempted to read the text and allow it to speak. When reading
texts I focused on the concepts of desire, violence and idolatry keeping in mind René
Girard’s anthropology, Alison’s theology and Carmelite Spirituality. Interestingly we
find that in the Old Testament idolatry does revolve mainly around images or objects but
is also a matter of desire. If the heart abandons its God grave consequences follow. The
193 RENÉ GIRARD, Violence and the Sacred,translated by Patrick Gregory, London 2005, 1-178 194 RENÉ GIRARD, Things Hidden Since the Foundation of the World. Research undertaken in collaboration with Jean-Michel Oughourlian and Guy Lefort, translated by Stephen Bann (Books II and III) Michael Metteer (Book I), London 2003, 224-280. 195 JAMES ALISON, Living in the End Times. The Last Things Re-Imagined, London 1997, 57-76.
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Old Testament, particularly in the story of Elijah, also point out at the notion that there is
a subtle form of idolatry which even the person who worships the true living God can be
trapped in. Of course spiritual themes such as journey, night, cave, desire and mystical
transformation, picked up by the Carmelite tradition, strongly emerge in Elijah’s story.
The notion of subtle idolatry is further expanded within the New Testament. In reading
these texts I have attempted to remain faithful to what the text itself says as much as
possible, to help me find points of concordance or possible dissonance when bringing
them into dialogue with Alison’s and John of the Cross’ theology in Chapter Four.
Having said that texts selected are key texts within Girard’s anthropology, Alison’s
theology and Carmelite Spirituality. In fact, one of the main topics that this chapter
discusses is the Gospel dynamics and patterns which inspired René Girard in his own
writings. On the one hand as mentioned before I tried to read the texts allowing them to
speak. However, being very influenced by Girard’s and Alison’s perspective this bias
strongly emerges within this Chapter. .
As Roman Catholic tradition states, Scripture in revealing the word of God also offers an
anthropology of the human person. One could also argue that it also offers an
anthropology of desire. If disorder is present in one’s own heart, the human being is
exposed to envy and hate which not only lead him away from God but also towards
betraying and murdering his brother and sister. All division is the result of idolatry.
Anything and anyone can become an idol within the heart of the human person. Only
true worship of the living Trinity brings about life, healing and re-ordering of desires.
Actually, God liberates us from those violent desires that the ‘world and flesh’ bring
about. He also liberates us of any violent zeal or violent projections we may have about
him as well. Such process liberates desire from its own corruption. Desire itself is
created by God but needs to follow God’s own desire – that yearning to live with
humanity in the temple-garden of Eden were humanity has learned to love one another as
brothers and sisters.
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“Do not love the world or the things in the world. The love of the Father is not in those
who love the world; for all that is in the world – the desire of the flesh, the desire of the
eyes, the pride in riches – comes not from the Father but from the world. And the world
and its desires are passing away, but those who do the will of God live forever”
(1 John 2, 15-17).
“Little children, keep yourselves from idols” (1 John 5, 21).
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Chapter 3: Idolatry and the True Image of God as found in John of the Cross
3.1 Introduction – John the Poet
“Holy Spirit, giving life to all life, moving all creatures, root of all things, washing them
clean, wiping out their mistakes, healing their wounds, You are our true life, luminous,
wonderful, awakening the heart from its ancient sleep” Hildegarde of Bingen196.
In this chapter I will discuss John of the Cross’ The Ascent of Mount Carmel and The
Dark Night. When writing about John of the Cross I personally feel that it is important to
highlight the beauty of his poetry, mostly expressing mystical experiences through poetic
language. Peter Slattery says that ‘The key to understanding St. John’s contribution to
Carmelite spirituality is to see him as a sublime poet’197. Slattery describes John’s poetry
as having a dream like quality and like metaphysical fire198. Edith Stein describes John
of the Cross as “an energetic man, within him the soul of an artist, a love of beauty, of
nature, music, colour, and poetry”.199 Eulogio Pacho OCD emphasis the importance to
read John of the Cross within all his dynamic personality and active life. He describes
him as author, poet, theologian, teacher, spiritual director, founder and reformer. Pacho
tells us that it is important to have a harmonious and undivided understanding of John of
the Cross, rather than studying and separating one aspect of his personality-life. It is
within such reading that one finds the gate to his essential message200.
196 Prayers for Everyday; 50 Inspirational prayers from around the world, project editor Emma Beare, Bounty Books, London 2007. 197 PETER SLATTERY, The Springs of Carmel. An Introduction to Carmelite Spirituality, New York 1991, 72. 198 Ibid, 73. 199 EDITH STEIN, The Science of the Cross, translated by Josephine Koeppel, O.C.D., Washington 2003, xxiii. 200 EULOGIO PACHO, OCD, Giovanni della Croce, santo e dottore della Chiesa (1541-1591) – L’Opera e il Messaggio, in Dizionario Carmelitano, diretto da EmanueleBoaga, O.Carn - Luigi Borriello, O.C.D., Roma 2008, 426.
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However, for the purpose of this chapter I will be focusing on John of the Cross’
commentaries rather than his biography or poetry. And yet, poetic language is intriguing
in John of the Cross - the way he describes the ‘Night Experience’ which for myself, is
primarily a human experience as expressed in other forms of art such as poetry, literature,
music and the Gospel itself. Edith Stein equals the night experience to the cross and says
“then is the cross the symbol (Sinnbild) of all that is difficult and oppressive and so
against human nature that taking it upon oneself is like a journey to death. And the
disciple of Jesus is to take up this burden daily.”201
For John of the Cross night is also a space where one encounters God202, an experience
that can present us with the delicate sentiments of the nativity scene whilst at the same
time with danger, trials and tribulations. It can be an experience of healing but also of
raging storms. It is about alert watchful waiting and transformations. It is after all a time
for intimacy and loving203.
Often the harder aspects of John of the Cross writings are emphasized but they are also
real and present. After all John of the Cross is also reflecting upon human experiences of
pain, suffering and detachments be they voluntary or non-voluntary, willing or unwilling.
Edith Stein argues that “those who suffer unjustly are bearing the cross even though they
may not be aware of it”.204
And yet, the ‘Night’ of John of the Cross brings about joy and gladness. It is a night fired
up with love, grace, longing, beauty and a refreshing breeze. Night and darkness for John
of the Cross are spaces which offer security and stillness. Like a veil it protects lovers. It
offers a secure space for this loving encounter to happen, to enfold and consummate.
Darkness protects this encounter. In this night, something is going on and it needs to
happen away from the light of day, from staring eyes. His poem clearly elucidates this.
201 EDITH STEIN, The Science of the Cross, translated by Josephine Koeppel, O.C.D., Washington 2003, 17. 202 Peter Slattery reflects about the freedom of the poet and the challenges John presents through his poetry and commentaries. See PETER SLATTERY, The Springs of Carmel. An Introduction to Carmelite Spirituality, New York 1991, 74-75. 203 JOHN WELCH, The Carmelite Way. An Ancient Path for Today’s Pilgrim, New York 1996, 72-75. 204 EDITH STEIN, The Science of the Cross, translated by Josephine Koeppel, O.C.D., Washington 2003, xiv.
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John of the Cross finds in this darkness a more secure and guiding light than that of day.
It seems to me that this echoes with the Gospel’s star which guides the three wise men to
Bethlehem, to the infant Jesus. Night with its own lights opens up a way for John of the
Cross to reach his Jesus Christ.
For John of the Cross night is a place of beauty, the space where the lover meets the
beloved. It is the space of encounter, intimacy, growth, union and tender loving. It is the
place where transformation can happen safely. In this night he experiences the climax of
love which gently wounds him and it is this wound that sends John of the Cross out on a
‘new’ journey. John of the Cross learns to let go, to give himself entirely to Christ. In
this love in Christ John of the Cross is ‘lost’ – it seems to me that here the ‘todo y
nada’205 reach their fullness206. Edith Stein tells us that this transformation in love
becomes the person’s habitus, making it possible for the soul to possess eternal happiness
and eternal life.207 She explains John of the Cross’ ‘todo’ as the soul dissolving wholly
in God’s love - a love that wounds through its tender life.208 She explains that “the saint
wishes to place no obstacle to this wind of the Spirit when it blows through the soul”,209
reminding us of the aim of his writings.
The Ascent and Dark Night are a journey of losing oneself, of letting go to find a far
greater union - a deeper fullness. In this poem John of the Cross beautifully describes the
process of letting go of the finite to enter life in and with Christ – the infinite. The night
of John of the Cross is thick with Love which God has for all humanity; a love that
penetrates deep within the human spirit and brings a radical transformation. Such process
is a painful one, it is full of trials and tribulations. John describes these in detail in his
own commentaries about the poem. Change and transformation are part of this
encounter210.
205 IAIN MATTHEW, The Impact of God. Soundings from St. John of the Cross, Great Britain 1995, 38. 206 Ibid, 19-27. 207 EDITH STEIN, The Science of the Cross, translated by Josephine Koeppel, O.C.D., Washington 2003, 187. 208 Ibid, 188. 209 Ibid, 234. 210 PETER SLATTERY, The Springs of Carmel. An Introduction to Carmelite Spirituality, New York 1991, 77-79.
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The ‘Night’ journey of John of the Cross is not a journey into oblivion but a journey with
a clear destination. Amidst all the pain, suffering, fear and sense of loss, the destination
is one. The encounter with the living God brings about a dramatic yet delightful
transformation in the human person, making deep union possible. The poem itself is very
much marked with beauty, joy and gladness. His commentaries elaborate more on the
‘painful’ side of this journey: pain, suffering and misery, what John of the Cross calls the
process of purification211. Much of it is about letting go of idols – whatever these may be
and the reordering of desire, attachments and appetites. What I find remarkable in John
of the Cross is that he warns us not to panic during this process, to move on because the
blessings are yet to come and they are great212. Iain Matthew commenting on John of the
Cross tells us that God transforms in darkness and in this darkness, we encounter love
secure enough, allowing us to be vulnerable. Matthew states that in this darkness, God is
not absent but rather the way he is present that causes us difficulty. It is more about
bearing this suffering creatively rather than God imposing it upon us, after all pain and
suffering are facts of earthly life213. Suffering is a mystery but for John of the Cross it
also becomes a creative space for growth.
The commentaries of John of the Cross are very much his own reflection after having
gone through the experience merged with doctrinal reflections214. John of the Cross uses
a number of metaphors to describe this purgation such as the mother who nurses, carries
and caresses but who then weans the child and helps the child to grow, to put away the
childhood ways215. He also uses other images such as that of wood in fire and its
transformation or the window pane allegory216. In his poem and commentary, John of the
Cross is describing and teaching on how to allow God carry on his work in our soul,
about communion, the emptying of oneself to receive in full. He teaches us about the
211 RUTH BURROWS OCD, Essence of Prayer, London 2006, 99-105. 212 IAIN MATTHEW, The Impact of God. Soundings from St. John of the Cross, Great Britain 1995, xi-xiii. 213 Ibid, 72-85. 214 The Dark Night, The Doctrine, 354. 215 Ibid, 355. 216 The Ascent of Mount Carmel, 2. 5, 4-5; 7. The Dark Night, 2. 10, 6-7. Ibid, 2. 12, 3
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implications of being in an intimate loving relationship with God. He describes the
process of purification in terms of privation, darkness, aridity, emptiness, affliction and
torment. Throughout his commentary, John of the Cross often refers to the intellect,
memory and will, which he links to faith, hope and charity. He also speaks of their
purification217.
John of the Cross speaks of ‘Night’ as something obscure, which purifies and illumines
but in which the person feels powerless, bound, and unable to escape. It is here that we
learn to accept and surrender to what God is doing in our soul. John of the Cross
describes this moment as a difficult one for the soul and not knowing what is happening
is even more painful. John of the Cross realizes that understanding this process is of help
to souls, also to know that there is an end to all of this.
The aria ‘Vissi d’Arte’ from the opera Tosca by Puccini218 seems to reflect much of what
John of the Cross is writing about. Tosca’s cry reminds me much of John’s Ascent. It is
a life experience that people of faith encounter, of deep anguish and confusion. For
people of prayer these moments can be terrible and deeply disturbing. John of the Cross
points out at one essential element; it is not enough to be prayerful in one’s own religious
life, there is much to do, much to lose and to let go of. Moreover there is much to be
done from God’s side, to strip us of our own idolatry and attachments which are not
according to his desire219. John of the Cross highlights our possessive and violent ways
of relating to ourselves, others and God himself, of our problematic attachments to
objects, even religious items and spiritual experiences themselves. John of the Cross
points out how in the dark night we are stripped of these possessive attachments, a very
disconcerting experience but which helps us find our desire and attachments anew, full of
life.
217 The Ascent of Mount Carmel, 2. 6, 1-8. IAIN MATTHEW, The Impact of God. Soundings from St. John of the Cross, Great Britain 1995, 19-27. 218 See ANGELA GHEORGHIU - Vissi d'arte - Tosca - Puccini in YouTube Broadcast Yourself (on-line) : http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_OIExoUb8jk. 219 IAIN MATTHEW, The Impact of God. Soundings from St. John of the Cross, Great Britain 1995, 39-45.
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John of the Cross is talking about climbing the mount in the shortest time possible. He
knows it is a narrow path and feels sad for those who failed. He knows that God is the
goal of every human being but he is also aware how humans are stuck in states of
disorder. His way is the way for freedom for union with God220. Edith Stein tells us that
“He takes the soul by the hand where most halt, a new path opens up through the
impenetrable darkness.” 221
3.2 Darkness
“…to hope against all hope and never doubt His goodness…”
Elizabeth of the Trinity222
Darkness is a word John of the Cross uses often to describe this spiritual process. For
him the night gets darker and darker. During this period John of the Cross explains how
the person feels lost, filled with darkness, trials, afflictions and temptations. It is a time
of melancholia and depression. One’s temperament and hidden wickedness are revealed
and the person believes that God has forsaken him or her. The risk is to fall back and
John of the Cross reassures us that God himself is the author of this period. It is in actual
fact a period of enlightenment but the suffering is worse than death. One needs only
endure because there is no remedy. It is important to move according to the spirit
because during this time even structured prayer may not be helpful223. Peter Slattery tells
us that “The mystical journey up the side of the mountain of Carmel in the darkness of
night is a liberation because it is an effective means of attaining, insofar as it is possible
in this life, to the perfection of one’s being in a union of love centered in Christ between
the human person and God.”224 Rumi’s words echo much of what John of the Cross is
220 The Ascent of Mount Carmel, Prologue, 1-9. 221 EDITH STEIN, The Science of the Cross, translated by Josephine Koeppel, O.C.D., Washington, 2003, 37. 222 [ELIZABETH OF THE TRINITY], I Have Found God. The Complete Works. Letters from Carmel, 2 vols., translated by Anne Englund Nash, Washington 1997, L 262. 223 The Ascent of Mount Carmel, Prologue, 1-9. 224 PETER SLATTERY, The Springs of Carmel. An Introduction to Carmelite Spirituality, New York 1991, 77.
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describing “What sort of person says that he or she wants to be polished and pure, then
complains about being handled roughly?”225
In fact the soul that sets on this journey is attracted by God and follows him out of love
on this journey in darkness. In the Ascent John of the Cross explains the phase of
purgation with regards to sensible appetites, external things of the world, delights of the
flesh and gratification of the will. John of the Cross here is mainly talking about a
possessive attachment of the heart to the world. For him we need to live in faith alone.
He describes the night of the senses like the natural night having three parts226.
John of the Cross explains that for God all attachment to creatures is darkness and
therefore there cannot be union between light and darkness. The light of divine union can
only be established in the soul after all affections are eradicated227.
John of the Cross calls this process as night because there is much mortification of
appetites, but this is in actual fact light. The real darkness is when we let appetites rule
leading us to loss of grace, mortal sin and thus total blindness. Whereas virtue and
mortification bring peace, comfort, light, purity and strength228. Edith Stein points out
that entering the night is equivalent to carrying the cross.229 She also mentions that the
“cross and night are the way to heavenly light: that is the joyful message of the cross”.230
John of the Cross also speaks of a midnight phase where it gets darker. During this time
the rational, superior part of the human person is purified. The process is more interior,
touching the innermost being. It is the darkest period of the night which brings light.
John of the Cross warns us that we must be empty also of supernatural communication231.
225 Rumi, The book of Love, Poems of Ecstacy and Longing – Harsh Evidence, translations and commentary by Coleman Barks, United States of America 2003, 133. 226 The Ascent of Mount Carmel, 1. 2, 1-5. 227 Ibid, 1. 4, 1-4. 228 Ibid, 1. 6, 3-6. 229 EDITH STEIN, The Science of the Cross, translated by Josephine Koeppel, O.C.D., Washington 2003, xxvii. 230 Ibid, 31. 231 The Ascent of Mount Carmel, 2. 2, 2.
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John of the Cross explains how faith causes darkness and a void of understanding in the
intellect, hope begets an emptiness of possessions in the memory whilst charity produces
the nakedness and emptiness of affection and joy in all that is not God. He clarifies how
faith brings certitude but not clarity, it brings darkness. Hope also brings darkness with
regarding to all earthly and heavenly objects. Charity brings about the void to love God
above everything. These three virtues are acquired through darkness. John of the Cross
stresses that the gate is very narrow, the path steep and only a few desire this total
nakedness and emptiness of spirit. Denial of self in worldly matters is not enough he
argues. Denial in the spiritual domain is required too. It is an extreme form of
abandonment. For John of the Cross, Christ on the cross is the most marvelous work
surpassing all the works and deeds and miracles he ever performed on earth or in heaven
because it brought reconciliation and union232.
John of the Cross also describes God’s hiding place as darkness and dark water. He
explains how this obscurity is only shattered at the end of this mortal life when the glory
and light of the divinity will at once appear. Stein explains how “God remains hidden
from us on earth, even in the bliss of union”.233 John of the Cross warns against
supernatural communications especially external ones to avoid relying on them or
accepting them. These could lead to much error, presumption, vanity in the soul if
importance is attached to these communications. He tells us these can lead one astray
from faith. He advices the soul to keep on walking in humility and pure faith. John of
the Cross also warns us about being attached to spiritual methods and exercises because
even these at some point can become a hindrance234. Stein points out how John’s own
supernatural communications “were followed, in his life, by a storm of persecution and
suffering”.235
232 The Ascent of Mount Carmel, 2. 7, 5-13. 233 EDITH STEIN, The Science of the Cross, translated by Josephine Koeppel, O.C.D., Washington 2003, 46. 234 The Ascent of Mount Carmel, 2, 9; 10; 11. 235 EDITH STEIN, The Science of the Cross, translated by Josephine Koeppel, O.C.D., Washington 2003, 24.
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For John of the Cross, to remain in the darkness of faith is to be free and live in the
abundance of the spirit. One’s desire maybe fulfilled but in a different manner. He
repeatedly warns his followers to flee prudently from supernatural things. Sometimes
God also grants to humans what is not the best but because humans do not know how to
journey in any other way, for example like Israel requesting God a king even though this
was not his desire236.
