View
0
Download
0
Category
Preview:
Citation preview
23Nonprofit Management & Leadership, vol. 25, no. 1, Fall 2014 © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.Published online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/nml.21109
Journal sponsored by the Jack, Joseph and Morton Mandel School of Applied Social Sciences, Case Western Reserve University.
Correspondence to: Stuart C. Mendel, Cleveland State University, Maxine Goodman Levin College of Urban Aff airs, 2121 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44115. E-mail: S.mendel@csuohio.edu
Doing Good, Public Good, and Public Value
WHY THE DIFFERENCES MATTER
Stuart C. Mendel,1 Jeff rey L. Brudney2
1Cleveland State University, 2University of North Carolina Wilmington
In this article, using multiple illustrative case examples, we demonstrate that philanthropic institutions are in the business of creating public value. In framing the work of philan-thropy more broadly to include the process of public value creation, philanthropic institu-tions and leaders are challenged to be more strategic not only in their mission-fulfillment grant-making with nonprofit organizations but also in the way they stimulate and encour-age collaboration, create the “third space” necessary to incubate ideas to transform society, and leverage resources to increase the return on their investments toward system-wide change. The implications for philanthropic actors and institutions suggest that the strategic contributions they make toward creation of public value are those that go beyond transac-tional performance measures, such as number of dollars spent or clients receiving services, to include ways that their investments are amplified by meaningful partnerships with nonprofit and other organizations, changed behaviors of institutions and individuals, and transformative public policies.
Keywords: collaboration, partnership, philanthropy, foundations, public good, doing good, public value, Cleveland, Ohio, case examples
ASK ANY INDIVIDUAL involved in private philanthropy or leading a philanthropic institu-tion, and he or she would likely agree that their organizations are engaged in eff ecting change in society (Anheier and Hammack 2010; Payton and Moody 2008; Whitman 2008, 2009). Most see their work as “doing good” or providing for the “public good” (Bremner 1980; Smith 2005). Most would also agree that in serving to fulfi ll their missions, among their highest aspirations are for the philanthropic investments they make to resonate throughout society well beyond a dollar-for-dollar return (Orosz 2007; Van Til 2008). But what they are really doing is creating “public value.”
Mark Moore fi rst coined the term public value as a frame to guide the work of politically elected or appointed offi cials in executive branch agencies, along with the senior civil servants who aid them, in producing outcomes for the public good (1995, 1–3). Moore and other scholars of government argued that public value arises from the actions of these same public
24 MENDEL, BRUDNEY
Nonprofi t Management & Leadership DOI: 10.1002/nml
management authorities that contribute to the common good of a community and have ele-ments of altruism; are sustainable environmentally and fi nancially; and motivate the public to perceive society’s public institutions as stable, dignifi ed, and trusted (Alford and Hughes 2007; Jorgensen and Bozeman 2007, 361–62; Stoker 2006).
In this article we suggest that creating public value is a much broader concept that can be stimulated by the direct and indirect actions of private philanthropic institutions in policy-making, grant and contract work with nonprofi t organizations, and the development of pub-lic–private partnership. We also suggest that philanthropic actors and nonprofi t organization leaders and managers do not normally account for public value creation and outcomes in their grant making and program and project evaluation work, and that simply reporting on clients served and dollars spent may satisfy a donor’s intent to “do good” but are insuffi cient measures for advancing the public good or for generating the transformational change to which many philanthropic institutions aspire. In making these assertions regarding philan-thropic institutions, we apply a frame for decision making by private grant makers that has not been addressed by Moore or others in the public management literature nor examined in the literature of the nonprofi t sector.
From the standpoint of the charitable and good works traditions of philanthropy, public value as an outcome would reside less in the domain of government and more in the prov-ince of individuals exercising their moral and ethical judgments and sense of responsibility (Frumkin 2002, 96 and 104–14; Hammack 1989; Salamon 2002). From this perspective, public value is realized when individuals trust public policymakers and public institutions, have faith in the system of economy and justice, and enjoy (conceivably) a level playing fi eld to achieve a measure of economic security (Bozeman 2007; Hartz 1955; Mendel 2003; O’Connell 1983). Th e institutions of philanthropy also generate and nurture public value in specifi c ways through their directed giving or mutual benefi t programs and in general through their standing as institutions that perform checks and balances on the power of the public and private sectors (Payton and Moody 2008).
Appreciating the public–private collaboration origins of public value is particularly important for philanthropic leaders who strive for the best ideas and strategies for implementing them (Hammack and Heydemann 2009, 7). Developing a framework for philanthropic leaders, nonprofi t organizations, and public managers to understand the essential but seldom rec-ognized role that philanthropic institutions play in creating public value will serve several important purposes: (1) inform giving and grant making whose end results are public value outcomes; (2) off er guidance for philanthropy, civic and business leaders, nonprofi t organiza-tions, and governments regarding the development of successful grant-funded endeavors such as public–private partnerships that provide an observable mechanism for public value crea-tion; (3) inform public managers on the subtle ways that public policy can stimulate private, philanthropic investment leading to the creation of public value; and (4) generate for philan-thropic and nonprofi t managers a broader framework to consider and measure the impact of their work beyond immediate transactional measures.
Based on our examination of multiple public–private partnership case examples and the public value literature, including treatments by Moore (1995, 2000); Barry Bozeman (2002, 2007), John H. Benington (2011), and others, this article draws attention to the role philanthropy fulfills in public value creation. We argue that philanthropic-minded civic leaders as well as leaders of organized philanthropic institutions can create public value through their own stand-alone initiatives but also in and through partnerships with the
DOING GOOD, PUBLIC GOOD, AND PUBLIC VALUE 25
Nonprofi t Management & Leadership DOI: 10.1002/nml
public sector ( Fleischman 2007, 19–25; Frumkin 1999, 2002). Th rough this frame of under-standing, philanthropy plays an essential, catalytic but little recognized role in generating public value that has yet to be addressed in the public sector–centric literature dominant in this fi eld. To elaborate and support our arguments, we present an in-depth analysis of the early stage development of multiple public–private partnerships (PPPs) in Cleveland, Ohio. Public–private partnerships are distinctive relationships in which public, private, and phil-anthropic actors come together to generate readily observable outcomes through large-scale collaborative eff orts (Mendel and Brudney 2012a). PPPs off er a window through which we view how philanthropic leaders and their institutions were crucial in producing public value outcomes.
Philanthropy and the Creation of Public ValuePhilanthropic leaders contribute to the creation of public value in at least three important ways: fi rst, through mission fulfi llment and the resultant impact of philanthropic organiza-tions in conjunction with the public and private sectors in society (Bryson 2011; Herman and Renz 1999; Prewitt 2009; Rojas 2000; Salamon, 2002); second, by serving as catalysts through philanthropic institutional involvement in public policy and social change; and third, as an outcome of the stewardship role philanthropic actors perform as they stimulate and provide the institutional space and constructive tension in which public–private part-nerships—a special class of relationships that philanthropic and other nonprofi t organiza-tions form with government, businesses, and other nonprofi ts (Mendel and Brudney 2012b; Squires 1989; Swanstrom 1985; Wettenhall 2003)—can incubate and thrive (Drucker 1990; Powell and Steinberg 2002; Stone and Ostrower 2007; Van Til 2000). We briefl y discuss these aspects following (for a fuller discussion see Mendel and Brudney 2012a).
Mission Fulfi llmentIn the context of nonprofit organizations, philanthropic grant makers, and civic leaders, public value arises as an outcome of the intermediary and facilitating processes that private nonprofi t organizations employ as they strive to achieve their organizational goals (Mendel 2003): public value results as mission-based organizations, such as private grant-making institutions and nonprofi ts, pursue and realize the attainment of their missions. In work-ing toward mission fulfi llment, philanthropic leaders and institutions form and strengthen social networks, sustain social capital, build community, and nurture the bonds of trust that together with the actions of government and business make up the fabric of civil society (Boris 1999; Bozeman 2007; Frumkin 1999; Graddy and Morgan 2006; Mendel 2010, Sala-mon 1995, 200). In many respects, creating public value is a primary raison d’être for philan-thropy in the United States (Smith 2005).
Third SpacePhilanthropic institutions may also generate public value by enabling public–private col-laboration processes and contributing to the development of policy. Activities in this sphere include marshaling and coordinating nonprofi t organizations to accomplish their aims (Boris 1999; Frumkin 1999; Prewitt 2009; Scalet and Schmidtz 2002), using authority and power to infl uence the public agenda (Frumkin 1999; Hammack 1999), and tracing their work as
26 MENDEL, BRUDNEY
Nonprofi t Management & Leadership DOI: 10.1002/nml
contributing to the public good (Bremner 1980; Powell and Clemens 1998; Smith 2005; Whitman 2008). Th is process is readily observable as large-scale civic undertakings arise and are often cast as public–private partnerships.
In public–private partnerships, philanthropic leaders often provide the framing rationale, counsel, and funding for new initiatives, thus creating a nonprofi t-driven “third space” for meetings and administration of collaborative public–private partnership arrange-ments (Mendel and Brudney 2012a; Van Til 2000). Th rough their funding and support of nonprofi t organizations, philanthropic institutions can oversee the work of public– private partnerships in a manner that public bureaucracies cannot (Berry 2005; Graddy and Morgan 2006; Lecy and Van Slyke 2012). In this way, philanthropic actors enable govern-ment, nonprofi t, and businesses leaders to engage more freely in thinking, planning, and implementing collaborative endeavors, particularly during the delicate “incubation” period when ideas and approaches are formulated outside the public view (Benjamin 2010; Roelofs 2007).
StewardshipIn the early stages of stewardship, philanthropic leaders take responsibility for the birth, development, vetting, and experimentation of policy in ways that advance public value and the public good (Mendel and Brudney 2012b; Orosz 2007). For example, philanthropic institutions contribute to the conditions and attainment of public value through their relationships with the public sector (Berry 2005; Roelofs 2007). In accepting that private philanthropic institutions are a class of nonprofi t organizations, scholars have noted that they operate independently as supplements to government, as complements to government in partnership relationships, and in adversarial relationships of mutual accountability with government (Young 2000). As a result of their involvement in relationships with govern-ment, philanthropic organizations are likely to bring about unanticipated public values and benefi ts, such as positive feelings of participants, improvements in the environment for col-laboration, and redirected public dollars through advocacy (Benington 2011; Jorgensen and Bozeman 2007; Mendel 2010; Stoker 2006).