In the Dark Night of the Soul John of the Cross explains how the Bridegroom leads the
way amidst all this darkness. Jesus himself takes us to this place of growth which is also
a difficult and painful one. One needs to keep in mind that John of the Cross is writing
for those who are already on their spiritual journey and in some way actively engaged in
their spiritual growth. In the Dark Night he speaks of various imperfections such as
pride, vanity of talking about spiritual things, presumption, vices, wanting praise and to
instruct. He speaks of those who are envious and impatient about their own growth and
that of others, of those who get angry at the imperfections of others and themselves. John
of the Cross also speaks of spiritual avarice, possessiveness and disordered attachments,
even to spiritual things. He also discusses spiritual lust and inordinate pleasures in prayer
and mortifications237.
For John of the Cross, night brings all loves in order but he also describes the night of the
spirit as bitter and terrible, worst than the night of the senses. He goes on to say that the
second night is horrible and frightful. He tells us that the person going through this night
experiences it as if everything is functioning in reverse. However, all this makes
communion with God possible. As mentioned previously, Stein compares the night to
the Cross and describes this process “like a foretaste of death”238 were “a person must die
to sin”239. Rumi, in his poem Imadu’ L-Mulk says “Pitchblack night in his presence is
worth a hundred festival days without him”.240
236 The Ascent of Mount Carmel, 2. 21, 1-4. 237 The Dark Night, 1. 238 EDITH STEIN, The Science of the Cross, translated by Josephine Koeppel, O.C.D., Washington 2003, 40. 239 Ibid, 49. 240 Rumi, The book of Love, Poems of Ecstacy and Longing – Imadu’ L-Mulk, translations and commentary by Coleman Barks, United States of America 2003 128.
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John of the Cross gives us signs to understand if the person is going through a dark night
or not. The first sign is that the person finds no satisfaction in either God or creatures.
The soul does not find delight in anything. The second sign is that the memory turns
towards God painfully, believing that it is not serving God or, not serving him as he
deserves to be served. However, in reality the spirit is here ready and strong.
Contemplation is here dark and dry to the senses yet interior nourishment is happening.
The third sign is that this experience is not the result of bad humour, which could turn to
previous exercises with satisfaction. John of the Cross points out that this process is not
continuous and to take care when looking out for these signs241.
John of the Cross highlights the fact that the person in this state feels abandoned by God
and believes that there will be no more blessings for him or her. He warns us of the
danger of a person ‘turning back’ at this state. He encourages us to persevere patiently,
not to be afflicted and to remain in prayer242. Edith Stein highlights the need for
surrender, patience, perseverance, strength and courage to get through this journey.243
John of the Cross explains how the first night only prepares us for the eventual second
night, described as a constricted road. The soul is purposefully placed here for divine
union. It is a place where proficient souls get purified of their imperfections. He warns
to be very careful here of any false prophecies or visions induced by the devil. In this
night, we are called to walk a dark path of pure faith and have to be careful and watch out
for authentic spirituality. He teaches us that imperfections of the senses have their roots
in the spirit and therefore the purification continues here, at a deeper level.
The soul is here only conscious of its own bitterness and sad experiences. It finds itself
in a strange and unfamiliar place and yet she will receive divine knowledge in this place.
In this darkness afflicted with doubts and fears the love of God inflames, stimulates and
stirs within. In all this, the soul experiences companionship and interior strength. This
241 The Dark Night, 1. 9, 1-9. 242 The Dark Night, 1. 9, 1-9. 243 EDITH STEIN, The Science of the Cross, translated by Josephine Koeppel, O.C.D., Washington 2003, 53-54.
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contemplation infuses love and wisdom. Here the soul forcefully and anxiously goes out
in search for her Bridegroom244. Edith Stein warns us that on this journey the soul “can
easily go astray” since “in this life we cannot grasp what God is”.245
3.3 Nakedness
Nakedness is a dominant theme in John of the Cross. He often mentions it and he
emphasizes the importance of unburdening oneself of both earthly things and spiritual
obstacles. He advices complete nakedness to keep one’s spirit free for divine union246.
Nakedness implies total emptying of all appetites both natural and supernatural. The soul
needs to learn to be satisfied with God alone rather than yearning for other aspirations,
desires and affections. For John of the Cross nothing equals God. He explains that we
cannot desire two pleasures at the same time. Till appetites are eliminated union is not
reached even though virtue is practiced. For John of the Cross perfect virtue is to keep
the soul empty, naked and purified of all appetites247.
John of the Cross goes into details and explains how imperfections such as being
talkative, attachments to one’s own cell or clothing, the way food is prepared or having a
desire to conquer, are also hindrances248. He explains that appetites defile and bring
disorder to the soul. He compares appetites to the firing of the soul for creatures. Like
fire appetites stain and blacken the soul. Repentance and weeping is a way to deal with
un-mortified appetites because these kill one’s own relationship with God. John of the
Cross tells us that we have to extinguish them or else they will extinguish our relationship
with God. John of the Cross speaks of five kinds of harm that appetites can bring about
244 The Dark Night, 1. 14, 4; 2. 5, 2; 245 EDITH STEIN, The Science of the Cross, translated by Josephine Koeppel, O.C.D., Washington 2003, 59. 246 The Ascent of Mount Carmel, 1. 2, 3. 247 Ibid, 1. 5, 2-8. 248 Ibid, 1. 11, 4.
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making the soul wearisome and tired, tormented and afflicted, blind and dark, defiled and
stained, weak and tepid.249
Interestingly John of the Cross differentiates between appetites pointing out that not all
appetites are the same. He claims that the natural ones are less detrimental. He also says
that it is impossible to mortify them totally but one can be free from them in the rational
part.250
For John of the Cross staying in nothingness is important as nothingness is not opposite
to God. He speaks of our own tendency to actually resist God and his grace. He
reassures his readers that our attachment to God itself who loves us will help us to
naturally detach from all that hinders union with Him251. Edith Stein describes this
process in this way “that he both make himself and allow himself to be made into an
image of the one who carries the cross and is crucified.”252
Going back to John’s work, he shows us that he has a great insight into human
psychology. He points out that people often have the strength to detach from bigger
things and yet find it hard to detach from trivial ones. Having said that, he insists that
even these trivial attachments can force the soul to turn back. Not to go forward is to turn
back, not to gain ground is to lose. John of the Cross tells us that we need to persevere in
solitude for God253.
John of the Cross also warns about excessive attachments to painted images, sculptures or
the rosary beads themselves. He also describes these as attachments and appetites. He
explains how the only advantage from them is to raise a person from luke-warmness. But
if one rejoices more in the object represented than the object itself one is moving astray.
His words are direct and almost harsh. He speaks of those who canonize their vanities
through such practices. He also speaks of doll-dressing of statues, of idols upon which 249 Ibid, 1. 6, 1-6; 1. 10, 3. 250 Ibid, 1. 11, 2. 251 The Ascent of Mount Carmel, 1. 6, 4. 252 EDITH STEIN, The Science of the Cross, translated by Josephine Koeppel, O.C.D., Washington 2003, 12. 253 The Ascent of Mount Carmel, 1. 11, 4-5.
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people centre their joy and delight their senses. John of the Cross states that there is little
need for many images or styles of rosary beads. Prayer is not dependent on such matters.
God only looks at the faith and purity of the prayerful heart. He tells us that spiritual or
religious practices in themselves lead nowhere. What matters is one’s own internal
disposition. Another example he gives is that of pilgrimages which serve as self-serving
and pleasing methods rather than helping one to focus on the will of God, John of the
Cross tells us that such practices create more distraction254. He states ‘how many
festivals, my God do the children of this earth celebrate in your honour in which the devil
has a greater role than you.255’
John of the Cross stresses that we only advance through unknowing. Anything grasped
by the intellect or heart can only serve as an obstacle to union. For John of the Cross
spiritual wisdom is incomprehensible to the senses, as are the works of God which at the
same time are well ordered, reform and refine the spirit. On the other hand the way of the
flesh afford neither profit nor delight. Thus, the soul needs to learn to put away childish
things behind. We are to also learn not to fix on locutions, words, visions, fragrances nor
interior imaginative visions. All these must be renounced even if they are from God as
they will bring harm if we are very credulous of them and count them as authentic. They
can lead the soul astray. Thus, we only move forward by unknowing256.
John of the Cross also stresses the importance of moving grounded in humility and faith
rather than attached to such visions. One needs to walk wholly on the road of nakedness.
If one gives esteem to such visions one is at risk of gross delusions as these even if
coming from God do not always turn out to be what they seem to be the meaning of their
words. Our manner of understanding such words and the variables on which they are
dependent are not certain nor free from errors. Thus these can be fulfilled in a different
way or not fulfilled at all. Variables can change or fail. John of the Cross warns us that
God’s language is another one, according to the spirit that is different from what we
understand. Sometimes it seems that God is deceiving us because everything turns out
254 Ibid, 3. 15, 2; 3. 35; 3. 36; 3, 37; 3. 38; 3. 39. 255 The Ascent of Mount Carmel, 3. 38, 3. 256 Ibid, 2. 17, 3-4; 2. 19, 9; 2. 19, 9; 2. 21, 11; 2. 28, 1; 2. 28, 4-5.
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contrary to our expectations. Another element is that he does not liberate us from the
hands of the temporally powerful and persecution is not avoided as the life of Jesus
himself shows us257. Edith Steins mentions that “the destruction of the natural way of
understanding is profound, frightful, and extremely painful.”258
Though John of the Cross acknowledges spiritual gifts such as prophecy, discernment,
recognition of spirits or knowledge, he stresses that one should always renounce them.
John of the Cross is very aware of the traps a soul can find itself into if it is not humble
and distrustful. He warns us that one can end up believing a thousand lies. The only
desire that is safe for John of the Cross is to journey to God by unknowing259.
It is very interesting to note that he emphasizes that holy people themselves, those who
were with Jesus himself were mistaken. For instance he gives the example of St. James
and St. John who asked Jesus to send fire over the Samaritans who refused them lodging.
Jesus reproved them. John of the Cross warns us that God’s graces can also be used in a
wicked and perverse way260. It is more important to believe in God than in his signs and
miracles.
John of the Cross very clearly explains how on this journey one may feel that everything
is being pulled down rather than built up. The memory has no form or image in this
union and very little can help the soul at this stage. Spiritual exercises themselves are not
helpful. Yet there is greater perfection in action because God alone moves these souls
towards works that are in harmony with his will. Stein highlights that in fact “all
confusion and disturbance in the soul is caused by the contents of the memory”261.
257 Ibid. 258 EDITH STEIN, The Science of the Cross, translated by Josephine Koeppel, O.C.D., Washington 2003, 129. 259 The Ascent of Mount Carmel, 2. 19, 5; 2. 20, 11; 2. 26, 17. 260 Ibid, 2. 22, 14; 3. 31, 2. 261 EDITH STEIN, The Science of the Cross, translated by Josephine Koeppel, O.C.D., Washington 84.
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John of the Cross says that in all circumstances we ought to rejoice rather than be
disturbed, greater blessings are yet to come. John of the Cross also explains the kind of
harm souls can fall into if we possess ideas or forms or any other supernatural
communications. John of the Cross suggests that we need to renounce all possession of
the memory, even if they are coming from God himself. Union with God is to be reached
in hope, nakedness and forgetfulness262.
John of the Cross tells us that even moral goods and virtues themselves can be self-
serving and not practiced according to the heart of God. These can be practiced without
having an interior love towards others - for instance a person who is practising virtue but
gets angry at the success of others. Morally good and virtuous people can adore
themselves more than God himself. John of the Cross states that a wise person is
concerned about the substance and benefit of a work rather than the delight and
satisfaction it yields. John of the Cross tells us to be poor in spirit, meek, humble,
prudent, not possessive and lustful. He tells us that we can be gluttonous and envious for
instance in spiritual matters as well. The soul needs to learn to serve God in true charity.
What matters is doing God’s will263.
In his book the Dark Night of the Soul John of the Cross elaborates further on these vices
of the spirit. He warns us against anger and setting ourselves as Lord of Virtues, of un-
humble patience. He also talks about spiritual gluttony – that of seeking one’s own
pleasure in spiritual matters thus threading the path of disobedience for the sake of one’s
own satisfaction. He also mentions envy and sloth. Once again, he warns us against
seeking to satisfy one’s own will and to be careful of experiencing a strong aversion to
adapting to God’s will264.
262 The Ascent of Mount Carmel, 3. 9, 5. 263 The Ascent of Mount Carmel, 3. 9; 3. 20; 3. 22; 3. 26; 3. 29, 9; 3. 29, 2-5. LUIS JORGE GONZALEZ, Terapia Spirituale, Guarigione umana e spirituale delle malattie dell’anima, Citta del Vaticano, Roma 2000, 45-54, 148-167, 208-252. 264 The Dark Night, 1. 2; 1. 3; 1. 4; 1. 5; 1. 6; 1. 7.
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John of the Cross tells us that what is required of our soul is to be free, to maintain a
loving and peaceful attentiveness to God, to live without concern, effort or desire to taste
or feel him. What is at first a thirst that kills, a dryness, void and aridity is eventually
transformed into a secret and peaceful place of a loving inflow of God. The night
relieves us from imperfections and vices. It helps us acquire many virtues. The soul
learns to journey towards God in pure faith. It is a night that illuminates and here souls
soften and transform into charitable and meek souls. God communicates sweetly to the
soul in this night. Thus, liberation from the devil, the world and flesh happens. John of
the Cross describes this night as a Narrow Gate265, Edith Steins calls it “the way of
faith”.266
3.4 Idolatry
In many instances John of the Cross equals appetites, affections and desires to forms of
idolatry. For him the consequences of these and of idolatry are parallel and the same.
For instance, concupiscence overwhelms the intellect and thus the person cannot see
light. Hence the necessity to deny appetites. John of the Cross repeats himself on these
points and highlights the fact that we need to ever be watchful. He gives an example
from Solomon’s life who was a perfect man but who sank in blindness and idolatry due to
his uncontrolled appetites. John of the Cross warns not to rush after desires but to deny
them, because they blind us, darken our intellect and extinguish the light of God’s
wisdom267.
Very clearly he explains that during this night process we need to destroy all strange
gods, to purify ourselves, to change garment and to have pure love. For him this is praise
and reverence towards God. He explains the way in the following manner; to cast out
strange gods, alien affections and attachments, to deny these appetites, repent of them and
be purified of any residue through the dark night of the sense, finally to change garments. 265 Ibid, 1. 11, 4. 266 EDITH STEIN, The Science of the Cross, translated by Josephine Koeppel, O.C.D., Washington 57. 267 The Ascent of Mount Carmel, 1. 8, 5.
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It brings about a new understanding of God in God. Old ideas and images are cast aside
and the soul is stripped of old cravings and satisfactions268.
John of the Cross stresses that one’s love for God must never fail or be mixed with alien
loves because God allows nothing else to dwell together with him. The only appetite
God permits is the desire for the perfect fulfillment of his law and the carrying of the
cross of Christ. Like this we become the true arks who bear the real manna, a worthy
dwelling for his Majesty269.
As mentioned earlier on, for John of the Cross some ‘religious’ practices themselves are
forms of idolatry, those he describes as doll-dressing of statues, idols upon which people
centre their joy and delight their senses270. John Welch tell us that John is much about
freedom, prayer and liberation from any false claims, notions or other forms of idolatry.
Prayer is about restoring our soul to health271.
3.5 Desire & Imitation
Desire and imitation do not directly feature in John’s commentaries. Having said that
they are very much present in his advices and councils. Sometimes he also speaks
directly of them. For John of the Cross there are primarily two acceptable desires, other
desires are problematic. The first desire acceptable for him is to enter into complete
nakedness, emptiness and poverty, to mortify concupiscence of the flesh, eyes, and pride
of life. Nothingness is for John of the Cross the possibility for everything272. As
previously mentioned, for John of the Cross the only desire that is safe, is to journey to
268 Ibid, 1. 5, 6-7. 269 Ibid, 1. 5, 8. 270 Ibid, 3. 35, 4-8; 3. 43, 2-3; 3. 44, 5. 271 JOHN WELCH, The Carmelite Way. An Ancient Path for Today’s Pilgrim, United States of America 1996, 39-48. 272 The Ascent of Mount Carmel, 1. 5, 8; 1. 13, 4-13.
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God by unknowing273. The other desire permitted by God is the desire for the perfect
fulfillment of his law and the carrying of the cross of Christ274.
In John of the Cross we also find references to imitation. He speaks of it in terms of how
it can be problematic but also in terms of learning - positive imitation. John of the Cross
explains how love effects a likeness between the lover and the loved, how the stronger
the attachment the closer the likeness to the creature. This kind of love brings about
greater equality. However, John of the Cross further explains how love not only equals
but subjects the lover to the loved creature. The lover becomes lower than the loved
object and therefore such a soul is incapable of pure union and transformation in God.
For John of the Cross this attachment is an impediment, depriving the soul of
transformation. He further explains that a person captivated by grace and elegance of
creatures is coarse and crude in God’s sight275.
As mentioned earlier John of the Cross speaks of desires that can lead us into problematic
situations but he encourages one habitual desire: to imitate Christ in all deeds, to bring
our life into conformity with his, to desire to study his life in order to know how to
imitate him in all events. Successful imitation is to live as he lived: renouncing and
remaining empty of sensory satisfaction, accepting no gratification or desire other than
the fulfillment of his Father’s will, his meat and food276. With regards to desire Edith
Stein says “God has created human souls for himself. He desires to unite them to himself
and to give them the immeasurable fullness and incomprehensible bliss of his own divine
life, already in this life. That is the goal…”.277
273 Ibid, 2. 26, 18. 274 Ibid, 1. 5, 8. 275 Ibid, 1. 4. 276 The Ascent of Mount Carmel, 1. 13, 3-4. 277 EDITH STEIN, The Science of the Cross, translated by Josephine Koeppel, O.C.D., Washington 2003, 37.
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3.6 Non-Violence
John of the Cross does not write about non-violence as such. He does not use such term.
However, his own life, which is lived in imitation of Jesus’ own life speaks out loud
about this way. John of the Cross was severely persecuted in his own life but he remains
non-violent, forgiving and loving towards those who oppressed him. Not only does he
remain loving towards those who hated him but encourages others to love those who are
persecuting him. This is particularly captured in his letters, especially those he wrote to
Madre Maria de la Encarnacion. In letter 25 John emphasizes that this life has worth
only if we imitate Jesus Christ. He reassures Madre Maria that he is well, that all is for
our own good and asks her not to worry about him278. In letter 26 he write his famous
phrase ‘Think nothing else but that God ordains all, and where there is no love, put love,
and you will draw out love…’279. John’s non-violence is not only about non-violent
resistance but an opportunity to plant the seeds of love. John of the Cross knows that
love can bring about the transformation of those same persons who hate and persecute us.
His non-violence is in imitation of Jesus’ own relationship with those who oppressed,
persecuted and killed him. Jesus ends his life calling those who are putting him to death
to life-giving-conversion, John of the Cross follows him here as well.
3.7 Prudence
Following non-violence, I wanted to point out prudence because it is seems like a key
principle in John of the Cross work. It is frequently mentioned in his advice on dealing
especially with supernatural inspirations. Cleverly John of the Cross points out that joy,
afflictions, hope and sorrow themselves can originate either from the spirit of perfection
or imperfection. He warns us to be careful and prudent. He also tells us not to take
sensations or manifestations too seriously. John of the Cross also warns us that this path
278 Letters, 25. 279 Ibid, 26.
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is not for those who wish to pursue God along sweet and satisfying ways280. He suggests
prudence in all other experiences and dealings.