In framing the work of philanthropy to consider their accomplishments by way of mission-fulfi llment grant making with nonprofi t organizations, the deliberate way they construct the third space necessary to incubate ideas to transform society and leverage resources, and by stewarding and nurturing collaborative procession, philanthropic decision makers can include public value creation as a desired outcome of their work. Th e implications for philan-thropic actors and institutions are that the strategic contributions they make toward creation of public value are those that go beyond simple claims that they are “doing good.” Th e crea-tion of public value is a larger-scale and more visionary accomplishment than transactional performance measures, such as number of dollars spent or clients receiving services, which most grant-making institutions use to demonstrate their contributions toward social change, transformation, and the “public good.”
Public Value, Public Good, and Doing GoodSince the appearance of the term “public value” (Moore 1995) and its later refi nement as “public values” (Bozeman 2002, 2007), scholars of public administration and related fi elds have considered the concept primarily from the perspective of the public sector and its
DOING GOOD, PUBLIC GOOD, AND PUBLIC VALUE 27
Nonprofi t Management & Leadership DOI: 10.1002/nml
practitioners (Alford and Hughes 2007; Benington 2011; O’Flynn 2007; Williams and Shearer 2011). From this perspective, public value is advanced when government contrib-utes tangibly to society by producing infrastructure and services that benefi t citizens, and intangibly when it acts beyond its traditional role as policymaker, taxing authority, arbiter, and the like to create desirable outcomes for the community (Bozeman 2007; Moore 1995; Stoker 2006). Public value may also align with the sensibilities of public administrators and managers through their aspirations, vision, and most important, their strategies to manage relationships with for-profi t and nonprofi t service providers to serve the public during unset-tled times (Moore 2000). An extensive literature review on the topic by the Warwick Busi-ness School’s Institute of Governance and Public Management (Williams and Shearer 2010, 2011) confi rms these observations.
Although not known specifi cally by that name, the concept of public value will be familiar to those engaged in philanthropy. From the standpoint of the charitable and good works traditions of philanthropy, public value lies less in the domain of government and more in the province of individuals exercising their moral and ethical judgments and sense of responsibility (Frumkin 2002, 96 and 104–14; Hammack 1989; Salamon 2002). The private origins of these concepts are well known to historians, who have traced “pub-lic good” as “doing good” to the writings of John Winthrop, Cotton Mather, Benjamin Franklin, and others in the seventeenth- and early eighteenth-century American colonial period (Bremner 1988, 217; Hammack 1998). From these origins, “public good” and “doing good” underpin the effi cacy of “charity” and the voluntary allocation of funds to people and for purposes that otherwise would not have them (Bremner 1988; Fleishman 1999; Kass 2008; Salamon and Anheier 1996; van Tassel and Grabowski 1996, 785–90; Whitman 2009).
Th e intellectual thread casting the purpose of philanthropy in America as a driver of social change promoting the welfare, happiness, and culture of its citizens still applies to philan-thropy in the twenty-fi rst century (Bremner 1988, 3; Fleishman 2007, xiv; Smith 2005). Public value is realized when individuals trust public policymakers and public institutions, have faith in the system of economy and justice, and enjoy (conceivably) a level playing fi eld to achieve a measure of economic security (O’Connell 1983; Hartz 1955; Mendel 2003). The institutions of philanthropy also generate and nurture public value in specific ways through their directed giving or mutual benefi t programs and in general through their stand-ing as institutions that perform checks-and-balances on the power of the public and private sectors (Payton and Moody 2008).
From the perspective of philanthropic actors and their organizations, public good and doing good arise through the collaboration of public and private civic leaders, business executives, and philanthropic institutions in endeavors that inform public policy, focus and leverage public resources, and resonate throughout the community (Baynes 2002, 124–27; Roelofs 2007). Much of the well-known scholarship on private power in cities documents the role civic leaders and other private interests play in policy development and the allocation of pub-lic resources by taking action through philanthropic institutions (Bremner 1996; Dahl 1989; Domhoff 2005; Judd and Swanstrom 2003). Scholars note that organized philanthropic institutions realize their missions by quietly stimulating and leading partnerships among public, private, and particularly nonprofi t actors (Miller 2002; Powell and Steinberg 2002; Prewitt 2006; Rich 2004; Scalet and Schmidtz 2002, 32–33). Frequently these actions occur and are most readily visible in public–private partnerships.
28 MENDEL, BRUDNEY
Nonprofi t Management & Leadership DOI: 10.1002/nml
In addition, “public good” is a concept that some scholars accept as measurable through market performance and the establishment of a setting that facilitates prosperity (Frumkin 2002, 65–68; Benington and Moore 2011; Weisbrod 1986, 21–44). Generally speaking, public good arises when the creation of a commodity may be due to the outcomes of public policy or private actions that create actual or potential benefi ts shared by everyone (Bozeman 2007; Weisbrod 1986). But public good also arises within the moralistic, mission- or values-driven work of philanthropy and is expressed through the desired outcomes of philanthropic or other private actors for initiatives they foresee will amplify their investment in a particular project, partnership, or other endeavor (Scalet and Schmidtz 2002, 32–34). Table 1 elabo-rates the terms public value, public good, and doing good. Th e defi nitions were crafted for pur-poses of clarity and analysis of the multiple public–private partnerships cases that follow.
Public–Private Partnership Case ExamplesTh e following case examples involving philanthropic individuals and institutions demon-strate how the role of philanthropy in the early stages of public–private partnerships (PPPs) contributes to the attainment of public value. Th e PPP cases provide insight and examples of private leaders and affi liated philanthropy working toward mission attainment, involvement in public–private partnership, and creating a third space. Th e notion of a third space refers to a sanctuary of time and place for public and private sector actors to participate in innovative work for the public good outside of their formal institutions, sustained by philanthropic mis-sion, expertise, and fi nancial resources.
Our use of PPPs helps us to identify one means by which public value is created by phil-anthropic actors. Although we have no way to evaluate the representativeness of these case examples, they allow scrutiny into the contributions philanthropic actors can and do make to the relationships among public, private, and nonprofi t organizations in creating public value. Our focus on PPPs should not preclude consideration that public value is created elsewhere by nonprofi t organizations (Mendel and Brudney 2012a). For example, a nonprofi t social service organization that works solo in meeting a need in the local community may also cre-ate public value alone. Or a community foundation that collaborates with a handful of local nonprofi ts in a small community may also create public value. Space limitations preclude a detailed examination of these possibilities here.
Th e fi ve PPP case examples and the one trailing non–public value creation PPP case example described at the closing pages of this article illustrate the potential for creation of public value through philanthropic institutions. Table 2 briefl y summarizes the fi ve affi rmative public value creation and one negative public value creation case examples, including mission fulfi ll-ment of the endeavor, the manner in which philanthropic actors fostered or served as stew-ards of a third space, and examples of public value created.
Th e fi rst case example, Playhouse Square Foundation (PSF), arose in 1973 after the quiet work of forming a public–private partnership began in 1970. Th e original players included the Cleveland Foundation, the City of Cleveland, and the government of Cuyahoga County. In collaboration with a local preservation activist, the Cleveland Foundation’s professional leadership and its civic-minded, mission-guided board of directors nurtured the initiative to redevelop privately owned, highly visible entertainment district theater assets headed for the wrecking ball. With the help of the Cleveland Foundation staff skilled at drawing together leaders from City Hall, county government, and the private sector, the foundation
DOING GOOD, PUBLIC GOOD, AND PUBLIC VALUE 29
Nonprofi t Management & Leadership DOI: 10.1002/nml
Tab
le 1
. Pu
blic
Val
ue, P
ublic
Goo
d, a
nd D
oing
Goo
d
Term
sD
efin
ition
Des
crip
tion
Out
com
e Ex
amp
les
Publ
ic
valu
eTh
e ho
listic
, ful
l, po
sitiv
e, lo
ng-te
rm c
onse
-qu
ence
of d
oing
goo
d fo
r a la
rger
com
mun
ity.
Thes
e co
nseq
uenc
es m
ay b
e ex
pect
ed o
r un
inte
nded
, kno
wn
or u
nkno
wn,
and
har
d to
m
easu
re. P
ublic
val
ue c
an o
ccur
as a
co
nseq
uenc
e of
the
crea
tion
of a
third
spac
e th
at a
llow
s peo
ple
and
orga
niza
tions
to
faci
litat
e do
ing
good
in n
ew w
ays (
see
our c
ase
exam
ples
).
Achi
eved
thro
ugh
the
actio
n of
the
fede
ral g
over
nmen
t in
the
U.S.
Con
stitu
tion
that
ben
efits
and
pro
tect
s all
citiz
ens f
or th
eir i
ndiv
idua
l pur
suits
, end
eavo
rs, a
nd
inte
rest
s. G
over
nmen
t con
tribu
tes t
angi
bly
to so
ciet
y by
pro
duci
ng in
frast
ruc-
ture
and
serv
ices
that
ben
efit
citiz
ens,
and
inta
ngib
ly w
hen
it ac
ts b
eyon
d its
tra
ditio
nal r
oles
as p
olic
ymak
er, t
axin
g au
thor
ity, a
rbite
r, an
d th
e lik
e to
cre
ate
the
best
pos
sible
out
com
es. M
ay a
lso a
lign
with
the
sens
ibili
ties o
f phi
lant
hrop
ic
inst
itutio
ns a
nd p
rivat
e le
ader
s thr
ough
thei
r asp
iratio
ns, v
ision
, and
mos
t im
porta
nt, t
heir
stra
tegi
es to
man
age
rela
tions
hips
with
for-p
rofit
and
non
prof
it se
rvic
e pr
ovid
ers t
o so
lve
soci
al p
robl
ems o
r cre
ate
the
cond
ition
s for
soci
al
chan
ge.