3.8 Growth
Growth is another underlying principle in John’s Ascent and Dark Night. Particularly in
the Ascent, he speaks of the dynamic of spiritual growth. He describes the process of
how virtue grows by purification and by way of this same purification growth happens281.
John of the Cross’ instructions are for us to become holy, able to bring about life and to
create the conditions for life and growth. His mysticism is also about being fully in touch
with one’s own humanity and that of others.
Wilfred McGreal in his book ‘At the Fountain of Elijah’ says that John of the Cross
points towards growing in a loving trust, being open to experiencing unconditional love,
and creating the space to gain confidence in achieving full loving relationships282.
3.9 Images
John of the Cross uses a number of images to describe various processes and spiritual
dynamics. Amongst them he mentions that of little children restless and hard to please,
always whining and never satisfied283. He describes the wickedness of the heart as a
stormy sea284. Another image he uses in the Ascent is that of the moth who desires light
280 The Ascent of Mt. Carmel, Prologue, 7-9. 281 Ibid, 1. 13, 5; 3. 20; 3. 23. 282 WILFRID MCGREAL, At the Fountain of Elijah. The Carmelite Tradition, NewYork 1999, 53-70. 283 The Ascent of Mt. Carmel, 1. 6, 6. 284 Ibid.
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yet flies directly into the fire to describe the harm that appetites can bring about285. A
famous image of his is that of a bird tied with a thread who nonetheless is still bound286.
In the Dark Night John of the Cross uses other images such as that of the she-bear or
lioness that goes out to search for her cubs. In that same way the soul goes out in this
night to search for her beloved. In this night all is still and youth is renewed287. John of
the Cross also uses the imagery of dark water as an image for the tabernacle of God288.
Other images are those of the mother who nurses, carries and caresses but weans her
child to grow and learn to put away childhood ways. He also uses the wood and fire
example to describe the process of purification needed for union. The window pane and
dust particles is another example289 to describe the dynamics he is talking about. In the
second book of the Dark Night, John of the Cross uses two powerful and elaborate
images to explain his doctrine, that of the Ladder and Change of Garb.
3.9.1 The Ladder
Through this image John of the Cross explains how everything is ascent and descent at
this stage. Jesus is at the end of the Ladder which has ten steps. The steps are:
In the first step love makes the soul sick in an advantageous way. In the second step
there is an unceasing search for God. The soul is prompted for works with fervor and yet
feels such works are lowly for such a high Lord. This is the third stage. Love is at the
fourth stage experienced as a habitual yet un-wearisome suffering engendered on account
of the beloved. Here love imparts an impatient desire and longing for God, a desire for
union and yet the delay is tiresome. At the sixth stage love is invigorated, the soul runs
swiftly towards God. At the seventh the soul experiences ardent boldness. Love impels
the soul to lay hold of the beloved without letting him go at the eight stage; the soul is
285 Ibid, 1. 8, 3. 286 Ibid, 1. 11, 4. 287 The Dark Night 2. 13, 8 -11. 288 Ibid, 2. 16, 13. 289 Ibid, Introduction, The Doctrine, 355; 2. 8, 3; 2. 10, 6.
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here satisfied in union though not continuously. At the ninth love causes the soul to burn
ardently. The tenth stage is the final step and is no longer this life. The soul is here
totally assimilated in God and receives clear vision of him290. Edith Stein calls John’s
ladder “a science of love”.291
3.9.2 The Garb
The garb is another powerful image John of the Cross uses. It definitely echoes
Carmelite influences - as all of his other notions and principles such as space, growth,
spiritual union, penitence and the emphasis on the paschal mystery292. The Garb sounds
very much like the Carmelite’s devotion to Mary and the veil symbol293.
The garb expresses the love and aspiration of the soul for her beloved but also a form of
protection from rivals. John of the Cross speaks of three colours, white, green and red
which stand for the three theological virtues, faith, hope and charity. Again he links these
to intellect, memory and will294.
At this stage communion with God takes place but in secret. The devil cannot enter this
space even though at times he tries to disturb the soul with violent communications and
spiritual horrors. In this place, God visits through his good angel or directly in total
concealment and darkness. This is sublime and delightful communication which brings
about peace and rest. The soul is returned to the original state of innocence, is purified,
strengthened, quieted, and thus receives permanent divine union - a divine espousal295.
290 The Dark Night 2. 19-20. 291 EDITH STEIN, The Science of the Cross, translated by Josephine Koeppel, O.C.D., Washington 2003, 143. 292 WAAIJMAN KEES, The Mystical Space of Carmel. A Commentary on the Carmelite Rule, Leuven 1999, 1-53. 293 CHRISTOPHER O’DONNELL, O.CARM., A Loving Presence: Mary in Carmel A Study of the Marian Heritage of the Order, Melbourne 2000. 294 The Dark Night 2. 21. 295 Ibid, 2. 22; 2. 23; 2. 24; 2. 25.
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3.10 God
“We will pray with him who has gone before us to the Abode of light and peace, where
God wipes every tear from the eyes of His elect…”
Elizabeth of Trinity296
God is of course central in all of John’s writing and for him turning away from God
equals havoc, torment, weariness and blindness. People can also be defiled, weakened
and deprived of the Lord’s spirit through appetites. He particularly speaks about
hindrance to union which is voluntary, willful and inordinate. For John of the Cross God
is a light that blinds but which brings about divine calm, peace, sublime knowledge and
infused love. God communicates himself with the human person giving loving
knowledge to the spirit. John of the Cross stresses that God is not restricted to images or
ideals but rather his presence and reason are dark – there is ‘nothing’ to hold on to in this
space. For John of the Cross God comes near those who search for truth, but the way to
advance on this journey is neither by understanding nor support of one’s own
experiences, even spiritual ones. Feelings and the imagination are not helpful because
God transcends all297.
John of the Cross differentiates the presence of God in the human person. From a
presence that sustains and dwells substantially in every soul - that always exists, to a
presence of union and transformation in God where there is likeness of love. He tells us
that God communicates with the soul through love and grace but also strips it from
natural contraries and dissimilarities. We are reborn in the Holy Spirit to become most
like God in purity. And yet we must also labor to divest and deprive ourselves for God of
all that is not him298. Edith Stein speaks of “how God can insert his powerful hand in the
destiny of souls and bring about a sanctifying rebirth under his action”299.
296 [ELIZABETH OF THE TRINITY], I Have Found God. The Complete Works. Letters from Carmel, 2 vols., translated by Anne Englund Nash, Washington 1997, L 262. 297 The Ascent of Mt. Carmel, 1. 2. 3; 2. 4. 298 Ibid, 2. 5, 3. 299 EDITH STEIN, The Science of the Cross, translated by Josephine Koeppel, O.C.D., Washington 2003, xv.
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John of the Cross stresses that God has no relation, no essential likeness to us creatures
nor any proportion of likeness, though all creatures do carry some likeness, trace or
relation to him. We can only relate to the true God by advancing through unknowing
rather than a desire to know, to remain in darkness rather than to see, whilst stay watchful
of errors and delusions300.
John of the Cross stresses that God’s wisdom has neither mode nor manner, it has no
limits nor does it pertain to distinct particular knowledge. We cannot see God through
comparisons, likeness or figure. He says that the pure naked essence of God meets the
pure naked essence of the soul; thus there should be no attachment to corporeal
visions301.
For John of the Cross what is important is to turn our eyes on Jesus completely because
he is our entire locution, response, vision, revelation, word spoken and answered,
manifested and revealed. He is our brother, companion, master, ransom and reward. We
should listen to him as there are no more truths. In him all is uncovered, all the fullness
of the divinity dwells bodily in him. However, John of the Cross warns us that it is
important to remain humble and not dare to deal with God independently nor completely
satisfied with human counsel302.
John of the Cross tells us that our strength should come from Church law because God’s
manifestation itself is transitory. He also gives clear guidelines on how to distinguish
between visions coming from God from visions which are diabolical303.
John of the Cross highlights the essential in life, that of being in service to God. What is
essential is to center one’s eyes on God, everything else is secondary, even a desire to
marry or have children should not be our primary desire but only if it is according to the
desire of God, John says. Only what is in harmony with God is of value. John of the
300 The Ascent of Mt. Carmel 2. 8, 3-4. 301 Ibid, 2. 17. 302 The Ascent of Mt. Carmel 2. 22, 5. 303 Ibid, 2. 22, 14.
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Cross warns about the dangers when we are moved by other desires apart from God, such
as joys, money and earthly things. For John of the Cross all these can lead to loss,
despair, misery, death and anxiety. He warns about not being attached to these things and
not to set our heart on them. He says that liberty is God’s principle attribute and it cannot
live with covetousness. Therefore, the true homage of God is liberty of spirit, clarity of
reason, rest, tranquility and peaceful confidence in God304. John of the Cross instructs us
about perfection reassuring us that there is no need to desire anything beyond one’s own
capacity305.
3.11 The Way
“Be, Lord Jesus, a bright flame before me,
A guiding star above me,
A smooth path below me,
A kindly shepherd behind me:
Today, tonight, and forever”.
St. Columba306
In John of the Cross we find his famous almost poetic summery of his way which echoes
Teresa’s own poem ‘For the Profession of Isabel De Los Angeles’307.
“Not to the easiest, but to the most difficult, not to the most delightful, but to
the most distasteful, not to the most gratifying, but to the less pleasant, not to
what means rest for you, but to hard work, not to the consoling, but to the un-
consoling, not to the most, but to the least, not to the highest and most
304 Ibid, 3. 17, 4; 3. 16; 3. 17; 3. 18; 3. 19; 3. 20. 305 Ibid, 2. 27, 6. 306Prayers for Everyday; 50 Inspirational prayers from around the world, project editor Emma Beare, Bounty Books, London 2007. 307 The Collected Works of St. Teresa of Avila, The book of her foundations, minor works, poetry. Vol 3., Translated by Kieran Kavanough, OCDand Otilio Rodriguez, OCD, India 2006, 402-404.
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precious, but to the lowest and most despised, not to wanting something, but
to wanting nothing.”308
John’s way is the reverse of our own instinctual desires: to enjoy not, to know not, to
possess not, to receive all. Denying oneself is for John of the Cross to go from the all to
the all. God is our only “todo”. Only in light of this “todo” his council about total
nakedness makes sense. It is a poverty that brings about quietude and rest and not
misery. In this nothingness there are no pulls, oppression or anything that pushes the
person down and away from God. Its centre is humility. One’s own satisfaction is found
in Jesus’ love. Yet one needs courage and constancy to remain on this path309.
John of the Cross describes in detail this journey which includes a loving awareness of
God and his knowledge in peace, a drinking which comes without labour. It is also a
period when the eye finds no image on which to rest, the soul is rendered pure, simple
and clear. Even though it is very obscure there is also greater purity, sublimity and
clarity. But the greater the light of God, the darker it is for the intellect310.
John of the Cross explains how those who possess lose delight. The way John of the
Cross indicates is a way of humility, not attached to anyone, free to love all rationally and
spiritually. It is a way of love for virtue according to God, exceedingly free which brings
deep tranquility of soul. It is a way of emptiness of distractions and recollection of the
senses. One needs to safeguard and increase one’s peace and purity of soul in harmony
with God. John of the Cross tells us that prayer helps us achieve freedom from countless
vanities. Devotion should not be a form of recreation or a way of pleasing oneself rather
than God. One’s true advancement on the spiritual journey can be measured through
one’s greater love for others especially towards the poor311.
308 The Ascent of Mount Carmel, 1. 13, 6. 309 Ibid, 1. 13, 11-13. 310 The Ascent of Mount Carmel, 2. 14, 2. 311 Ibid, 3. 13; 3. 15; 3. 18.
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John’s way is for interior recollection and communion with God. We need to pray in this
living temple that is the interior recollection of the soul. The way is to be wholly with
God, our minds truly set on him. Through this recollection we can acquire solid virtue
through denial of will, places, appetites, covetousness and spiritual gratifications. John of
the Cross warns us not to trust methods more than God himself and turn our worship into
superstitious ceremonies. John of the Cross finally warns us to practice the good we
preach312.
3.12 Union
John’s writings head towards this final goal, union with God. For John of the Cross it
happens through faith, hope and love; only these uproot disorder313. What is key in John
of the Cross’ theology is that we need to empty the soul of everything that is not God. In
this way union takes place. Through this journey we move towards a more inner personal
relationship, an interior prayer life and a simplification in communication with God314.
John of the Cross tells us that when we taste that union the soul is happy that it passed
through nakedness and purgation. The union with the beloved is achieved through love
but the journey is dark with much trials both on a spiritual and temporal level. John of
the Cross highlights that human sciences cannot understand this process and only those
who experience it will know about it and yet cannot fully describe it315.
For John of the Cross union also happens through the will and love. However he tells us
that habitual voluntary imperfections hinder union and spiritual progress. To achieve
freedom for divine union one needs a complete break with little satisfactions, attachments
and affections316.
312 Ibid, 3. 35; 3. 36; 3. 37; 3. 38; 3. 39; 3. 40; 3. 41; 3. 42; 3. 43; 3. 44; 3. 45. 313 The Ascent of Mt. Carmel, Introduction, 107. 314 Ibid, 1. 2; 1. 5. 315 Ibid, Prologue, 1-3. 316 Ibid, 1. 11, 3-5.
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It is this longing for the Bridegroom who is sweet and delightful which encourages the
soul to keep on the journey, passing through all these trials and dangers to be united with
him. John of the Cross describes this night as sheer grace because it releases us from
being subjected to passions and captive to natural appetites. Through this night these are
conquered and lulled to sleep and the soul can enjoy union with him317.
John of the Cross teaches us that even though union is possible, total union is not possible
on this earth318. For union with God nakedness and emptiness are required319. Moreover
union happens through the three faculties: intellect, memory and will also through faith,
hope and charity, all of which are in need of purification320. Edith Stein says that God
“wants his sovereign authority over created spirits only as a free gift of their love.”321
And only this ‘todo’ of love and freedom makes this journey meaningful.
3.13 Conclusion
John of the Cross clearly and systematically shows us what idolatry is, who God is and
the experience of the true worshiper of the living God. In John of the Cross idolatry can
take many forms, not only objects, creatures and loved ones can become our idols but
also spiritual experiences themselves. This idolatry has its roots in our desires and
attachments which are the cause of all our difficulties in our relationship with God, others
and self. John of the Cross stresses the need of re-ordering attachments and desires but
elaborates upon the dark process of this purification and the difficulties it poses to the
human person experiencing it. For him, the true living God is an interplay of dark
experiences of great tribulations but which set us free for love, communion, peace and
loving knowledge with himself. With John of the Cross there is no middle way, there is
no compromise. The way is narrow and dark yet clear. 317 Ibid, 1. 13, 6-13. 318 The Ascent of Mount Carmel, 2, 2; 2. 5. 319 Ibid, 2. 6, 1-5. 320 Ibid, 2, 6. 321 EDITH STEIN, The Science of the Cross, translated by Josephine Koeppel, O.C.D., Washington 2003, 161.
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John of the Cross states that if the whole world were to crumble, if it had to come to an
end, if things were to go wrong it is useless to get disturbed. For John of the Cross this
causes more harm than good. He teaches us about a tranquil and peaceful equanimity in
all circumstances as this reaps many blessings and helps the soul. He tells us that such
attitude helps one to judge situations better and be more clear in employing the proper
remedy322
Finally, for John of the Cross to go out at night means solitary and secret contemplation,
that all faculties are engulfed in obscurity and the soul is detained in her journey towards
God. What matters is to allow God do his work in one’s own soul, our only desire to
imitate Jesus’ life up to the very end. Amidst all darkness love becomes the only guide
which leads the way to the Beloved. The Bridegroom transforms us into love and
demands that we love others as he loves, up to the point of forgiving and loving even
those who persecute us. This way for John of the Cross is delightful soaring.323
322 The Ascent of Mount Carmel, 3. 3; 3. 6. 323 The Dark Night, 2. 16; 2. 17; 2. 18; 2. 19; 2. 20; 2. 21; 2. 22; 2. 23; 2. 24.
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Chapter 4: James Alison’s Theology in Dialogue with Biblical Texts and John of the Cross’ Theology
“I will never believe in the God who will accept as a friend anyone who goes
through this world without making anybody happy. The God who, embracing
humans here on earth, doesn’t communicate to them the joy and happiness of
all human loves put together. The God who would not have become truly
human with all its consequences. The God in whom I cannot hope against all
hope. Yes, my God is ... the other God.”
Juan Arias324
4.1 Introduction
Chapter four aims at bringing Alison’s theology discussed in chapter one in dialogue with
biblical texts used in Chapter two and John of the Cross’ theology as discussed in
Chapter three. References to René Girard’s anthropology will be made when discussing
Alison’s theology. By bringing these various texts together one may find that there are
various commonalities between them. Authors use different languages in their writings
but are essentially pointing towards the same direction – the process through which the
human person needs to go through to be able to relate to the true living God. There is
much harmony between the texts when describing such processes. Having said that, as
already discussed in previous chapters, some texts remain problematic. Difficulties
presented by ‘problematic’ texts are not insurmountable either. In this chapter I will
attempt to argue that John of the Cross may actually offer us a key to help us re-read
these same texts whilst holding on to Alison’s and Girard’s understanding of God as
324 JUAN ARIAS, The God I Don’t Believe In, in World Latin American Agenda 2011. What God What Religion? (on-line) : http://latinoamericana.org/English/2011LatinAmericanAgendaDigital.pdf, 43 [1 October, 2011].
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entirely without violence whilst at the same time acknowledging that darkness
experienced by the soul when in a close relationship with him.
Another challenge in this Chapter is to bring the various languages; anthropological,
theological and spiritual into dialogue. ‘Translation’ is key to harmonize the various
disciplines. I hope this study contributes towards such harmony which has naturally
emerged from the various texts explored. On the other hand, I will not try and cover up
difficulties of understanding encountered, but rather bring them to light. I will attempt to
offer reflections with regards to such difficulties.
4.2 Idolatry & Violence
Idolatry is widely explored by James Alison, Scripture and John of the Cross. Alison,
elaborates theologically upon René Girard’s anthropological theories. Girard exposes
humanity’s triangular pattern of desire. He also uncovers the violent-sacred dynamic
which is usually covered-up in rituals, mythological stories, culture and folklore. These
hide humans’ envious, rival and murderous desires for each other, resolved through
scapegoat mechanisms and victimization processes325. Scripture shows that turning away
from the living God implies degeneration; the human person becomes an image of Satan
and can end up murdering his own brother326. For John of the Cross appetites and
attachments, even to good things can become problematic and forms of idolatry. He
emphasizes our disordered patterns of desires and attachments. Such disordered
attachments hinder our relationship with the living God and fellow human beings327.
Within all of these texts we find an emphasis on the paschal mystery. All texts point at
Jesus’ incarnation, life, death and resurrection as the only true image of God able to offer
humanity real liberation and salvation but purification is also part of it.
325 RENÉ GIRARD, Things Hidden Since the Foundation of the World, London 2003, 283-325. RENÉ GIRARD, Violence and the Sacred, London 2005, 1-71. JAMES ALISON, The Joy of Being Wrong. Original Sin Through Easter Eyes, foreword by Sebastian Moore, New York 1998, 168-175. 326 GORDON WENHAM, Exploring the Old Testament. The Pentateuch vol 1., Great Britain 2003, 22-27. 327 The Ascent of Mount Carmel, 1. 6, 1-6; 1. 10, 3.