Publ
ic se
ctor
con
tract
s with
priv
ate
busin
ess a
nd n
onpr
ofit
vend
ors r
equi
ring
beha
vior
s suc
h as
par
ticip
atio
n of
pr
otec
ted
popu
latio
ns a
nd p
artn
ersh
ip
colla
bora
tions
; com
mun
ity p
ride;
impr
oved
en
viro
nmen
t; be
tter b
usin
ess c
limat
e; n
ew
rela
tions
hips
bet
wee
n in
divi
dual
s and
thei
r in
stitu
tions
; pub
lic sa
fety
; and
pub
lic
perc
eptio
ns a
nd a
ttitu
des.
Publ
ic
good
The
pred
eter
min
ed, i
mm
edia
te, m
easu
rabl
e,
shor
t-ter
m, p
ositi
ve o
utco
me
or c
onse
quen
ce
of d
oing
goo
d. It
is m
issio
n dr
iven
and
dire
cted
at
a p
rede
term
ined
targ
et g
roup
of c
lient
s and
/or
com
mun
ity.
Due
to th
e ou
tcom
es o
f pub
lic p
olic
y or
priv
ate
actio
ns th
at c
reat
e be
nefit
s or
pote
ntia
l ben
efits
shar
ed b
y ev
eryo
ne. A
lso a
rises
with
in th
e m
oral
istic
, miss
ion/
valu
es-d
riven
wor
k of
phi
lant
hrop
y, an
d is
expr
esse
d th
roug
h th
e de
sired
ou
tcom
es o
f phi
lant
hrop
ic o
r oth
er p
rivat
e ac
tors
for i
nitia
tives
they
fore
see
will
am
plify
thei
r inv
estm
ent i
n a
parti
cula
r pro
ject
, par
tner
ship
, or o
ther
end
eavo
r. M
easu
rabl
e th
roug
h m
arke
t per
form
ance
and
the
esta
blish
men
t of a
setti
ng
that
faci
litat
es p
rosp
erity
and
aris
es w
here
the
crea
tion
of a
com
mod
ity m
ay b
e.
Fres
h w
ater
, cle
an a
ir, st
rong
eco
nom
y, in
tern
atio
nal t
rade
, int
erst
ate
high
way
s, br
idge
s, th
e el
ectri
cal g
rid, t
he W
orld
Wid
e W
eb, s
ocia
l med
ia, c
ivil
right
s, th
e w
ar o
n po
verty
, cha
ritab
le g
ivin
g, a
hea
lthy
civi
l so
ciet
y.
Doi
ng
good
An a
ctiv
ity o
r pro
cess
of i
ndiv
idua
ls, o
rgan
iza-
tions
, and
/or g
over
nmen
t. It
is an
altr
uist
ic,
char
itabl
e, m
issio
n dr
iven
act
ivity
aim
ed a
t im
prov
ing
the
lives
of o
ther
s.
Bein
g al
truist
ic is
ofte
n se
en a
s “go
od.”
Indi
vidu
als w
ho w
ant t
o m
ake
a di
ffere
nce
clai
m th
ey a
re d
oing
goo
d. It
is a
n as
pect
of p
hila
nthr
opy
that
sc
hola
rs o
f civ
il so
ciet
y an
d ph
ilant
hrop
ic p
ract
ition
ers a
ttrib
ute
to th
e ch
arita
ble,
mor
alist
ic u
nder
pinn
ings
of m
issio
n-ba
sed
and
idea
lly, e
ffect
ive,
ph
ilant
hrop
y. D
oing
goo
d dr
ives
a p
roce
ss th
at p
hila
nthr
opic
-min
ded
indi
vidu
als
poin
t to
as a
mea
ns fo
r cre
atin
g pu
blic
val
ue to
ben
efit
the
citiz
enry
.
Cor
pora
tions
and
phi
lant
hrop
ic in
stitu
tions
an
d in
divi
dual
s tha
t per
form
civ
ic
lead
ersh
ip, e
ngag
e in
pub
lic–p
rivat
e pa
rtner
ship
s, cr
eate
a th
ird sp
ace,
pa
rtici
patio
n in
phi
lant
hrop
y. Ac
tions
in
clud
e vo
lunt
eerin
g, p
erfo
rmin
g ph
ilant
hrop
y an
d ch
arity
, and
don
atin
g tim
e, g
oods
, and
oth
er re
sour
ces.
30 MENDEL, BRUDNEY
Nonprofi t Management & Leadership DOI: 10.1002/nml
Tab
le 2
. M
issi
on F
ulfil
lmen
t, a
Thi
rd S
pac
e an
d S
tew
ard
ship
Lea
din
g t
o th
e C
reat
ion
of P
ublic
Val
ue
Pub
lic–P
rivat
e Pa
rt-
ners
hip
Nam
e/Pr
imar
y Ph
ilant
hrop
ic C
atal
yst
Inst
itutio
nM
issi
on
Fulfi
llmen
t “T
hird
Sp
ace”
Ste
war
dsh
ip R
ole
Pub
lic V
alue
Cre
ated
Play
hous
e Sq
uare
, Inc
./C
leve
land
Fou
ndat
ion
Enha
nce
the
lives
of a
ll gr
eate
r Cle
vela
nd
resid
ents
.
Incu
bato
r for
disc
ussio
n an
d th
e in
itiat
ive.
Con
vene
d pu
blic
and
pr
ivat
e pa
rtici
pant
s. Pr
ovid
ed fu
ndin
g to
initi
ate
the
proj
ect.
Fund
ed th
e no
npro
fit in
term
edia
ry o
rgan
izatio
n to
car
ry o
ut th
e lo
ng-te
rm w
ork
of th
e in
itiat
ive.
Revi
taliz
ed n
onpr
oduc
tive
spac
e fo
r the
enj
oym
ent o
f pat
rons
an
d th
e ge
nera
l pub
lic, a
nd se
t the
con
ditio
ns fo
r con
cen-
trate
d an
d de
nse
busin
ess d
evel
opm
ent i
n a
high
ly v
isibl
e po
rtion
of d
ownt
own.
Nei
ghbo
rhoo
d Pr
ogre
ss, I
nc./
Cle
vela
nd F
ound
atio
n,
Man
del F
ound
atio
n, G
eorg
e G
und
Foun
datio
n, a
nd
Cle
vela
nd T
omor
row
Rest
ore
and
mai
ntai
n th
e he
alth
and
vita
lity
of g
reat
er C
leve
land
as
a c
atal
yst f
or
chan
ge.
Prov
ided
lead
ersh
ip in
urb
an n
eigh
borh
ood
stab
iliza
tion,
re
vita
lizat
ion,
and
new
dev
elop
men
t. Fa
cilit
ated
col
labo
ratio
n am
ong
loca
l com
mun
ity d
evel
opm
ent c
orpo
ratio
ns, p
hila
nthr
opy,
lend
ers,
and
the
publ
ic se
ctor
.
Plan
ned
and
coor
dina
ted
neig
hbor
hood
stab
iliza
tion,
hou
sing
reha
bilit
atio
n, a
nd n
ew c
onst
ruct
ion
by li
nkin
g pu
blic
, priv
ate,
an
d no
npro
fit o
rgan
izatio
ns o
n a
larg
e sc
ale.
Impr
oved
ho
usin
g op
tions
and
pro
perty
val
ues,
oppo
rtuni
ties f
or
com
mer
cial
bus
ines
s end
eavo
rs se
rvin
g re
siden
ts. G
reat
er
choi
ces f
or c
itize
ns o
f Cle
vela
nd.
Cle
an L
and,
Ohi
o/Pr
emie
r In
dust
rial C
orpo
ratio
n (M
ande
l Fou
ndat
ion)
Con
serv
e an
d im
prov
e th
e ph
ysic
al
envi
ronm
ent o
f C
leve
land
.
Incu
bato
r for
disc
ussio
n an
d th
e in
itiat
ive.
Con
vene
d pu
blic
and
pr
ivat
e pa
rtici
pant
s. Pr
ovid
ed fu
ndin
g to
initi
ate
the
proj
ect.
Fund
ed th
e no
npro
fit in
term
edia
ry o
rgan
izatio
n to
car
ry o
ut th
e lo
ng-te
rm w
ork
of th
e in
itiat
ive.
Ecol
ogic
al a
nd e
nviro
nmen
tal e
nhan
cem
ent o
f urb
an tr
ansit
co
rrido
rs a
nd v
acan
t lot
s. C
reat
ed th
roug
h th
e es
thet
ics o
f a
safe
r, m
ore
plea
sant
com
mut
e fo
r em
ploy
ees,
bette
r urb
an
plan
ning
and
pub
lic sa
fety
, and
tang
ibly
thro
ugh
low
er c
osts
of
hiri
ng e
mpl
oyee
s for
com
pani
es.
Jum
psta
rt, In
c./C
leve
land
Fo
unda
tion,
Cle
vela
nd
Tom
orro
w, th
e G
eorg
e W
. C
odrin
gton
Fou
ndat
ion,
St
ate
of O
hio
Dep
artm
ent o
f D
evel
opm
ent
Tran
sfor
m n
orth
east
O
hio
into
a n
atio
nally
sig
nific
ant c
ente
r of
entre
pren
eurs
hip
and
inno
vatio
n.
Fund
ed a
star
t-up
nonp
rofit
to c
once
ntra
te e
xper
tise,
fund
ing,
an
d al
loca
tions
to st
art-u
p bu
sines
ses u
sing
publ
ic a
nd p
rivat
e fin
anci
al a
nd k
now
ledg
e re
sour
ces.
Addr
esse
d th
e re
gion
’s de
clin
ing
econ
omy,
loss
of j
obs,
and
lack
of e
ntre
pren
euria
l gro
wth
. Foc
used
reso
urce
s to
dive
rse
entre
pren
eurs
and
the
com
mun
ity, a
ccel
erat
ed g
row
th o
f ea
rly st
age
busin
esse
s and
into
ven
ture
-read
y co
mpa
nies
, and
ul
timat
ely
trans
form
ed n
orth
east
Ohi
o in
to a
nat
iona
lly
signi
fican
t cen
ter o
f ent
repr
eneu
rshi
p an
d in
nova
tion.
Gat
eway
Eco
nom
ic
Dev
elop
men
t Cor
pora
tion
(spor
ts) D
istric
t/C
leve
land
Fo
unda
tion
and
Cle
vela
nd
Tom
orro
w
Prov
ide
and
mai
ntai
n a
safe
, cle
an, a
nd
frien
dly
atm
osph
ere
to
the
publ
ic a
t the
ga
tew
ay sp
orts
co
mpl
ex.