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Texts studied show that idolatry leads human beings into forms of behaviours that are
contrary to one’s own deeper desires. Desire is problematic when run by idolatry but it is
desire itself that offers solutions but it needs direction. Desire needs to be re-molded into
desire according to the desires of the living God328 which we can find revealed in
Scripture. Idolatry disrupts our relationships with the living God and humanity. It leads
us into violent forms of relating to each other, as all texts explain. Interestingly, they all
also warn us about the risk of spirituality itself becoming a form of idolatry, once again
resulting in people persecuting fellow human beings through that same worship they
believe they are offering to the living God. By reflecting upon idolatry one can locate
violence, its origin and source. Scripture tells us about ‘the first murder’ linking it
directly to jealousy as its cause. It is presented as a result of the first example of corrupt
religion leading to human bloodshed329. In fact, murder and violence are images of Satan
which Scripture gives (cf. Jn 8, 44-47) – murder as that act which undoes the plan God
has for humans330. Scripture also warns us that God-given laws themselves can become a
source of idol worship with James Alison and John of the Cross elaborating much on this
notion. Pope Benedict in Deus Caritas Est says “The unbreakable bond between love of
God and love of neighbour is emphasized. One is so closely connected to the other that
to say that we love God becomes a lie if we are closed to our neighbour or hate them
altogether”331.
In the New Testament, Scripture explores how ‘law abiding’ priests and elders conferred
together to actually kill the Son of God – The Image of God whom they failed to
recognize. They believed they were worshipping the living God and serving him by
killing Jesus. Like Cain, they understood worship very wrongly. In actual fact they only
worshipped themselves and their own institutions. This is a narcissistic approach to
328 JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts and New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 92-108. 329 Cain, in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch, editors: T. Desmond Alexander – David W. Baker, USA 2003, 107. 330 Ibid. 331 POPE BENEDICT XVI, Encyclical Letter Deus Caritas Est (God is Love), (25 December 2005), India 2006, 16.
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religion and spirituality332. John of the Cross writes about spiritual appetites which can
blind the person rather than bring the soul closer to God. John of the Cross’ emphasis on
this point goes as far as saying that we should distrust religious and spiritual methods
themselves because these might replace God himself, thus becoming forms of
superstitious ceremonies333. Alison would add that such false worship leads to the
persecution and victimization of some others334.
And yet, it is our own desires which hold the key, as Teresa of Avila points out335. What
we should struggle against is not our own desires but their corruption through idol
worship. Ideas about the self have been used and misused for many ages. Unfortunately,
a morbid understanding of the self and its desires is at times presented by some religious
people. Jesus’ idea of ‘hating oneself’ has been often used in abusive ways and yet that
same concept contains much value. As Christians we need to re-propose this same idea
in its healthy form and wholesome dimension. We need to deconstruct any meanings
derived from Jansenism336 attached to such notions to reach their genuine meaning once
more. James Alison and John of the Cross are two helpful authors for this kind of
deconstruction. It is the narcissistic self we need to go against, that self which closes us
onto ourselves taking us away from the living God and fellow human beings.
James Alison and John of the Cross elaborate much on the idea of true worship, idolatry
and violence. For Alison, the unifying expulsion dynamic is the result of false worship.
For him, the human person needs to be stripped of all sorts of idolatry and violent
acquisition which bring about false peace. John of the Cross describes this painful
stripping in both the Ascent and the Dark Night. In Alison’s theology, the idol is the
332 In Psychology the term Narcissist is used to describe a personality trait or disorder. One could argue that this reflects a form of idol worship, the worship of the self be it personal, social, cultural or even institutional. See: CALVIN S. HALL – GARDNER LINDZEY, Introduction to Theories of Personality, Canada 1985, 163. 333 The Ascent of Mount Carmel, 3. 35; 3. 36; 3. 37; 3. 38; 3. 39; 3. 40; 3. 41; 3. 42; 3. 43; 3. 44; 3. 45. 334 JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts and New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 270-271. 335 CRISTIANA DOBNER, OCD, Teresa di Gesu (1515-1582) < Mi Amado a mi y yo a mi Amado > in I Custodi dell’Incanto, Citta’ del Vaticano 2002, 99-124. 336 Jansenius and Jansenism in New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia, (on-line) : http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08285a.htm [25 October 2011].
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violent-sacred dynamic which protects, hides and presents as sacred the perspective of
the persecutor. The idol of the violent-sacred has many dynamics from which it
functions, one of them being violent reciprocity. The violent-sacred covers up something
that is deeply hidden within the human person, our refusal of life. Violence is part of the
human condition which needs resolution. Yet the good news is that there is remedy and
humanity is offered a way out. John of the Cross also speaks of hidden attachments
which hinder us from moving forward, which we thought were good things but in reality
are found to be forms of idolatry. For Alison, the idol covers up the great deceit;
believing that violent ways, even in their subtlest forms of exclusion and expulsion, are
the way to serve God337. Alison also offers us reflections about humanity’s own
persecutory projections about God. Sometimes these are also found in Scripture and they
also form part of the violent-sacred cover-up. He tells us that in reality we have more
similarities with our enemies and that violence can never resolve violence, even if it
seems that it does resolve it. René Girard and Alison show us that such ‘peace’ is never
long lasting. Alison reminds us that revelation is found amidst human violence but
always on the side of the victim. Since we tend to be violent creatures and violence is
internalized, the law itself can be turned into an instrument of murder, as the New
Testament shows338. John of the Cross reassures us that transformation and union with
the true living God are possible but the journey is dark, long and perilous though it is also
love leading to love.
James elaborates about idolatry and violence with regards to human relationships within
society. On the other hand, John focuses more on the individual person and his or her
own internal processes. Elijah also reminds us that true worship and idolatry can at times
converge and lack differentiation within society339. I believe that James Alison’s
theology, the Elijah texts, John of the Cross’ theology complement each other. Together
they cover the whole spectrum of individual and community processes for
transformation. 337 JAMES ALISON, The Joy of Being Wrong. Original Sin Through Easter Eyes, foreword by Sebastian Moore, New York 1998, 102-111. 338 Ibid, 9-63; 186-265. 339 Elijah, in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Historical Books, editors: Bill T. Arnold – H. G. M. Williamson, England 2005, 253-254.
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One of the most beautiful images that Scripture offers us about true worship is when the
women encounter the resurrected Jesus in the garden at dawn (cf. Mt 28, 8-10; Jn 20, 14-
18). Personally I find it very interesting that Scripture presents women worshiping Jesus
Christ on that glorious morning of the resurrection, but also presents them standing at the
foot of the cross (cf. Jn 19, 25-26). Moreover, Scripture shows us that during true
worship great joy is present. It seems to me that once again, the fullness of worship is
found in Jesus’ resurrection, the cross being an important passage. Pope Benedict
describes the passage of the Cross in this way:
“The true shepherd is one who knows even the path that passes through the
valley of death; one who walks with me even on the path of final solitude,
where no one can accompany me, guiding me through: he himself has walked
this path, he has descended into the kingdom of death, he has conquered
death, and he has returned to accompany us now and to give us the certainty
that, together with him, we can find a way through. The realization that there
is One who even in death accompanies me, and with his “rod and his staff
comforts me”, so that “I fear no evil” (cf. Ps 23 [22]:4)—this was the new
“hope” that arose over the life of believers”340.
340 POPE BENEDICT XVI, Encyclical Letter Spe Salvi (30 November 2007), (on-line) : http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/encyclicals/documents/hf_ben-xvi_enc_20071130_spe-salvi_en.html, 6 [17 September 2011].
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4.3 Sacrifice
The difference between a Judeo-Christian understanding of sacrifice and a pagan one is
clear. In both the Old and New Testaments we have interesting explanations of what God
desires in terms of worship; what pleases him and what he abhors. Jesus is clear, the
disposition of one’s own heart is what matters. Making peace with one’s own brother is
far more important than the offering itself (cf. Mt 5, 22-24). Scholars argue that the
disposition of the heart is the key reading of the Cain and Abel story. The issue of the
offering acceptance is peripheral. Abel’s offering was accepted because of the integrity
of his heart and not because of the nature of the offering itself341.
Sacrifice and worship in themselves are unimportant, they can actually lead people away
from loving one another. False worship leads people into violence; this God abhors.
Scripture clearly shows that sacrifice and worship are no magic solutions. Jesus through
his own life shows us how the true worship of the living God leads us into a state of total
non-violent way of loving the other. Jesus, through his own death and resurrection makes
fraternal love possible again, giving it a deeper and fuller meaning through his own
blood.
The interplay of stories, those of Cain and Abel, Elijah sacrifice-contest, Judas and Jesus,
is an interesting one. Cain kills Abel, possibly in Elijah’s story Abel finds his own
revenge, yet YHWH shows Elijah that there is more to it. Judas’ worship, like that of
Cain goes wrong. Judas kills himself342, unlike Cain who is punished but protected from
being killed. Jesus, like Abel is also killed but Jesus is given back to us as the forgiving-
victim. However, when Jesus speaks of Judas during the last supper he expresses anger
towards him, in strong Hebrew ways of expression (cf. Mt 26, 24-25). Stephen like Jesus
is killed as well but he sees heaven open before his eyes just before his death (cf. Acts 7,
341 Abel, in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch, editors: T. Desmond Alexander – David W. Baker, USA 2003,4-5. 342 The violent dynamic is usually covered up. Once exposed it looses it power but violence remains present, problematic and unresolved. Only by gazing at the crucified one we can be healed. See: René Girard, The Scapegoat, translated by Yvonne Freccero, United States of America 1986, 49-61.
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55-56). Saul is there witnessing and approving of his killing in the name of the law,
religion and God (cf. Acts 8, 1). Later, Saul becomes a penitent-persecutor himself and a
key figure within Christianity and our Maltese faith-history. All these biblical figures
show us that rejecting the living God is problematic. Desire not fashioned according to
the desire of God leads to the murder of one’s own brother, even by those who think they
are worshiping the living God. Zeal, rivalry and worship can be very problematic
themselves leading people away from the true and living God. However Jesus’
forgiveness opens up a way even to those same murderers.
It is my opinion that the above mentioned relationships and dynamics point in the
direction of Girard’s theory. God does not require human blood, but human blood was
necessary. It was the human counterpart who required the fulfillment of such request343.
In the Gospel of John, Jesus utters “Why do you want to kill me?” (Jn 7, 9). In John 12,
9-11 we also find how the decision to kill Jesus is also linked to the decision to kill
Lazarus, the one whom Jesus loved and brought back to life. The interpretation of Jesus’
crucifixion as God’s will is central in terms of our understanding of sacrifice - these
elements need not be ignored. In Gethsemane Jesus prays to the Father, if possible to
take this away from him, the Son talking to the Father.
Understanding the will of the Father at this point is key. Later on in this Chapter I will be
arguing that God’s will in Gethsemane for Jesus was that he keeps on loving them
anyway, not be run by their violence rather than requesting Jesus’ blood. James Alison
speaks of Jesus drinking the cup of human wrath - all of it, undoing it in his own body344.
John of the Cross does not specifically explore these concepts. I suspect he might
slightly differ in his interpretation. John’s interpretation of Claudia’s intervention might
shed some light onto his own understanding of Jesus’ death. One could say that his
343 RENÉ GIRARD, Things Hidden Since the Foundation of the World. Research undertaken in collaboration with Jean-Michel Oughourlian and Guy Lefort, translated by Stephen Bann (Books II and III) Michael Metteer (Book I), London 2003, 180-223. 344 JAMES ALISON (2010), From Impossibility to Responsibility: Developing New Narratives for Gay Catholic Living in James Alison. Theology (on-line) : http://www.jamesalison.co.uk/texts/eng63.html [12 November 2010].
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would be more on the side of the classical and ‘traditional’ understanding of Jesus’
crucifixion345.
René Girard and James Alison speak of sacred violence, of an understanding of God that
is both disturbing and pacifying. This image of God, which according to Girard and
Alison is false, is the most common understanding that Christians have of God the Father,
especially of his intervention in Gethsemane. Alison argues that the Catholic faith is not
a rival sacrificial system but an undoing of all violent-sacred forms found in all cultures.
He carries on saying that systems of goodness are terribly dangerous. For Alison, the
only real goodness is to become penitent, and this is revealed to us by Jesus Christ and
his story. The Christian journey is to not get involved in power and violence. Yet this
choice makes us immensely vulnerable ourselves, as the Jesus story reveals346. I do not
believe that John of the Cross’ theology and Catholic tradition are in conflict with that of
Alison. However, I do believe that Girard’s and Alison’s contribution do bring about
fresh dimensions to our understanding of God the Father, Jesus’ sacrifice and the whole
paschal mystery so dear for Christians.
James Alison speaks of deicide347. For him and Girard it is clear, God is entirely
benevolent, loving and non-violent. The killing of Jesus is pure murder, though only
through that murder the satanic dynamic could be exposed for what it is. The big lie that
humanity is trapped into is this sacred violent understanding of God. However, one issue
remains problematic within this understanding - the principle of justice. John of the
Cross’ explanation of purgation can help us out of this dilemma. As I will be arguing
later on, the dark night fulfills the requirements of justice. However, as John himself
emphasizes, it is all love. I believe that John of the Cross and James Alison are not
talking about very different things.
345 The Ascent of Mount Carmel, 2. 16, 3. 346 RENÉ GIRARD, Things Hidden Since the Foundation of the World. Research undertaken in collaboration with Jean-Michel Oughourlian and Guy Lefort, translated by Stephen Bann (Books II and III) Michael Metteer (Book I), London 2003, 224-262. JAMES ALISON, Living in the End Times. The Last Things Re-Imagined, London 1997, 98-137. 347 IBID, 98-197.
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The idea of non-violence and abhorrence of violence is not exclusive to Alison or Girard
either. Catholic and Christian teachings uphold this value. Recently Rev. Dr Thomas
Finger, a member of the Mennonite church, made such reflections during a workshop at
the International Ecumenical Peace Convocation, held in Kingston, Jamaica. On Monday
23rd of May he presented a paper called “Peace: the Lens for Re-visioning Christian
Theology and Mission”348. He said that “Sin is not only the personal breaking of divine
laws, but also the corporate turning away from and losing sight of God, peace and
justice”. He added “If the way that led to death is violent, the way that leads to life
cannot be violent…The resurrection itself reversed the logic of violence and condemns
those who killed Jesus”349.
4.4 Desire
“Let me seek You in my desire; let me desire You in my seeking. Let me find You by
loving You; let me love You when I find You.” St. Anselm350
Scripture clearly reveals what God’s desires are: to have a deep loving and caring
relationship with one another. His desire for humanity is for communion with him and
amongst ourselves. God’s desire is for mercy not sacrifice, to seek him because life is to
be found there (cf. Am 5,4; Jn 17, 3), to imitate him as this opens up possibilities for
creative living351. God’s desire for us is to be perfect like him and this happens through
imitation of Jesus (cf. Mt 5, 48; Jn 13, 12-17; Eph 5,1-2). God’s desire is also his will, a
life-force available for all humanity.
348 THOMAS FINGER, Peacemaking can be rooted in theology and mission, in Overcoming Violence. Churches seeking Reconciliation and Peace (on-line) http://www.overcomingviolence.org/en/news-and-events/news/dov-news-english/article/2913/what-does-gods-securi-1.html [24 July 2011]. 349 Ibid. 350 Prayers for Everyday; 50 Inspirational prayers from around the world, project editor Emma Beare, Bounty Books, London 2007. 351 JAMES ALISON, The Joy of Being Wrong. Original Sin Through Easter Eyes, foreword by Sebastian Moore, New York 1998, 9-63; 186-265.
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At other times God’s desires seem to be unclear, like in Abraham’s story. On the other
hand we are not sure of Abraham’s desires either. What is clear is that Abraham’s desire
for God is very strong to the point of being ready to kill his own long-awaited son in
‘sacrifice’ to please God. Surely, Abraham’s desire for God goes far. At the end, God
shows Abraham that he does not desire that kind of sacrifice, though the demand was
present. However Scripture also clearly tells us that God was ‘only’ testing Abraham and
not really demanding Isaac’s sacrifice. Context, particularly pagan culture of sacrificing
children to idol gods is surely very important when reading and interpreting this story
about God and Abraham352. Once again, similar to the Cain and Abel interpretation of
the story, the important message would be that God is not requiring that kind of sacrifice.
The text says that God wanted to test Abraham. Clearly God did not intend to ask for
that sacrifice from the beginning. It also seems that God is teaching Abraham something
new about God-human relationships, sacrifice and worship. The theological lesson is the
important focus rather than the test-demand.
Scripture also reveals that our own desire for God can go wrong. Cain’s worship and his
desire to please God led him to murder his own brother. Genesis points out at something
important; the art of mastering desires. I believe Genesis is talking about a particular set
of desires. Envy and zeal are two of these problematic desires. Abel, Jesus and Stephen
are all killed because of envy, anger and zeal (cf. Gen 4, 5; Mt 27, 18; Acts 7, 9).
Earthly powers create desires within us as well. These tend to clash with God’s own
desires for us. Jesus highlights this clash in his sermon on the Mount (cf. Mt 5, 1-12) and
the Last Judgment story (cf. Mt 25, 31-46). John of the Cross explains in detail how any
attachment which is not according to the desire of God is problematic and a form of
idolatry. Jesus offers us the possibility to find our desire anew, full of life after
purification353.
352 STEPHEN C. BARTON, Idolatry. False Worship in the Bible, Early Judaism and Christianity, London 2007, 7-21. 353 IAIN MATTHEW, The Impact of God. Soundings from St. John of the Cross, Great Britain 1995, 19-27.
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Alison, Scripture and John of the Cross agree that we are all trapped in all sorts of
idolatry. The root of this problem is desire but the root of its solution is also found within
desire. All of these texts see imitation of Jesus Christ as a remedy and the way which
leads to life. The solution is to desire according to the desire of God as revealed by
himself. John of the Cross explains in detail the cost of this imitation. It is the reverse
way to our own desires which are corrupted by all sorts of other desires. This re-ordering
of desire is a painful process. Gregory of Nyssa states that we can be where our desire
is354.
Alison, Scripture and John of the Cross speak about the need to re-structure desire and
give it direction. They give different and particular descriptions for that but all of them
point out at envious desire, this problematic desire which governs much of human
relationships. I wish to point out that James Alison and John of the Cross are both talking
about a new pattern of desire that has no ambivalence, conflict or danger in it because
this is a desire according to the desire of God355. I personally want to point out that if we
are to imitate Jesus Christ and enter this spiritual journey, it is very important to identify
God’s true desires and have true images of that, lest we believe we are imitating God but
in fact we are only trapped in other forms of idolatry, as James Alison, Scripture and John
of the Cross warn us.
When we are functioning from envy or reacting violently we are not imitating the Father.
True desire is located in the Father and Jesus embodies that. All violent-sacred desires,
exclusions and expulsions, all relationships and structures rooted in power and
domination, are not images of God’s love. And yet, as Alison points out, Jesus is at
peace with human desire, because he is not run by what the other is doing. He is not
functioning from violent mimetic desires356. If we want to be like him we are to function
354 JOHANNES QUASTEN, Patrology. Christian Classics, vol 3., United States of America 1959, 295-296. 355 JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts and New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 109-124. 355 The Ascent of Mount Carmel, , 1. 5, 2-8. 356 JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts and New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 34-53, 265-279.
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in that same way. Violent mimesis needs to be transformed into pacific mimetic
desire357, just like the Father and the Son.
4.5 Love
Though not always explicitly mentioned, James Alison, Scripture and John of the Cross
point at love in various ways, that is, at one’s own disposition, openness and desire for
fraternal loving relationships. The three locate love as central to human relationships and
to the human-God relationship, one’s own disposition as key. All of these relationships
can be problematic; desire, love and their purification take centre stage.
James Alison, Scripture and John of the Cross point out that unless one actively loves his
brother and sister and shares life with them, none of one’s own religious beliefs and
worship is real. The end goal of all prayer and worship is a simple one but getting there
is a painful and dark process of purification. Any other result is false and reduces all
forms of worship or religious ceremonies into banal forms of idolatry.
As Alison points out, the understanding and interpretation of the death of Jesus is key in
understanding who God is and what his desires are. Such understanding has implications
for our behaviour if we are to imitate him. One could argue that we need to understand
the love that God has for us to be able to live, love and follow God’s own desires as he
himself demands.
John of the Cross reassures us that God only looks at the faith and purity of the prayerful
heart. He tells us that the Christian way gets dark but is filled with joy. Eventually
contemplation infuses love and wisdom. He also clearly states that religious practices
and spiritual experiences themselves lead nowhere. What counts is our internal
disposition and to move forward in faith. To grow in love towards God and fellow
357 Ibid, 230-248.
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human beings is what matters. Union with God happens through love and wisdom358.
This is the love which is the fire of contemplation359.
Ursula King during her talk about Teilhard de Chardin said, “There is a communion with
God, and a communion with earth, and a communion with God through earth” 360. These
words capture in essence what Alison, Scripture and John of the Cross are describing and
what I am trying to point out in this section and Chapter. Emotional-Spiritual health in
all of our relationships is what we are talking about, a heart that is at peace and in
harmony with all of creation and its Creator.
Human desires; to be loved and to give love can lead a person on to the negative path of
life experiencing emotions such as rivalry, envy, zeal or anger, leading that person to
betray or even kill his own brother. Human beings can be misled into these dark places
because of their perceived ‘relationship’ with God, if such emotions take over. These
desires need to be mastered and purified through our own real relationship with the living
God. Only after this purification we can enjoy true freedom, to be open to receive love
and offer love to God, fellow human beings and all of creation as forgiven penitent
persecutors.
358 The Dark Night 2. 5, 1; 1. 14, 4. 359 Ibid, 2. 10, 2. 360 URSULA KING, Teilhard de Chardin and the Contemporary Mystic Quest, Occasional Paper 17, Discern Institute for Research on the Signs of the Times, 9.
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4.6 Beyond us
“…all theology is partial and incomplete, no theology ‘cracks’ the truth about God”361.
One important element that emerged whilst studying James Alison, Biblical texts and
John of the Cross is that no matter what we understand and grasp about God, no matter
what insights we receive and how much we grow and mature, God is and always remains
beyond us. I believe this is another key notion which emerged out of the various texts I
attempted to study. Both James Alison and John of the Cross highlight this. The
implication of this understanding is that no understanding or insight can become an
absolute. No human achievement or understanding can claim divinity. The Trinitarian
God is the only divinity that is always beyond us. What is human is always finite and
limited, believing otherwise is another form of idolatry. Pope Benedict tells us that “The
truth of negative theology was highlighted by the Fourth Lateran Council, which
explicitly stated that however great the similarity that may be established between
Creator and creature, the dissimilarity between them is always greater”362.
Though God remains a mystery and beyond our grasp, he does not leave the human being
floating into oblivion. Love and wisdom are his gifts to us, the way he communicates
with the human person and through which we can achieve communion with him and
humanity363. Clearly, James Alison, Biblical texts and John of the Cross identify God as
desiring to be with human beings and the human person longing to be with his and her
God. It is a mutual desire and through this desire the human person and God can
encounter each other and enter into a real relationship but after the human persons goes
through a purification process - a great mystery. Whilst on the one hand God is divine
and always beyond us and on the other hand the human person is a creature and limited, a
361 ELIZABETH STUART and others, Religion is a Queer Thing. A Guide to the Christian Faith for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgendered People, London 1997, 26. 362 POPE BENEDICT XVI, Encyclical Letter Spe Salvi (30 November 2007), (on-line) : http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/encyclicals/documents/hf_ben-xvi_enc_20071130_spe-salvi_en.html, 43 [17 September 2011]. 363 The Dark Night, 2. 10, 2.
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loving relationship between the two is possible but the human person must learn to
master his or her desires, even for that same God.
Though the human person is a creature with great potential she or he needs to be aware
and acknowledge his or her limitations. What the human person can glimpse of the
divine is only a speck and a ray of light. The rest remains beyond our grasp, at least till
we are here on earth. Because of these limitations of ours we are to be careful not to
make of that ray of light we might glimpse an absolute either. Of course, as humans
desiring God we hope that one day we glimpse something more of his love, goodness and
beauty. God-human relationships function within these incredible tensions and in fact
God-human relationships seem to be as problematic as all human relationships.
One of the main difficulties lies when a particular person or group of people claim
absolute what might be a revelation that is unfolding gradually. Scripture reveals this
clearly (cf. Jn 9, 1-41). God remains beyond the Law, even that Law he himself gave.
He remains beyond human understanding. Nothing equals God. He is neither restricted
to images nor ideals. It is only in this openness that we can walk on the path that leads us
towards the living God. James Alison and John of the Cross clearly testify about this
Biblical notion of God. Being in relation to the living God takes us beyond our own
selves and securities, be they physical, psychological, emotional, ideological or spiritual.
John of the Cross describes this kind of presence as dark. He also describes relations to
God as if having nothing to hold on to. He explains that it is a dangerous space for the
human person because we do not understand this kind of existence364.
John of the Cross elaborates about this beyond. He also says that God has no relation, no
essential likeness to us creatures and yet the great mystery lies in the fact that we
creatures do carry some likeness to God365. James Alison explains how this beyond of
God is also beyond our good and bad fabrications. James Alison highlights how God is
massively prior to us (cf. Jn 17,5), this is the beyond for Alison. He tells us that God is
364 The Ascent of Mt. Carmel, 1. 2. 3; 2. 4. 365 Ibid, 2. 8, 3-4.
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more like nothing at all than like anything that is, for us humans. This ‘is’ of God always
risks being tainted with idolatry, no matter how well meaning this may be366.
4.7 Another kind of God
James Alison, Scripture and John of the Cross identify the living God as our source for
life. When anything or anyone else becomes that source, the relationship becomes
idolatrous. Sex itself can become a form of idolatry if we relate to it as our life source,
excluding the divine presence from it - violence enters that dynamic as well (cf. Jdt 12,
16). Men themselves may become idols if they set themselves up as gods. The Old
Testament identifies such men clearly (cf. Jdt 3, 8). Life is to be shared, sex an
expression of that kind of sharing of love and life.
James Alison, Scripture and John of the Cross identify a God who is simple in his ways
of relating. The way God relates to human beings is in a very particular personal way,
not in a cold hierarchical military fashion. In the New Testament, Jesus dislocates the
temple completely. He locates the sacred and the temple within the human person and
his or her loving relationships. Thus, all of creation becomes a sacred loving expression
of God for the human person; his presence found within our relationships with each
other, earth, the cosmos and God himself. The various texts teach us that one cannot
contemplate God without contemplating the human person in his or her relations. Thus,
Christianity pushes us to open up new spaces in our hearts and make room for others.
The way is brotherly and sisterly love. This love needs to be offered universally and it is
this the demand that God makes on the human person - his desire.
As discussed earlier on, the texts emphasize the risk that spirituality and religion
themselves can become forms of idolatry. When religion and spirituality are detached
from human experience and relationships, especially with those who are weak and
366 JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts and New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 270-271.
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vulnerable in society, they become false. God is also embodied within the community.
God is to be found within human experiences and relationships, within the story and
history of humanity, even in its darkest moments. Moreover, the Divine is always
present on the side of victims and not on that of persecutors, whoever these may be367.
Our Creator is full of love for the human person. All of creation is an expression of his
love for humanity. Out of this love all was created, “before the foundation of the world”
(Jn 17, 24). He is our benevolent provider, relates to the human person in a personal way
and is not in rivalry with any person or anything created by himself. He visits his people,
the fullness of his visitation is found in Jesus. He brings about life, health, forgiveness
and is actively kind to us though we are ungrateful and selfish. God is also merciful and
full of compassion - Raham368. As discussed earlier on, God remains always beyond our
grasp, as the story of Elijah reveals. What we glimpse of him can never become an
absolute. However we can enter into a loving relationship with God. This happens when
all idols have been destroyed, and once that happens we have to be careful not to re-
mythologize the true and living God we found. We are to stay on the alert!
Alison highlights the idea of the single benevolent God which sets us free from the
violent-sacred dynamic. John of the Cross’ theology says that God’s love for the human
person implies darkness and purification. James Alison makes reference to this
disconcerting experience as well; of losing what used to give us security but was false.
Whilst all loving notions about God are beautiful and true, during the study process of the
various texts I felt something lacking. In this study I am defending René Girard’s claim
that God is entirely non-violent and does not require human blood as a form of
reparation. And yet, something seems to be missing in such a concept. One element
which I would like to explore is the idea of justice, to try and answer my own question of
what is lacking? I believe that there is agreement in the Christian world that God is not
367 JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts and New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 209-248. 368 SHMUEL TRIGANO, Rahamim: Birthing Humanity. The Jewish Vocation of the 21st Century, (on-line) : http://www.shmuel-trigano.fr/texts-in-English/RAHamim.pdf [2 October 2011].
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violent, that he is benevolent and loving. Yet justice is also an attribute that God has and
exercises. It is God’s demand for justice that may pose difficulties in our understanding
and interpretation of Jesus’ death. In the Old and New Testaments we see different forms
of justice being exercised. Where does justice stand in James Alison’s and John of the
Cross’ theology? In the next section I will try to reflect about the tension existing
between love, sin and justice. God is in an intimate personal relationship with humanity
and our relations with him are marked by these tensions as already described, on an
individual and community level. I believe that John of the Cross’ theology about
purification can offer us a key to resolve such questions.
4.8 Purification, Punishments, Misunderstandings
and other Transformations…
“This innocent sufferer has attained the certitude of hope: there is a God, and God can
create justice in a way that we cannot conceive, yet we can begin to grasp it through
faith.”369
Even though God is love and he is benevolent, he definitely is not a teddy bear. The idea
of punishment is very much present in the Old Testament. René Girard and James Alison
speak of violence within the Old Testament as human projections370. And, yet there is
something which seems to be quite ‘painful’ and coming from God. Alison does point
out that letting go of our violent understanding of the sacred is a painful exercise, but it is
John of the Cross who elaborates on this experience in detail and may offer us an
important key to resolve the dilemma between love and justice. The Elijah story already
pointing at this tension, between judgment and grace. Possibly, what we humans
misunderstand is the process of purification that the person seriously committed to the
369 POPE BENEDICT XVI, Encyclical Letter Spe Salvi (30 November 2007), (on-line) : http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/encyclicals/documents/hf_ben-xvi_enc_20071130_spe-salvi_en.html, 43 [18 September 2011]. 370 RENÉ GIRARD, I See Satan Fall Like Lightning, translated with a foreword, by James G. Williams, United States 2001, 103-120.
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living God needs to go through. Such a process may come across as a form of
punishment, abandonment, or even rejection from God’s side. However, God is only
preparing us for more love and beauty. I want to argue that God is also exercising his
justice here, yet in a loving way. Maybe we need to re-think and re-define our
understanding of justice, from a post-resurrection perspective371. Though justice is
present, it is embedded in love and forgiveness. Yet justice is a painful experience no
matter how much love is present within it. Pope Benedicts says that “The incarnation of
God in Christ has so closely linked the two together—judgment and grace—that justice is
firmly established: we all work out our salvation “with fear and trembling” (Phil 2:12).
Nevertheless grace allows us all to hope, and to go trustfully to meet the Judge whom we
know as our “advocate”, or parakletos (cf. 1 Jn 2:1)”372.
I believe that here we need to differentiate between violent punishment and loving
correction which fulfills the obligations of love but also those of justice. In Scripture we
find an interesting dynamic which we cannot ignore and which reveals something else
about God. The force of God the Father which at times seems to have violent
expressions is present. It is a force that is always used in favor of the oppressed and the
weak. The Magnificat expresses this dynamic elaborately and beautifully. As Christians
we believe in gradual revelation and maybe we need to apply this principle to such
understanding of God’s character as well, and yet we cannot ignore it either - again it is
the tension between love and justice. Proverbs tells us “whoever sows injustice reaps
disaster” (Prov 22, 8).
The Paschal mystery reveals both God the Father and the Son as entirely without
violence. However, the Son is resurrected and given back to humanity in forgiveness but
still calling us to conversion. However, violence is again present in Scripture particularly
in the Book of Revelation. Girard does say that even Christian’s themselves miss on this
371 JAMES ALISON, The Joy of Being Wrong. Original Sin Through Easter Eyes, foreword by Sebastian Moore, New York 1998, 70-83. 372 POPE BENEDICT XVI, Encyclical Letter Spe Salvi (30 November 2007), (on-line) : http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/encyclicals/documents/hf_ben-xvi_enc_20071130_spe-salvi_en.html, 47 [18 September 2011].
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essential message of Jesus’ cross. In the name of religion they committed much violence
throughout the ages believing they are pleasing God by doing so373. James Alison in his
book Living in the End Times re-reads the Book of Revelation through the lenses of René
Girard’s theory, including Jesus’ own second coming as entirely without violence, yet the
encounter reveals once more the hidden violence on the side of humanity. In Alison’s
theology God is entirely without violence but his action subverts hidden violence
disguised as sacred within all human societies. Jesus is only exposing our violence to
free humanity from it and not its cause374.
Going back to misunderstandings about God’s justice, Scripture points at various
examples of these. For example, in Eljah’s story, both the widow and Obadiah express
fear when meeting Elijah. They seem to be aware of their sin or afraid that they might
have sinned. They are afraid of punishment - of being killed or that one of their loved
ones has to be ‘sacrificed’ to make up for their sin, as punishment (cf. 1 Kings 17, 18; 18,
9). It seems to me that Scripture clearly shows that all of these assumptions about God
are wrong. The widow and Obadiah receive life and they both recognize the true living
God as the one who provides and brings about life.
And yet there are other aspects of God which seem to be difficult to comprehend. Once
again Elijah and John of the Cross may be of help. For instance, Cain is not killed for
killing his brother but negative consequences for himself and future generations do come
about. He is protected from being killed, yet retribution is present (cf. Gen 4, 13-16).
However, once Cain is punished God offers him the opportunity to begin anew375.
However, Abel is replaced by Seth, the father of Enosh – it is the line of Adam and Seth
which invokes God in true worship (cf. Gen 4, 26)376.
373 RENÉ GIRARD, Things Hidden Since the Foundation of the World. Research undertaken in collaboration with Jean-Michel Oughourlian and Guy Lefort, translated by Stephen Bann (Books II and III) Michael Metteer (Book I), London 2003, 180-280. 374 JAMES ALISON, Living in the End Times. The Last Things Re-Imagined, London 1997, 117-197. 375 Cain, in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch, editors: T. Desmond Alexander – David W. Baker, USA 2003, 110. 376 Ibid, 108.
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Elijah’s anti-climax night experience is filled with pain and confusion but becomes a
mystical space for transformation377. I want to present this experience as key for the
dilemma I am presenting within this section to help us in understanding God as
benevolent and non-violent yet fulfilling the demands of justice. It is in this space, which
the Bible points at and which John of the Cross describes in detail that both love and
justice are fulfilled without negating one another other. The encounter is twofold; an
encounter with God which brings about the ecstasy of love but this ecstasy is only the
beginning of a painful process which eventually leads to the fulfillment of love. It is a
process which brings about a radical transformation in the human person and becomes his
or her habitus378. When God intervenes in this way, the experience for the human person
is dreadful. It feels like punishment, rejection, abandonment, agony and violence. John
of the Cross reassures us that God is only destroying our disordered attachments,
appetites and ways of relating which in fact are forms of idolatry. Our own relationship
with God itself is marked by false images of him, though we believe we are relating to
the living God. James Alison points out at this dynamic as well and he speaks about this
terrible experience which liberates us. Only through this experience are we transformed.
The end result is delightful as we become truly free for the living God and each other.
John of the Cross talks about learning how to bear this suffering creatively379. It is of
course suffering and it is important to highlight this. Sometimes when reading about it
one may get a romantic idea of this suffering, but for the one experiencing it this is a
terrible space. It is a mystery though how this suffering becomes a mystical and creative
space for growth and transformation380. It is through this process that God purifies the
human person. He shows us our temperament and hidden wickedness. It is a great
suffering for the person going through this process because the person feels forsaken.
John of the Cross reassures us that God is the author of all this. Faith and charity are the
two virtues that help us navigate through this darkness and void. However, it is God who 377 KEES WAAIJMAN, The Mystical Space of Carmel. A Commentary on the Carmelite Rule, Leuven, 1999, 1-45. 378 EDITH STEIN, The Science of the Cross, translated by Josephine Koeppel, O.C.D., Washington 2003, 187. 379 Iain Matthew, The Impact of God. Soundings from St. John of the Cross, Great Britain 1995, 72-85. 380 PETER SLATTERY, The Springs of Carmel. An Introduction to Carmelite Spirituality, New York 1991, 77-79.
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places us and leads us across this darkness and void - there is nothing romantic about
such spaces. Here, the human person also experiences repentance, mortification and
weeping. I want to argue that it is this process that fulfills the demands of justice.
Though terrible, it is still non-violent, but may feel like that. However, purification is not
for the destruction of the person but only to become free and open to receive more. It is
all love. Julian of Norwich writes “I shall shatter you for your vain passions and your
vicious pride; and after that I shall gather you together and make you humble and meek,
pure and holy, by uniting you with me.”381
John of the Cross tells us that only nothingness does not oppose God. The human person
resists on a natural level to enter into this space. And yet, this seems to be the way, the
narrow gate that Jesus talks about. Nakedness and forgetfulness become our companions
on this way. Catherine of Siena records Jesus telling her, "I am He who is; you are she
who is not."382
Alison, like John of the Cross speaks of this ‘terrible’ space of transformation. He tells
us that Christian hope is in fact a place of terror and utter disorientation. In this space
there is a collapse of all that is familiar and well known. In this mystical space violent
reciprocity is transformed into a friendly one. God uncovers who we really are and it is
not a pleasant sight. Here we lose our idols. We learn to cease to grasp onto insecurities.
In this space of transformation the person undergoes a total re-structuring of the internal
life and learns to let go of anger and envy383. Alison uses the story of Jonah to explain
this process. To me, James Alison and John of the Cross seem like two musicians
playing in perfect harmony when describing this process. They both tell us that there is
no remedy for the person going through this process. The human person experiences
disintegration but in this space the person is held into being. James Alison beautifully
highlights how human beings though held in such love tend to keep refusing being
created. Living in this space without being or belonging is scary for the human person 381 JULIAN OF NORWICH, Revelations of Divine Love, London 1998, 81. 382 CATHERINE M. MEADE, CSJ, Catherine of Siena: To Purify God’s Church, United States of America 2007, 75. 383 JAMES ALISON, The Joy of Being Wrong. Original Sin Through Easter Eyes, foreword by Sebastian Moore, New York 1998, 210, 235-236.