Led
to th
e fo
rmat
ion
of a
qua
si-pu
blic
ent
ity th
at o
wne
d an
d le
ased
pro
perti
es to
the
prof
essio
nal s
ports
team
s, iss
ues p
ublic
bo
nds,
and
serv
es a
s the
fisc
al c
usto
dian
of p
ublic
fund
s.
Cre
ated
pub
lic a
sset
aro
und
whi
ch b
usin
ess a
ctiv
ity re
turn
ed
to a
n un
derp
erfo
rmin
g an
d cr
ime-
fille
d ph
ysic
al sp
ace
near
th
e he
art o
f the
city
’s do
wnt
own.
Cle
vela
nd D
evel
opm
ent
Foun
datio
n an
d Ur
ban
Rene
wal
Pha
ses I
and
II
(Titl
e I o
f the
Hou
sing
Act o
f 19
49)
Fina
nce
and
plan
pr
ojec
ts to
elim
inat
e slu
m c
ondi
tions
and
pr
omot
e ur
ban
rede
velo
pmen
t.
Esta
blish
ed b
y lo
cal b
usin
ess l
eade
rs to
ass
ist u
rban
rene
wal
and
slu
m c
lear
ance
effo
rts. I
t pro
vide
d fin
anci
al a
nd p
lann
ing
assis
tanc
e fo
r a n
umbe
r of p
roje
cts i
n th
e 19
50s a
nd 1
960s
. Rai
sed
fund
s thr
ough
mem
bers
hip
subs
crip
tions
and
the
sale
of t
en-y
ear,
4 pe
rcen
t dev
elop
men
t not
es to
pro
vide
seed
mon
ey fo
r urb
an
rene
wal
and
rede
velo
pmen
t pro
ject
s. Its
firs
t maj
or p
roje
ct w
as to
ho
use
peop
le d
ispla
ced
by th
e cl
earin
g of
urb
an re
new
al d
istric
ts.
The
typi
cal u
rban
rene
wal
pro
ject
requ
ired
mor
e th
an fo
ur
year
s to
plan
plu
s six
to n
ine
mor
e to
exe
cute
. Thi
s disc
our-
aged
priv
ate
deve
lope
rs a
nd d
rove
the
poor
pub
lic im
age
of
man
y in
com
plet
e pr
ojec
ts a
fter t
he d
emol
ition
stag
e. T
he
proj
ects
disp
lace
d po
or re
siden
ts, d
id n
ot a
dequ
atel
y pr
ovid
e fo
r the
ir re
loca
tion,
and
seem
ed d
edic
ated
to e
nhan
cing
the
wea
lth o
f the
cen
tral c
ities
by
getti
ng ri
d of
the
less
affl
uent
.
DOING GOOD, PUBLIC GOOD, AND PUBLIC VALUE 31
Nonprofi t Management & Leadership DOI: 10.1002/nml
contributed and inspired additional funding to acquire property and to engage in planning, leading to a public–private partnership managed by a newly created nonprofi t facilitating intermediary organization created for the purpose of harboring and developing the project. By 1977 the foundation and Playhouse Square, Inc., had obtained long-term leases for the three theaters, which were purchased by the Cuyahoga County commissioners. Funding secured from government, local foundations, and private corporations was committed to the project to carry out the restoration, operation, and management of the theaters.
Th rough the Playhouse Square partnership, the Cleveland Foundation fulfi lled its mission to “enhance the lives of all residents of greater Cleveland” ( http://www.clevelandfoundation.org/About/Background.html, 2012). Th e philanthropic players created the conditions and drew together the actors for public–private partnership, then created the time, space, fi nancial, and intellectual resources for the initiative to succeed. Public value arose from tangible benefi ts to the larger community—reuse of derelict property and nonproductive historic buildings in a highly visible business district, increased property valuations, creation of an employ-ment center, magnet for future urban real estate development, new arts programming, and intangible benefi ts of creating the teamwork and human capital necessary to accomplish the projects. Playhouse Square. Inc., established as steward of the mission, further amplifi ed the work of the philanthropic leaders and continues to off er return on the original investment of the public and private partners.
Th e second case example, Neighborhood Progress, Inc. (NPI), was created in 1988 through the joint eff orts of Cleveland Tomorrow, the Cleveland Foundation, Mandel Family Foun-dation, and the George Gund Foundation. Acting as an operating foundation, Cleveland Tomorrow (CT) itself was a private nonprofi t civic organization composed of chief executive offi cers of the largest companies in Cleveland united for the purpose of improving the long-term economic health of the city. CT required the direct involvement of its members, includ-ing chief executives from the two largest philanthropic institutions, which included their time, treasure, and expertise to stimulate novel ideas and economic growth for the region. CT devised the creation of NPI, a nonprofi t agency designed to focus attention, dollars, and other resources on Cleveland’s neighborhood development projects, with an emphasis on housing. NPI worked closely with city and county governments and private local and national funders and businesses both to preserve existing housing and to redevelop older housing stock in urban communities (van Tassel and Grabowski 1996, 733).