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because there is great darkness. Our nature experiences an aversion to it, to creation
itself. And yet, to be re-created is to become completely and joyfully dependent on God -
the real living God384.
Similarly to John of the Cross, James Alison tells us that we are bound in our own
imaginations. John of the Cross also states that we need to renounce all forms of visions,
spiritual experiences and locutions themselves385. Alison is mostly referring to being
bound in our violent understanding of God’s desires. Like John of the Cross, he
describes prayer as a form of detox, as a therapy for our distorted desires. John of the
Cross and James Alison seem to pick up and elaborate on a theme that Scripture points at;
that living a life committed to the true God also means going through such a collapse. It
is this collapse that brings about something new.
René Girard and James Alison emphasize that the Judeo-Christian text is the only one
which uncovers the ‘sacred lie’ and therefore speaks of such dynamics. The lie itself is a
form of idolatry. Becoming free from it is a painful and dark process but a necessary
one. Violence is discovered to be where it really is, on humanity’s side. Yet, it is only
through this process that we can learn to be held by someone who is much bigger and
beyond our grasping. Alison tells us that Jesus plays the game of life on entirely different
terms, teaching us to live from within - in an utterly non-rival way386. Like John of the
Cross he tells us that only through a dark process are we set free, and thus we are able to
taste what it feels like to be alive forever. Christianity brings us into a story beyond
imagination.
James Alison, Scripture and John of the Cross warn us that ‘holiness’ is not a guarantee
either. John of the Cross’ theology helps the human person put away childhood ways and
grow. James Alison is also talking about growth, after all it is Jesus himself who points
in this direction but growth is painful. For those who manage to get through, John of the
Cross says that the soul is rendered pure, simple and clear, though dark for the intellect.
384 JAMES ALISON, Faith Beyond Resentment: Fragments Catholic and Gay, New York 2001, 86-104. 385 The Ascent of Mount Carmel, 2. 17, 3-4; 2. 19, 9; 2. 19, 9; 2. 21, 11; 2. 28, 1; 2. 28, 4-5. 386 JAMES ALISON, Living in the End Times. The Last Things Re-Imagined, London 1997, 159-178.
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He tells us that we become exceedingly free and experience a deep tranquility of the
soul387. It is a process that transforms our gaze, and that is why it is embedded in love
and not violence. Though terrible and painful it may be, it brings about life and not
destruction. James Alison tells us that the key learning about ourselves is to accept that
we are wrong and violent, and that is ok. What is important is that we detoxify from all
false notions of God. Alison tells us that the real relationship we can have with the living
God is that of penitent persecutors388. The story of Saul transformed into St. Paul attests
to this. Like John of the Cross, Alison speaks of purification and he tells us that we need
to be purified of our own violence, also from misreading stories of victimization, at times
from the Gospel itself. Thus God’s perspective becomes always that of the victim. Pope
Benedict speaks of “the illusion of innocence” and the importance of the “confrontation
of the me with the living God…”389 “to find meaning with our union with Jesus amidst
tribulations and mature”390.
4.9 Crucifixion & Resurrection
The Crucifixion is of course central in the Christian faith. However, crucifixions are also
a grim reality in the ancient world. It was a method used to give the most extreme form
of punishment and it was practised by the Persians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Scythians,
Thracians, Celts, Britons, Germans, Numidians, Carthaginians and Romans391. It was a
punishment used to assert authority whilst maintaining law and order392, a method used to
break the will of conquered persons and control rebellious cities, a punishment mostly
used for slaves, foreigners and persons from the ‘lower classes’. It mocked the dignity of
387 The Ascent of Mount Carmel, 2. 14, 2; 3. 13; 3. 15; 3. 18. 388 JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts and New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 272. 389 Pope Benedict XVI, Encyclical Letter Spe Salvi (30 November 2007), (on-line) : http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/encyclicals/documents/hf_ben-xvi_enc_20071130_spe-salvi_en.html, 33-34 [17 September 2011]. 390 Ibid, 37. 391 Crucifixion, in The Anchor Bible Dictionary, 6 vols., editor-in chief David Noel Freedman, (1992) I-1207. Crucifixion, in Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospel. A Compendium of Contemporary Biblical Scholarship, editors: Joel B. Green – Scot McKnight – I. Howard Marshall, England 1992, 147-148. 392 Ibid.
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the human person. In Jesus’ own time it was also a way of reminding Jews of their
servitude towards the Roman Empire393. One could argue that the crucifixion is a morbid
form of ‘art’ to murder the other, in its cruelest form. It is the ‘art’ of empires of power,
strength and death. If Cain simply murdered Abel with a blow, his descendants
developed an art for doing that. It is on this cross that Jesus subverts and transforms all.
For Christians this transformed meaning of the crucifixion becomes good news. It starts
representing Jesus’ obedience and love. It reveals God’s power and wisdom and it brings
deliverance from sin and the curse of the Law. It also brings about reconciliation and
peace. For those following Jesus it starts signifying the crucifixion of the former sinful
self and leaving the ungodly world.394 However, as mentioned earlier on, some of these
readings and interpretations of the crucifixion may pose some difficulties with regards to
the understanding of God the Fathers’ involvement in this event of Jesus’ own life. Judas
and Claudia are two key figures in helping us identify some of these difficulties.
One of the key questions that René Girard and James Alison put at rest is that God is not
in need of human blood as a ransom for humanity’s sin. Blood was not needed for
humanity’s redemption and salvation, from God’s side395. René Girard and Alison say
No to a blood-thirsty-God-understanding of the crucifixion. Their answer is that it was
humans who were in need of that kind of sacrifice and not God. Yet, sacrifice was
needed to reveal it for what it is, a diabolical murder. Jesus in the Gospel of John
describes Judas as a devil – “‘Did I not choose you, the twelve? Yet one of you is a
devil.’” (Jn 6, 70). Scripture tells us that it was the Devil who inspired Judas to betray
Jesus (cf. Jn 13, 2) and Jesus describes Judas as unclean later on (cf. Jn 13, 11). Girard
states:
393 Crucifixion, in The Anchor Bible Dictionary, 6 vols., editor-in chief David Noel Freedman, (1992) I-1208-I-1209. 394 Ibid, I-1210. 395 JAMES ALISON, Living in the End Times. The Last Things Re-Imagined, London 1997, 44-48.
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“Here the essential point is that a triple correspondence is set up between
Satan, the original homicide, and the lie. To be a son of Satan is to inherit the
lie. What lie? The lie that covers the homicide. This lie is a double
homicide, since its consequences is always another new homicide to cover up
the old one. To be a son of Satan is the same thing as being the son of those
whose have killed their prophets since the foundation of the world”396.
Jesus by willingly going to his death on the cross (cf. Jn 10, 18) subverted this dynamic
of the-violence-as-sacred from within, revealing it for what it is. Girard and Alison argue
that this is precisely the mission that was accomplished through the cross. It is the
evidence that the Gospel gives “The world cannot hate you, but it does hate me, because I
give evidence that its ways are evil” (Jn 7, 7).
Whilst studying the passion of Jesus I was intrigued by women-men relationships, Jesus-
men relationships and Jesus-women relationships. I cannot explore these dynamics in
depth in this study. However, I cannot avoid reflecting about the possible hints that
Scripture is throwing at us about the various gender differences in terms of relationships
and recognition of the true image of God who has a human face - Jesus. Evidently, we
find a deeper understanding of Jesus and his mission amongst women. A minority of
men reach such an understanding of him; from this minority most abandon him during
that tragic moment like Peter, though he catches up later with the other apostles and
disciples. Possibly Scripture is revealing the dangers of glorified masculinity and
patriarchy which can be heavily marked with idolatry in its various subtle and hidden
forms as already pointed out in section 4.7. The passion of Jesus seems to be revealing
this as well. The Claudia-Pilate dynamic is a very interesting window for further
reflections about this reading of the story from a gender perspective397.
396 RENÉ GIRARD, Things Hidden Since the Foundation of the World. Research undertaken in collaboration with Jean-Michel Oughourlian and Guy Lefort, translated by Stephen Bann (Books II and III) Michael Metteer (Book I), London 2003, 161. 397 Even in today’s world women are often victimized and become objects of violence in times of conflict. It must have been similar in Jesus’ own times. Possibly this is why women could empathize more with Jesus when witnessing him being victimized by their Patriarchic society. See: Say No to Sexual Violence in Conflict in Say No Unite to End Violence Against Women, United Nations Entity for Gender Equality
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Going back to violence, non-violence and the sacred, parts of the crucifixion story of
Jesus remain difficult to comprehend. One of the questions that haunted me throughout
my personal faith journey was: what was the Father’s will at Gethsemane? What kind of
sacrifice was God the Father demanding? It is the same Father who rejects Cain’s
sacrifice whilst accepting that of Abel, ending up with Cain killing Abel out of envy398.
It is the same Father who tests Abraham ‘demanding’ to sacrifice Isaac though stopping it
at the end and never wanting Isaac to be sacrificed really and truly. However, Scripture
does say that God tests the heart of those worshiping him to reveal its hidden thoughts
(cf. Jdt 8, 25-27). It is a mission that Jesus himself brings forward to its fulfillment as
Simeon, in the Gospel of Luke foretells. Those hidden thoughts are fully revealed and
exposed but Jesus pays the price for it (cf. Lk 2, 34-35).
Reflections from this study with its understanding of what kind of sacrifice is pleasing or
not to the Father and after considerations about the kind of demands he makes on
humans, I would like to suggest that the Father’s will at Gethsemane was simply to
encourage Jesus to remain faithful, loving, non-violent and forgiving till the very end,
even towards those who were going to torture and kill him. This was also the ultimate act
of purification that only Jesus could fulfill on behalf of humanity, because it was
humanity that needed it whilst requesting blood for its fulfillment. Like this he is perfect
as the Father is. Proverbs tells us, “To do righteousness and justice is more acceptable to
the Lord than sacrifice” (Prov 21, 3).
As Girard and Alison argue, this was the final step from God’s side to set humanity free
from rivalry, fratricide and deicide and from other violent projections onto each other and
himself. But what about justice? Since I am choosing Girard’s and Alison’s
interpretation of the crucifixion then the principle of justice may become problematic
here. Previously I argued that we need to re-read justice from a John of the Cross
and the Empowerment of Women (on-line) : http://www.saynotoviolence.org/make-women-count-for-peace [25 October 2011]. 398 ERIN GALGAY, The Sacrifice of Cain in the Commentaries of Ephrem and Ambrose in Syriac Symposium, Duke University (on-line) : http://syriacsymposium.trinity.duke.edu/speakers [22 October 2011].
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perspective of loving purification. Therefore, through this understanding we can re-read
the whole drama of Jesus’ tragic moment in life as needed to purify humanity from its
own violent dynamics believed to be sacred. The only way for Jesus to resolve these
false notions of the sacred was for him to become a victim for humanity himself. It is
God himself who walks across the dark lane opened up by humanity’s sin to reveal that
hidden lie humanity is trapped into. Pope Benedict writes “Now God himself has
removed the veil and revealed himself in the crucified Jesus as the one who lives to the
point of death. The pathway to God is open”399.
The night has its lights, and we know that the resurrection of Jesus shines eternally. It
has been a decisive historical event and yet that same light seems to be so absent whilst
Jesus was on the Cross. That light seems to be so absent in many situations of deep
suffering, war and injustice across history and in today’s world. Pope Benedict writes the
following about Jesus’ experience of abandonment on the cross,
“It is no ordinary cry of abandonment. Jesus is praying the great psalm of
suffering Israel, and so he is taking upon himself all the tribulation, not just of
Israel, but of all those in this world who suffer from God’s concealment. He
brings the world’s anguished cry at God’s absence before the heart of God
himself. He identifies himself with suffering Israel, with all who suffer under
‘God’s darkness’; he takes their cry, their anguish, all their helplessness upon
himself – and in so doing he transforms it”400.
John of the Cross also writes about these dark moments of abandonment. In The Ascent
of Mount Carmel II, 7. 9-11 he describes this moment as fulfillment of God’s justice that
at the same time achieves reconciliation and union between God and humanity. On the
other hand, one could argue that the cross is a human experience which Jesus took upon
himself. Christians give that experience meaning rather than simply rejecting it as
absurd. Pope Benedicts explains this experience in this way “…‘the absurd’ now yields
399 JOSEPH RAZTINGER, POPE BENEDICT XVI, Jesus of Nazareth, Holy Week: From the Entrance into Jerusalem to the Resurrection, USA, 2011, 209. 400 Ibid, 214.
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its profound meaning. In the apparently senseless event, the real sense of human
journeying is truly opened up: meaning triumphs over the power of destruction and
evil”401.
John of the Cross speaks of the Father’s will as Jesus’ meat and food402. Hence, my
belief that it is very important to understand correctly what God’s will is. If we get it
wrong we end up in all sorts of problematic behaviours as we often witness in our
contemporary world. As René Girard and James Alison claim, at times Christianity itself
interpreted the crucifixion as a fulfillment of God’s need for human blood to pay for
humanity’s sins403. In Girard’s words:
“…the sacrificial interpretation of the Passion must be criticized and exposed
as a most enormous and paradoxical misunderstanding – and at the same time
as something necessary – and as the most revealing indication of mankind’s
radical incapacity to understand its own violence, even when that violence is
conveyed in the most explicit fashion”404.
If God needs that kind of sacrifice then he might need more of that, justifying more
spilling of blood. John of the Cross understands the crucifixion as necessary. His
reading of Claudia and the meaning of the crucifixion described in the Ascent II, 7, 9-11
and mentioned before, may shift him more on Baltashar’s critical reading of René Girard,
referred to in Chapter 1.11.2. And yet, I believe that we can believe in the single
benevolent God who is entirely non-violent and does not require human blood whilst
making demands for purification - for us to be entirely free and able to receive his love.
The purification process is a terrible space yet entirely without violence because it leads
us towards life and not death. It does feel otherwise though. As previously argued this
401 Ibid, 203. 402 The Ascent of Mount Carmel, 1. 13, 3-4. 403 JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts and New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 249-279. 404 RENÉ GIRARD, Things Hidden Since the Foundation of the World. Research undertaken in collaboration with Jean-Michel Oughourlian and Guy Lefort, translated by Stephen Bann (Books II and III) Michael Metteer (Book I), London 2003, 180-181.
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kind of purification also satisfies the principles of justice and brings us face to face with
our own inner violent desires, which are exposed but there is nothing sacred about them.
Jesus himself is not in need of purification but it is here that he offers himself as victim.
He goes through this process, acting vicariously, exposing that fundamental human lie
about God. Human sacrifice is not required by God but Jesus had to be ‘sacrificed’ to
stop all human sacrifices once and for all. Jesus’ passion is the result of human violence,
but God uses this to purify humanity and detoxify it from all forms of idolatry and
violence. However, this understanding of God is still a struggle for Christians themselves
up to this day. The story ‘What would you do?’405 used by Christians to try and explain
Jesus’ tragic ending highlight this dilemma. I am personally troubled by this kind of
narrative of Jesus’ death, thus my fondness for Girard’s anthropology and Alison’s
theology. Yet, the crucifixion did happen and was necessary.
James Alison tells us that it is the Eucharist which establishes an entirely fresh dynamic
of relations, between God and humanity and between humans amongst themselves406.
The whole paschal mystery starting from the last supper reestablishes in a definitive
manner these relations. He tells us that the Eucharist is an invitation out of idolatry and
into being, because idolatry always implies violence, be it overt or covert, explicit or
subtle. The paschal mystery, this plan of salvation for humanity is the fullness of
revelation and the definitive gate out of violence into eternal life407.
Jesus sets new standards for all of humanity. His gratuitous self-giving has serious
implications for those who want to follow him. Alison points out that salvation is also a
critical counter history and story. He completely renounces the idea that God the Father
somewhat maneuvered the death-sacrifice of Jesus. Girard and Alison tell us that God is
not complicit in Jesus’ death.
405 See: WHAT WOULD YOU DO? in YouTube Broadcast Yourself (on-line) : http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tSkWNwXA73Y&noredirect=1 [7 September 2011]. 406 JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts and New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 209-279. 407 Ibid.
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However, Alison points out at an interesting dark space that echoes with John of the
Cross’ theology. James Alison speaks of the space between the death of Jesus and his
resurrection. That space was the moment where the apostles felt disillusioned and
frightened. Alison emphasizes that it is from this space that Easter Sunday starts. Pope
Benedict writes that “The ‘Kingdom’ of Jesus was not as might have been imagined. It
began in that hour, and of this ‘Kingdom’ there will be no end.”408 John of the Cross
assures us of our own resurrection after the crossing amidst the dark valley. Alison tells
us that Jesus made death an empty threat, because love is stronger and lives beyond it.
The resurrection gives us the possibility of re-reading all human stories, subverting them
from within through love. It is a re-reading that gives us back human victims and invites
persecutors to become penitent convertants. Pope Benedict writes, “…it was the fact
themselves, at first unintelligible, that paved the way towards a fresh understanding of
Scripture”409.
4.10 Non-Violence and Forgiveness
One of the main questions that this dissertation is trying to answer is, if violence is
present in God or not. I am defending Alison’s position that God is entirely non-violent.
In previous paragraphs I proposed the idea that what may seem as violence is in actual
fact loving purification. Violence which brings about harm and destruction is only found
on the human side - a result of sin. Sin is the result of humanity turning away from the
living God and worshipping all sorts of other things, including oneself.
Jesus is the non-violent figure par excellence. For those of us who believe that he is God
this has very serious implications. If we want to seriously follow him we are bound by
this way of living. For us Jesus is the image of God, the fullness of revelation and this
revelation comes to us in purely and totally non-violent ways, though in some of Jesus’ 408 POPE BENEDICT XVI, Encyclical Letter Spe Salvi (30 November 2007), (on-line) : http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/encyclicals/documents/hf_ben-xvi_enc_20071130_spe-salvi_en.html, 50 [18 September 2011]. 409 JOSEPH RAZTINGER, POPE BENEDICT XVI, Jesus of Nazareth, Holy Week: From the Entrance into Jerusalem to the Resurrection, USA, 2011, 203.
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own words, we do find expressions of anger (cf. Mt 21, 12-13) or words which make us
very uncomfortable (cf. Mt 22, 11-14). He also acknowledges his power and potential to
use it if he wants to (cf. Mt 26, 53). Jesus is not a teddy bear either.
René Girard tells us that violence is always contagious and there is no good violence410.
Whilst writing this Chapter violence irrupted in Libya, it pushes one into a lot of re-
thinking and reflection with regards to violence and its use. If compared to the violence
in Syria, which is perpetrated by the establishment and those in power over their people
we can see that it is also a different kind of thing. Maybe the Libya and Syria
comparison on the use of violence can help us better grasp violent episodes we find in
Scripture. If both are evil, we surely tend to agree that one is a lesser evil than the other.
The violence used to overthrow a dictator who is oppressing his people is different from
the use of violence used by a dictator to further oppress and savagely silence its own
people. Yet, Girard keeps on warning us that peace brought about by the use of violence
remains a dangerous kind of peace411. As the Arab Spring is showing us, Dictators can
be overthrown but resolution of conflict and violence does not come easy. In the Old
Testament we find a lot of the former kind of violence, the story of Judith being a lucid
example of that. It is a kind of violence which appears to be ridiculous and impossible to
achieve its mission; a widow overthrowing a whole army which terrified peoples and
nations. And yet for the follower of the living God this was possible (cf. Jdt 16, 1-25).
Definitely, the Old Testament shows us that the weak and downtrodden have God on
their side and God supports their actions. God is always on the side of the victim, the
oppressed and the persecuted. He also lifts up those who are downtrodden but with
conditions. When these are in power they are to behave differently and need to be careful
not to become oppressors themselves. If they do, God abandons them412.
410 RENÉ GIRARD, Violence and the Sacred, translated by Patrick Gregory, London 2005, 28-33. 411 ADAM ERICKSEN, The Death of Osama Bin Laden: Toward Healing (2011), in The Raven Foundation (on-line) : http://www.ravenfoundation.org/blogs/raven-views-the-news/the-death-of-osama-bin-laden-toward-healing [2 October 2011]. 412 MEV PULEO, The Struggle is One. Voices and Visions of Liberation, foreword by Robert McAfee Brown, New York 1994, 163-183.
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However, in the New Testament Jesus becomes the victim and opens up a new way. If
the Old Testament helps people reach a certain level of just societal organization, Jesus
takes that accomplishment to a completely different plane. Jesus is not only a figure of
non-violence he also offers forgiveness to those who are putting him to death and those
who loved him but abandoned him.
Jesus’ death and resurrection fully reveal the horror that envy and hatred bring about. We
read about murder, the confusion it brings about and fleeing of Jesus’ friends and
followers. Amidst all of this, Jesus remains non-violent and forgiving (cf. Mt 26, 52).
James Alison emphasizes the fact that Jesus is completely not run by that kind of
dynamic, only some woman and the beloved disciple are able to stand with him at the
Cross. Violence breaks out but Jesus’ crucifixion shows us that there is no divine quality
about it, it is all a human-evil game. Those who planned the killing of Jesus believed
they were worshiping the living God by doing so. Scripture tells us that it was not so and
in reality envy was ruling their hearts (cf. Mt 27, 18). Like Adam, Eve and Cain, they
become an image of Satan rather than that of God. Like Abel, Jesus was killed.
Scripture describes his “sprinkled blood that speaks a better word than that of Abel.”
(Heb 12, 24), because instead of vindication it “announces the inauguration of an entire
era of grace and reconciliation.”413 The murder of Stephen shows us that unfortunately it
will take time for humanity to accept the liberation that Jesus’ offers humanity. People
remain trapped in dynamics that victimize others, turning brothers and sisters into
scapegoats - believing there is something sacred and pleasing to God in such behaviour,
sadly up to this very day. However, the sacredness about this kind of behaviour has
become forever suspect414. The murder of Stephen reconfirms this for us.
James stresses another point alongside non-violence. He emphasizes that when Jesus was
given back to us, he came back in forgiveness and not in vengeance415. It is this Jesus
413 Abel, in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch, editors: T. Desmond Alexander – David W. Baker, USA 2003, 5. 414 JAMES ALISON, The Joy of Being Wrong. Original Sin Through Easter Eyes, foreword by Sebastian Moore, New York 1998, 9-63; 186-265. 415 JAMES ALISON, Knowing Jesus, foreword by Rowan Williams, London 1998, 26-27; 43-45; 94-113.
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story which carries powerful meaning and revelation and that forged and shaped history.
It still has much work to do, presently and for future generations. Unfortunately
throughout history Christians have also persecuted and victimized each other and others.
I believe that Girard’s anthropology, Alison’s theology and John of the Cross’ call for
purification can help build bridges between Christians themselves and with contemporary
post-modern, post-Christian western world. I believe these offer interesting opportunities
for Catholic tradition to further dialogue with our contemporary society.
Back to non-violence, if we truly believe that Jesus is God; that in him there are no more
truths and that he is the fullness of revelation, his demand to be like him - to be perfect
like the Father, has profound implications for his followers. These implications are
amongst others to take a non-violent path in life and become forgiving. John of the Cross
points in this direction as well. The other serious implication that is also true about God
is the need for purification of the human person in relation to the living God. The
experience of this relationship-journey is that of night and darkness which John of the
Cross describes. This is a deeply disconcerting experience for the person going through
it. However, it is through such an experience that we can become loving, non-violent,
forgiving and inclusive. We have to walk through the dark night not because God is
violent but because our own inner violence is exposed when the soul encounters the
eternal love of God - that same love that created us, which brought us into being and
holds us through the darkness. This encounter becomes a painful one till it lasts.
The idea to kill for peace and order has no place in Christian understanding. Some
situations may demand the use of force to protect those who are weak, yet the use of
violence is always suspect through Girard’s perspective. Alison’s theology shows us
how that same cross used by the ancient world to symbolize law, order and submission,
through Jesus’ death and resurrection becomes a universal symbol for liberation,
salvation, forgiveness, reconciliation, healing, life, resurrection and hope. Jesus set his
JAMES ALISON, Living in the End Times. The Last Things Re-Imagined, London 1997, 65-68; 132; 177-178; 185-189. JAMES ALISON, The Joy of Being Wrong. Original Sin Through Easter Eyes, foreword by Sebastian Moore, New York 1998, 210, 235-236.
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own criteria for humans to become true worshippers of the living God - to become non-
idolatrous, upsetting false peace and order brought about by the sacred lie. In this light
Jesus becomes for us the forgiving-human-victim who truly liberates us. It is this loving
forgiveness which becomes for humanity the foundation of a new civilization – the new
Jerusalem which is not like the foundation that Cain established for humanity through
murder416. Therefore, Alison reminds us that to be non-idolatrous is to refrain from
creating victim created circles, not to be run by violence and to forgive those who still
function in this violent way. However, John of the Cross explains how getting to this
state of being involves a terrible and painful process of purification that feels like a
journey in darkness across the night.
4.13 The Demands of Love
Whilst love emerged as a dominant theme in this study, its demands emerged as the other
equally powerful theme - what I am calling the demands of love. I am using this term to
refer to the cost that such demands of love make on the human person. This study shows
that love is the meaning of faith and life, but it makes demands. These have serious
implications on the human person trying to follow the Jesus’ way. In the Old Testament
we find these implications of love also in the powerful force of God who defends and
liberates the poor and oppressed. The demands of this love at times brings this strength
of God into direct struggle and conflict with oppressors. It is the same dynamic that Our
Lady praises in her Magnificat as mentioned earlier on. Isn’t this the same force which
resurrects Jesus Christ? And yet, God the liberator is also the God who leads us into the
desert and across the dark raven with the promise of reaching the land of milk and
honey417.
416 JAMES ALISON, Living in the End Times. The Last Things Re-Imagined, London 1997, 133-137. 417 Ex 3, 17; Ps 23, 4.
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Jesus adds a fresh dimension to this force of love which struggles with the oppressor. In
Jesus we find forgiveness for those who have killed him which becomes another demand
of his. The force of God the liberator is now embedded in Jesus’ non-violence and
forgiveness, yet none of the other demands are absent. As Jesus himself proclaims, he
came to change nothing of the Law but only to fulfill it (cf. Mt 5, 17). However, through
his passion and resurrection Jesus opens up new possibilities for healing and conversion
even to persecutors, murderers and oppressors themselves. This demand of love has
serious implications for Jesus-God himself. It is because of his loving relationship with
humanity that he became man and through this relationship he is also changed for ever.
Jesus as man has his own story, a story that changed all of humanity and its history, it
also changed Jesus himself. The marks of the crucifixion, remain in his body. We gaze
at him whom we crucified (cf. Zech 12, 10; 13, 1; Jn 19, 37; Rev 1, 7). Pope Benedict
writes “Gazing upon the Pierced One and suffering with him have now become a fount of
purification. The transforming power of Jesus’ Passion has begun”418.
It is only because Jesus is in an intimate relationship with humanity that he was touched
in this violent way. Had he kept his distance, it would have never happened. It is love
that brings us into this close and intimate proximity, which is a dangerous one. Jesus fills
this danger with hope and overcomes it through his death and resurrection.
The demand of this love is to give, sometimes even beyond one’s own means. Scripture
shows us the widow in Elijah’s story able to do this (cf. 1 Kings 17, 12-16). In his own
life Jesus points at another widow who was able to make this kind of offering (cf. Mk 12,
41-44). True worship is to respond to Jesus’ demands; ethnicity, status or religious
belonging are secondary. Jesus opens up for us the possibility to enter into an intimate
loving relationship with God through him, and yet this intimacy has serious implications.
True and profound charity becomes the point of judgment - this charity has a particular
shape and demands of its own; its full expression is found in our relations to the poor, the
weak and marginalized of society. Such charity can come about if we are attentive to
418 JOSEPH RAZTINGER, POPE BENEDICT XVI, Jesus of Nazareth, Holy Week: From the Entrance into Jerusalem to the Resurrection, USA, 2011, 220.
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God and center our own eyes on him. This is the real cult for the living God which
brings about liberty of spirit, clarity of reason, rest, tranquility, peaceful confidence in
God, quietude and rest as John of the Cross says419. The living God does not lead us into
misery yet its centre is humility. It also takes courage and constancy to remain on this
path420.
Alison describes this demand of love - this true cult, as not being run by violence in our
relations to God and others, even with those who victimize us. James Alison tells us that
divine paternity is recast in a fraternal shape which is familiar to us421. It is also a matter
of believing that God has enough abundant love for each and everyone of us. It is
knowing that the Creator is holding and sustaining the planet we live in with love. The
washing of the disciples feet at the last supper (cf. Jn 13, 4-15) embody these demands of
love which I am attempting to describe. Jesus tells us that we are blessed if we know and
do these things (cf. Jn 13, 17).
Jesus did not simply offer humanity concepts about love but lived love. He lived out the
Kingdom he came to proclaim. We are invited to follow him in this way; to become like
him who is like the Father, to live out this Kingdom in the here and now through our
flesh, soul and relationships, through friendship. The love that the mystics talk about is
available for each and every human person but it is a love that comes at a cost. Love
purifies us and leads us into deserts and across dark nights as described earlier on. It also
demands that we fulfill Jesus’ commands yet his command is a simple one; to love God
with all of our heart, soul, strength and mind and to love our neighbour as ourselves (cf.
Lk 10, 27) even if our neighbour is our own enemy. John of the Cross describes this love
as the living flame of love422. Pope Benedicts tells us “Some recent theologians are of the
419 The Ascent of Mt. Carmel, 2. 27, 6. 420 Ibid, 1. 13, 11-13. 421 JAMES ALISON, The Joy of Being Wrong. Original Sin Through Easter Eyes, foreword by Sebastian Moore, New York 1998, 115-138. 422 The Living Flame of Love, 1. 1-36.
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opinion that the fire which both burns and saves is Christ himself, the Judge and Saviour.
The encounter with him is the decisive act of judgement”423.
The True image of God is that God is Love. And the only demand that God makes is
Love. That Love is demanding but that is what constitutes true worship.
4.15 Conclusion
If one had to summarize this study one could argue that Christianity teaches us that only
gestures of love have substance and are worthy of remembrance. James Alison, Scripture
and John of the Cross highlight love as always being relational and God’s love is the life-
force that animates the whole planet. They show us that the meaning of prayer is to
detoxify ourselves from disordered attachments, appetites and violent ways of relating,
making space within ourselves for that loving inflow of God. God, who is Trinity is also
our brother and companion. Jesus is our delightful soaring and resurrected-forgiving-
victim. Jesus through his life, death and resurrection opened up for us new ways and
possibilities of relating. Pentecost un-tells, re-tells, re-reads and re-interprets our life
story and history. Alison, Scripture and John of the Cross show how the Christian
journey is a path through which we are cleaned of all forms of idol worship, be they
external or internal. Through this process we find out that the true cult is a simple one.
True worship does not flatter egos, neither that of God nor of the human person. True
worship guides us out of our prisons, transforming us into temples, open to receive God
who is communion and love. The true temple is forged not only within the individual
person but within inter-individual relationships424, between people wherever they are.
This is the true human image of the living God.
423 POPE BENEDICT XVI, Encyclical Letter Spe Salvi (30 November 2007), (on-line) : http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/encyclicals/documents/hf_ben-xvi_enc_20071130_spe-salvi_en.html, 47 [17 September 2011]. 424 JAMES ALISON, Broken Hearts and New Creations. Intimations of a Great Reversal, London 2010, 17-175; 209-279.
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In a definitive way, Jesus restores for us what was originally lost through sin, fraternal
love and the sharing of life. Jesus through his own life gives a definitive answer to Cain’s
question, “am I my brother’s keeper?” (Gen 4, 9). Jesus’ answer is a definitive and final
Yes.
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Conclusion
5.1 Overview
In Chapters One, Two and Three idolatry was explored in its various dimensions: James
Alison uncovers idolatry to be anything that leads to the exclusion or expulsion of the
other whilst believing that to do so is pleasing to God. Scripture shows us that
worshipping something or someone else apart from the living God or worshipping the
law and tradition itself can be problematic; those worshippers miss the true and living
God whilst believing they are pleasing him. John of the Cross writes about attachments
even to good things including spirituality and religious ceremonies themselves as
becoming forms of idolatry. All texts point at love as the fruit of a real relationship with
the living God and of true worship. When violence, in all of its forms is present, it is the
result of idolatry even if this is performed by a worshipper of the true and living God.
Violence, exclusions and expulsions lead us away from the true living God and his
authentic desires. Actually it is behaviour that he abhors. At times, Christianity
describes the law itself as a curse because it can impose itself over and above the human
person and can be used to murder the other (cf. Gal 3, 10-14). Jesus purifies humanity
from its own violent ways which are believed to be sacred. This study shows that there is
nothing sacred about violence. When violence is present it is good to show suspicion.
Jesus is the figure who upsets false peace and order (cf. Mt 10, 35-39), because it is
founded in victimization and the murder of another human being. Moreover it is
covered-up and presented as a divine request (cf. Jn 11, 50; 18, 14). The story of Jesus
reveals that human relationships can be a dangerous and violent thing but Jesus purifies
these relationships from violence. Through his blood he brings intimacy back to its
primordial beauty, he transforms fratricide back to fraternal love. Through the paschal
mystery Jesus re-establishes a civilization of love, as it was meant to be in Eden. Jesus
reveals to us that God is love and his demands for humanity is to love. It is through this
love that he offers us universal friendship as a gift (cf. Jn 15, 15). As he brought us into
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friendship with himself we are to offer friendship to one another, this is his love and his
demand. This loving friendship needs to be especially extended to those who are poor,
marginalized, strangers and even to our own enemy. It is the way to humanize the other
and through that our own self is humanized. However, to get to this stage, the human
person needs to go through a process of purification as Chapter Four indicates.
Texts highlight how God is beyond our imagination and massively prior to us. He brings
us into a story which is beyond our own dreams. However, God’s love is also
experienced as darkness because it also involves painful purification. This purification is
not violent punishment but rather loving correction that opens up the person for more
beauty, love, joy and wisdom. However, this same love makes its own demands on the
follower of Jesus in his or her relations to God and neighbour, especially with regards to
those who are vulnerable and outcast. The night journey does feel like a collapse of all
that is familiar but it is this process that brings about the necessary transformation that all
texts point towards and which the Carmelite tradition cultivates425.
God-human relationships are possible because of a mutual desire for each other. This
mutual desire crosses all frontiers. All texts tell us that prayer is key for the fulfillment of
this desire for love, which takes the person on a journey of transformation. Prayer is the
entry point and our companion whilst crossing the dark path. It is a journey which finds
its fulfillment in true worship, at the feet of the resurrected Jesus Christ on that glorious
dawn. Teresa of Avila says that “…in this life there could be no greater good than the
practice of prayer426”.
425 Teresa writes about friendship in her various books but she also writes about the struggle of this friendship and the implications of that upon the follower of Jesus in friendship with him. See: The book of her life 8. 3. Pope Benedict XVI on his way to Benin shared reflections about the implications and cost of Jesus’ demand for fraternal love. See: Africa’s Woes are Because Fraternity is Hard Work, says Pope. Easy to talk about Selflessness, Difficult to Live it (2011), in Zenit. The World Seen from Rome (on-line) : http://www.zenit.org/article-33857?l=english [20 November 2011]. Interview of the Holy Father Benedict XVI with the journalists during the flight to Benin. Apostolic Journey to Benin 18-20 November 2011. Papal Flight Friday, 18 November 2011, in The Holy See (on-line) : http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/speeches/2011/november/documents/hf_ben-xvi_spe_20111118_incontro-giornalisti_en.html [20 November 2011]. 426 The Book of her life, 7. 10.
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Actively loving one’s own brother and sister and sharing of life are the true cult and
worship of the living God, the rest is frivolous idolatry which according to St. Paul has
demonic undertones (cf. 1 Cor 10, 14-22). This love cannot be held either within an
ethnic group, Church, region or country either - its demands are universal. It is this
universal love that is the temple of Jesus Christ and God’s desire. In the message of
Jesus we find that the true cult makes inclusion its prerogative. The Christian way is a
simple one: God is reached through and within our relationships and not in spite of them.
Reverend Paul Woodrum states: "Of all the gifts Aelred has given the Church, the one
most uniquely his is the joyous affirmation that we move toward God in and through our
relationships with other people, not apart from or in spite of them"427. Jesus Christ
establishes a new civilization within his own body; a deep, loving, non-violent society
rooted in inclusion, relationships founded in universal fraternal love and forgiveness
made possible through trusting in God’s own providential and overabundant love.
Christian hope can only be cultivated from this place by the followers of Jesus Christ.
Texts studied were also rich in anthropological wisdom. They reveal that we are created
for each other, to share life and enjoy fraternal love. It is because of sin that relationships
became a dangerous affair. Jesus carries within his own body the marks of this danger
but his wounds are transformed into healing power, opening up possibilities for
reconciliation and life428. The paschal mystery opens up the way for fraternal love,
universal friendship429 as discussed before. Humanity is created in this particular image
of God - Trinitarian love which is present within friendships and loving relationships and
427 PAUL WOODRUM, Saint Aelred – the Patron Saint of Integrity in Sacred Pauses. Meditation and Prayers for Life’s Spiritual Highway (on-line) : http://sacredpauses.com/saint-aelred-the-patron-saint-of-integrity/ [22 November 2011]. Aelred of Rievaulx. The Way of Friendship, selected spiritual writings, edited by M. Basil Pennington, New York 2001, 55-96. 428 Crosier Spirituality focuses on the Spirituality of the Cross as life giving through forgiveness, healing and reconciliation. See: Spirituality of the Cross in Crosier Fathers and Brothers. Living Together for God Alone (on-line) : https://www.crosier.org/default.cfm?pid=1.30.2.4 [22 November 2011]. 429 Friendship features powerfully in Teresa’s writings, as the Christian way towards God and neighbour. See: Meditations on the Song of Songs, 2. 16; 3. 15; The Book of Her Life, 8. 5.
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needs to be also expressed towards one’s own enemies. This is the temple and the
meaning of life and faith430.
The Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the Church speaks of the civilisation of
love431, of God’s plan of brotherhood432 and friendship433. The compendium expands on
humans’ equal dignity434 and the social nature of human beings435. The way of love436,
justice437 and dialogue438 is elaborated upon. It is this civilization of love that is
Christianity’s good news to the world and all the texts studied here point it out.
5.2 Icon
“To come to know God—the true God—means to receive hope”439.
Throughout this study I discussed the notion of God as always beyond our grasp. I
discussed John of the Cross’ understanding of reaching God through nothingness
referring to the idea that any image of God may become problematic on our spiritual
journey. On the other hand, a number of images of God did emerge through the study of
the various texts, hence the reason why I am writing and calling this section Icon.
Definitely, Jesus is the icon for us. Pope Benedict tells us “God is the foundation of
hope: not any god, but the God who has a human face and who has loved us to the end,
each one of us and humanity in its entirety…his Kingdom is present wherever he is loved
430 In her writings Teresa reflects about the mystery of the Trinity, as three distinct persons, yet of one will, power and dominion - of one essence. See: Spiritual Testimonies, 13. 1-5; 29. 1-3; 42. 1. 431 PONTIFICAL COUNCIL FOR JUSTICE & PEACE, Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the Church, London 2004, 293. 432 Ibid, 390. 433 Ibid, 199; 208; 384; 390-392. 434 Ibid, 144-148. 435 Ibid, 149-154. 436 Ibid, 204-208. 437 Ibid, 492-493. 438 Ibid, 534-537. 439 POPE BENEDICT XVI, Encyclical Letter Spe Salvi (30 November 2007), (on-line) : http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/encyclicals/documents/hf_ben-xvi_enc_20071130_spe-salvi_en.html, 3 [17 September 2011].
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and wherever his love reaches us.”440 John of the Cross says that Jesus is our entire
locution, response, vision, revelation, word spoken and answered, manifested and
revealed441. Jesus himself is the image of the unseen Father. In the first Chapter of the
Gospel of John we find “No one has ever seen God. It is God the only Son, who is close
to the Father’s heart, who has made him known” (John 1, 18).
Scripture gives us a number of images of the living God. At times our own experiences
in life and prayer offer us a glimpse of these, as attested by the mystics. As humans we
are in need of these images because of our own limitations and weakness but also
because of our own desire for God. I want to highlight a few of these images that
emerged during this study. One of these images is Do Not Kill, also a demand found
within the ten commandments. However, I would like to present this as an image of God,
as a desire of his heart expressed in different ways and expressions. Various Scripture
stories present this image of God, which finds its full expression and fulfillment in Jesus.
Another image I want to present is Joy. Pope Benedict in Spe Salvi writes, ‘“Be of good
cheer, I have overcome the world” (Jn16:33). “Let not your hearts be troubled, neither
let them be afraid” (Jn 14:27)’442. Joy is not only a deep emotion but also the fulfillment
of desire when the human person encounters the living God - like the widow in Elijah’s
story, or the women when meeting the resurrected Jesus. On the other hand, Sheer
Silence is also another icon of this God who seduces us but who also leads us through
dark paths. The night journey that Elijah and John of the Cross experience, witness this.
Having said that, at dawn we encounter him again afresh. The Crucified Jesus-God is an
icon we are used to, but I am afraid that it is an image that lost its meaning and
significance for many, sometimes for believers themselves. Christ on the cross is the
most marvelous work surpassing all according to John of the Cross. He describes this
440 Ibid, 31. 441 The Ascent of Mt. Carmel 2. 22, 5. 442 POPE BENEDICT XVI, Encyclical Letter Spe Salvi (30 November 2007), (on-line) : http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/encyclicals/documents/hf_ben-xvi_enc_20071130_spe-salvi_en.html, 50 [17 September 2011].
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work of Jesus on the cross as one of reconciliation and union443. James Alison presents
the crucifix as an icon of liberation from violence, murder, envy, rivalry and dynamics of
victimization444. The symbol used by empires to assert their dominion through
murderous oppression becomes for Christians the symbol of life. The establishment of a
new civilization centered around the one who was poor, weak, marginalized and
oppressed yet was the Son of God. Together with this image we need to have The
Resurrection as its twin icon. The final and definitive image of Jesus that reveals who
God the Father is, where Jesus is given back to humanity in forgiveness. This is the
image of the triumph of life, love, light and hope.
Gratuitous Love is another icon I want to present. James Alison forges this icon for us in
many of his writings often describing this divine love as ever vivacious, living and
effervescent445. Love, grace and beauty are other traditional description of this divine
love often found in John of the Cross’ writings. Another very important image of God
which emerged from this study is that of God as Always On The Side Of Victims. Jesus
became ‘that’ victim himself, to show us the way out of our morbid ways of resolving
violence, believing it is the sacred way. Our Lady’s Magnificat colours this image. I
want to present Claudia, Pilate’s wife, as another facet to this image. Claudia emerges
from this study as a wise figure but also as a woman who was possibly oppressed. She
was misunderstood and not listened to during the Jesus trial. Claudia reminds us that
God is always on the side of those who are oppressed no matter who or what they are.
He also communicates with those he chooses to do so, irrespective of ethnicity or
religious belonging, like the pagan Roman in Acts 10.
Another icon which strongly emerges from this study and which James Alison and John
of the Cross forge for us is that of God as The Master of Suspicion especially when
violence is somewhat involved and even more so when law, tradition and power are used
to justify such murder. John of the Cross does not use this kind of terminology in his
443 The Ascent of Mount Carmel, 2. 7, 5-13. 444 JAMES ALISON, Knowing Jesus, forward by Rowan Williams, London 1998, 21-23. 445 JAMES ALISON, Faith Beyond Resentment: Fragments Catholic and Gay, New York 2001, 86-104.
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writings but does point in this direction as well, cautioning us about false forms of
spiritualities and religious ceremonies themselves446.
Texts studied for the purposes of this study highlighted some images of God, but they
also pointed at images of Satan. These are not only false images of God but also its
opposite. These other images are those of Death, Violence and Murder. Unfortunately in
our contemporary world we are bombarded by these images, now more easily available
and widely distributed through the social media. The short documentary Unwatchable447
gives a very clear picture of what an image of Satan looks like. It is a reality present in
many countries around the globe. Similar dynamics also present in their subtle and
hidden forms as well, all equally deadly. Sadly, these violent images of Satan are at
times spread disguised as images of God especially by religious fundamentalist groups.
It is hard for humanity to believe that God has no violence within him, that he does not
want the killing of fellow human beings and that in such killings anything of the real
sacred is never present. To let go of violent readings of God makes humanity face its
own internal violence - envious and rival desires, present within families, communities,
institutions and societies. Facing our inner corrupted and violent desires is like a journey
across the night and darkness but only through this journey can we become perfect like
the Father. It is the way that Jesus himself opened and modeled for us. After crossing
this journey, like Jesus and in Jesus we become multipliers of that new civilization that he
initiated; societies founded in inclusive fraternal love and forgiveness rather than
expulsions and murder.
446 The Ascent of Mount Carmel, 3. 35; 3. 36; 3. 37; 3. 38; 3. 39; 3. 40; 3. 41; 3. 42; 3. 43; 3. 44; 3. 45. 447 TESS MITCHELL - MARC HAWKER, Unwatchable (on-line) : http://www.unwatchable.cc/thefilm/ [3 October 2011].
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5.3 A Trinitarian Image of God
“As Feuerbach himself succinctly put it, the secret of theology had finally been shown to
be anthropology”448.
Though the texts studied did not particularly tackle the Catholic understanding of God as
Trinity I wanted to particularly reflect on this image of God as I feel that it has also
strongly emerged through this study. Reflections upon this study helped me realize that
the living God only makes sense as the living Trinity. Of course such a notion is not a
novel thought and surely no discovery. However, only through this study has this notion
became deeply meaningful for myself. Trinitarian love emerged for me as the only form
of Godly love that makes sense. It is the love that Jesus fully reveals to us through his
life and teachings. It is the Kingdom of God that Jesus came to proclaim. The Old
Testament was already pointing towards it. It is Scripture itself that offers us this
Trinitarian image of God. Three distinct persons yet One and in a harmonious
relationship with each other and their creation. The idea of relationship, how we live
these relationships and God’s presence within our relationships, reflect for me something
of this Trinitarian love of God.
God is love and God is Trinitarian; love is Trinitarian. Scripture gives us this image of
God and Jesus fully reveals it. Texts studied tell us that humanity is made in the image of
God and therefore we are created in this particular image of love. Our fullness of
existence is found in loving relationships that are dynamic. A love that needs to be
embedded within a community - be it the family, intimate friendships, marriage or other
forms of groups. We are created for each other - for relationships and this is the image of
God. We are bound by love in mysterious ways beyond our comprehension. We are
called to further cultivate love between ourselves with all of its demands.
448 PATRICK GARDINER, Kierkegaard. A Very Short Introduction, New York 2002, 34.
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5.4 The Meaning of Life, the Meaning of Faith
One central theme that powerfully emerged in this study is fraternal love. Worship
offered to the living God is meant to lead us towards growth in love towards our brothers
and sisters; to grow in our ability to show care, kindness, compassion and tender love.
Anything else is false worship. Moving away from the living God actually leads one
brother to murdering the other. At times, humans kill each other believing they are
serving God by doing so (cf. Jn 16, 2-4). This is a result of idolatry as all texts show.
Real Christian love is inclusive and forgiving. Fraternal love is the Kiss of Peace449. The
Roman Catholic Church in its tradition presents this love as the highest form of love -
agape450. Though agape may appear unattractive since its meaning became to be only
understood in philosophical terms rather than in its Christian fullness of its
understanding, Jesus’ agape is fully embodied, lived in and through relationships with
others. It is an agape that is not afraid of desire, neither is it in rivalry with eros, but
befriends it451.
As texts studied point out, it is Jesus himself who gives us this fraternal love and models
it for us (cf. Mt 28, 20). Our relationships with God and neighbour are to be filled with
intimacy and tenderness; through these dynamics we can achieve a harmonious
relationship with the self. God is the goal of every human being, because in this
relationship we find our liberation and fulfillment of desire; to be able to love others as
we desire to love them, yet often find ourselves limited to do so. It is this kind of love
that expresses John’s ‘todo’452, that he so fondly mentions. Meaning, fullness and
satisfaction are to be found in Jesus’ love; in his presence and loving awareness which we
are to live-out through our relationships with our own brothers and sisters, strangers and
449 Teresa of Avila elaborates upon the spirituality of friendship, also with Jesus Christ and describes this as the Kiss of Peace. See: Meditations on the Song of Songs, 1. 10; 3, 15. 450 POPE BENEDICT XVI, Encyclical Letter Deus Caritas Est (God is Love), (25 December 2005), India 2006, 3-8. 451 Ibid, 9-18. 452 John of the Cross says, “This is how we recognize persons who truly love God: if they are content with nothing less than God.” See: The Spiritual Canticle, Stanza 1, 14.
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enemies. It is this love that gives meaning to our existence. It is this love that the early
Church tried to embody after Jesus’ resurrection.
James Alison, Scripture and John of the Cross show us that prayer is key to achieve this
state of love. We are to become living temples, cultivating interior recollection of the
soul. The narrow gate and dark night journey lead us towards this freedom for love.
Equanimity is given to us through this loving awareness. Once the dark night is over and
the person enters through the narrow gate, the soul tastes eternal freedom. Then, the
person’s job is to cultivate Christian hope in this world, a world that seems to be going
through its own dark night.
When this meaning of life is found, the human person may realize that he or she hated
others or was hated by others without cause. As humans we are dependent upon each
other - we are created in this way. Jesus knows and respects this human condition. He
shows humanity the way - to love one another as he loved us (cf. Jn 13, 34-35; 15, 9-17).
Therefore, the meaning of life is this love. It is this friendship which helps us become
less inclined to judge and divided amongst ourselves. It empowers us to try and re-build
our lives and our societies anew based on fraternal love, trusting in the overabundant love
which our Creator has for all of his creation. As James Alison points out, Jesus sets us
free from an all-against-one kind of peace. Through his death and resurrection he
recovers for us this lost fraternity, that primordial peace of the Creator453. Through Jesus
we can become children of light (cf. Jn 12, 36).
453 JAMES ALISON, The Joy of Being Wrong. Original Sin Through Easter Eyes, foreword by Sebastian Moore, New York 1998, 237-265.
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5.5 Chastity
During this dissertation non-violence, forgiveness and inclusion were often discussed and
presented as the foundations of Jesus’ new civilization – a civilization where life is
shared and the possibilities for fraternal love are created and experienced. It is a society
of inclusion where there are no murders, exclusions, victimizations or scapegoat
mechanisms. There is no more darkness either (cf. Rev 21, 1-22; 22, 1-21). The human
person comes first and anything else, including spirituality and religion are present to
serve the well-being of the human family, to help the human family grow in love towards
their Creator and one another. I personally want to link this Christian understanding of
the non-violent and forgiving approach to the understanding of chastity. If we re-read
chastity in light of this non-violent way that Jesus lives and proposes, to be like the
Father, we might discover fresh dimensions to its value. Jesus’ non-violence is not only
on the level of actions but also present within all of his relations. He expresses this non-
violence in each and every encounter with the other. He is non-violent emotionally,
psychologically, intellectually and spiritually. Though he also expresses anger at times
especially with those who persecute and oppress others, especially if this is done in the
name of God. The Jewish word anawim454 expresses this dimension of chastity which I
am attempting to describe. Reverence is another word that can be used to describe this
particular way of relating to one another.
The Carmelite tradition gives much value to chastity. In the Liturgy of the Hours, we
find numerous references to chastity and virginity as a condition for one’s own ability to
climb the mountain. Virginity is linked to clean hands and a pure heart455. These
references seem to imply that one’s own hands and heart are not to be stained with the
blood of violence and murder. In Carmel, virginity is associated with glory and beauty,
with Mary’s Immaculate Conception. It is also associated with Mary being untarnished 454 The biblical word Anawim refers to the poor, to those who cannot rely on their own strength but rely in utter confidence in God, the meek, the lowly, the sick, the downtrodden, the widows and the orphans. See: RAYMOND E. BROWN, S. S., The Birth of the Messiah. A Commentary on the Infancy Narratives in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke, New Updated Edition, New York 1999, 350-355. 455 CHRISTOPHER O’DONNELL, O.CARM, A Loving Presence: Mary and Carmel. A Study of the Marian Heritage of the Order, Melbourne Australia 2000, 48-50.
166
and sinless. In Carmel, virginity means openness to God, offering him oneself totally and
not holding anything back456. For instance, in the Institution of the First Monks we find
that Carmelites are to offer God a holy and pure heart, free from all stain of sin.457
It is my personal opinion that the sex element in our understanding of virginity and
chastity has been overemphasized, even though sex is part of it as explained in previous
chapters. What I want to propose here is that the Carmelites’ understanding of chastity
may also enrich Alison’s theological notions and the dialogue with Scripture and John of
the Cross’ in this study. This study highlights the fact that the Christian way is to arrive
to that place where the human person, through the experiences of the dark-night-journey
is free to relate to God, the other and self through non-violence, forgiveness, inclusion
and reverence. This way has serious implications for all of our relationships, including
those which are not sexual. Such an understanding of chastity is a much broader
understanding of it than the simple understanding of having or not having sex before and
after marriage or as a religious or single person.
The Carmelites understanding of virginity as being open to God can be a beautiful
backdrop to this proposal of understanding chastity - as a way of life that does not violate
the other: emotionally, psychologically, intellectually, spiritually and of course also
sexually. It also implies forgiving those who do, whilst calling them to conversion at the
same time. It seems to me that this is the chastity that the Gospel calls us to live in our
Christian lives. It is this chastity that this study points at.
Jesus has re-opened for humanity this chaste way of fraternal love. Mary embodies this
loving, non-violent, inclusive and forgiving civilization. With Jesus she becomes like
him – a foundation of it. Chastity becomes a way of relating to God, others and self free
from rivalry, envious desire and hidden, subtly violent sentiments. Wilfred McGreal says
that celibacy in fact is more about seeking the Kingdom as a primary value rather than
456 Ibid. 457 PETER SLATTERY, The Springs of Carmel. An Introduction to Carmelite Spirituality, New York 1991 42. PAUL CHANDLER, O.CARM, Carmelite Spirituality. The Book of the First Monks (ca. 1370), Notes, 2009.
167
denying relationships458. It is the way of harmony between the Creator and all of his
creation.
5.6 A Way Forward
I personally believe that tradition and contemporary theologies and spiritualities need not
clash. Dialogue enriches both. Carmelite spirituality and the whole Christian tradition
with its ancient Jewish roots need not be afraid of today’s post-modern and post-Christian
worlds. One may find that there are good and beautiful things on both sides, but both
need each other to cross-fertilize and enrich one another. The way forward is towards a
future that respects the great developments of human civilization and culture. One needs
to acknowledge that many of these achievements are the offspring of those same ancient
traditions themselves. On the other hand human achievements are always limited and
risk error. Today’s post-modern world may also need to learn to respect and appreciate
traditions; appreciating that there is much beauty, goodness and wisdom there too.
Respectful dialogue is one way of making fraternal love and sharing of life possible. It is
through this kind of friendship that further growth can happen which can make this planet
a less violent place and bring about much effervescent hope that our society requires.
At times Christians themselves are so divided amongst one another, forgetting that it is
the same resurrected-victim given back to us in forgiveness that is our centre and whose
message is a simple one, ‘“You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and
with all your soul, and with all your mind.” This is the greatest and first commandment.
And a second is like it: “You shall love your neighbour as yourself.” On these two
commandments hang all the law and the prophets’ (Mt 22, 37-40). At other times
Christians completely forget other Christians entirely, and the above principle seems not
to hold the same weight with regards to some other Christians, for instance those living in
Iraq or Sudan and in many other countries, some of them knocking at our doors for help
and asylum. Of course this statement does not exclude extending this same friendship 458 WILFRID MC GREAL O.CARM, At the Fountain of Elijah. The CarmeliteTradition, New York 1999, 42.
168
and fraternal love towards those of other faiths and religions or of no religious affiliation
at all, also knocking at our doors for help.
5.7 Final Comments
Working on this dissertation turned out to be very laborious work. Whilst studying and
writing this dissertation my own mother passed away. The notions and experiences of
the dark night and Jesus’ resurrection took a different meaning for me because of this
experience and the whole bereavement process. What was most striking during this
process was the actual experience of destroying idols which became a very personal and
experiential one for me. I had to confront myself, my own ideas, beliefs, thoughts,
understandings, experiences and images with those which the various texts presented or
challenged. Many of these images and experiences had to go through a process of
shedding whilst others became clarified through contact with the various texts studied.
Moreover, thanks to the various conversations I had about this study I came to realize that
the process to write this work might be described as parallel to the process an
iconographer goes through to forge an icon – laborious internal and external work to try
and seek and find a true image. Thanks to this study I personally feel that through this
process I may have found some of those images, some of those fine pearls that Jesus talks
about (cf. Mt 13, 45) whilst digging for that hidden treasure (cf. Mt 13, 44). Working on
this study helped me appreciate one of the gifts that John of the Cross mentions459 and
which I want to conclude this study with, the gift of Wisdom. All texts studied
uncovered it as one of our best friends and companion and her name is Sophia.
459 The Dark Night, 1. 14, 4; 2. 5, 2.
169
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