As in the Playhouse Square case example, the creation of NPI illustrates the intentional power of organized, mission-driven, and collaborative philanthropy to stimulate public policy development, convene public and private resources, and institutionalize the process of public value creation. Philanthropic players spearheaded the endeavor by funding a project feasibility study, convening national experts, and beginning an advocacy process to create city and county land-banks owned and operated under public authority. With the creation of NPI as the mission steward of the endeavor, public value arose through the initiative of home construction, renovation and rehabilitation programs, providing ways for residents to preserve and protect the value of their personal property.
Th e third case example, Clean Land Ohio is a nonprofi t organization formed in 1977 as a public–private partnership organized by private philanthropy that included a prominent phi-lanthropist and affi liated civic leaders, the Ohio Department of Transportation and the City of Cleveland to remove trash and provide grounds-keeping along 32.6 miles of rapid transit right-of-way (van Tassel and Grabowski 1996, 194–95). Clean Land Ohio came about as
32 MENDEL, BRUDNEY
Nonprofi t Management & Leadership DOI: 10.1002/nml
local and state public offi cials, private business owners, and philanthropic foundations con-sidered ways to improve ridership on light rail and to create a more inviting atmosphere for employees commuting to midtown Cleveland. Policymakers and grant makers believed that trash-fi lled vacant lots and right-of-way diminished the desire of workers to travel downtown, ultimately increasing the costs of doing business. Th e Clean Land case follows the pattern and process of philanthropic institutions driving the creation of public value using public private partnership as a mechanism to organize resources, plan, and then institutionalize the endeavor through the creation of a nonprofi t to serve as mission steward. Intangible benefi ts and public values were created through the aesthetics of a safer, more pleasant commute for employees, better urban planning and public safety, and tangibly through lower costs of hir-ing employees in the city.
Th e fourth case example, Jumpstart, Inc., was created in 2003 to address northeast Ohio’s declining economy, loss of jobs, and lack of entrepreneurial growth. Th e region’s civic, com-munity, and philanthropic leaders explored these issues, and, as a result, NorTech and Case Western Reserve University began quiet discussions to launch a nonprofi t venture develop-ment corporation to incubate ideas and take advantage of strategic business development opportunities in the technology fields. Cleveland Tomorrow, the George W. Codrington Foundation, and the Ohio Department of Development provided founding grants and intel-lectual capital to JumpStart. Th is nonprofi t served to focus public and private resources on diverse entrepreneurs and the community, accelerating the growth of early stage businesses and ideas into venture-ready companies, and ultimately transforming northeast Ohio into a nationally signifi cant center of entrepreneurship and innovation (“Jumpstart” 2012).
Jumpstart originated in a complicated public–private partnership arrangement involving philanthropic, business, and public sector actors. Th e participation of philanthropic lead-ers and application of their resources closely mirror the three prior examples. Th e Jumpstart organization was the institutional product of the collaboration, whose tangible benefits included the creation of successful new business enterprises and a spirit of entrepreneurialism that led to employment, tax revenues, and new business creation. Th e investments of philan-thropy resonate well beyond the dollars invested in the early stage development of the initia-tive, with the result that public value was created.
The fifth case example, the Gateway Economic Development Corporation, arose in the aftermath of the defeat by Cuyahoga County voters of a property tax increase that was to be used to build a domed stadium in downtown Cleveland. In the winter of 1984–85, business and civic leaders met to develop alternative plans for a new sports facility. Cleveland Tomor-row’s top executives from Cleveland’s fi fty largest companies created a development fund to help launch the new project, and acquisition of property began in December 1985. Privately owned sports teams agreed to design objectives in April 1986, and demolition at the site began in June 1987. In May 1990 county voters passed a fi fteen-year “sin tax” on alcohol and cigarettes to help fi nance the complex. Th e following month Cleveland Mayor Michael White and County Commissioner Tim Hagan created the nonprofit Gateway Economic Development Corporation to administer the project, marking it formally as a public–private partnership. In this fi fth case example, the development of the Gateway District, organized philanthropy, the business community, and city and county government planned and imple-mented large-scale public works. Th e culmination was a valuable public asset, around which business activity returned to an underperforming and crime-fi lled area near the heart of the city’s downtown.
DOING GOOD, PUBLIC GOOD, AND PUBLIC VALUE 33
Nonprofi t Management & Leadership DOI: 10.1002/nml
DiscussionIn each of the cases presented, philanthropic institutions and their leaders participated in early stage discussions, project conception and design, and capital investment in public–private partnership projects that achieved public value. Although we cannot determine whether each case example required all three of these elements for the creation of public value, we believe that public value outcomes are most readily observed when the three elements are present. For example, in the Playhouse Square, Clean Land, and Jumpstart case examples, philanthropic institutional mission achievement provided defensible rationale for the partners to stimulate positive change, provide a framework to form public–private partnerships to move the initia-tive forward and—few would dispute—promote the creation of tangible and intangible public value for the larger community. Th e work of the philanthropic organizations enabled the par-ticipation of actors who may otherwise have been passive or distant observers.
We would like to provide more precise measurement of these outcomes. However, despite the manifest need for it, research on public value has not yet yielded appropriate operationalization. Even in the most prominent and well-cited examples, such as Moore (1995, 2000), Benington and Moore (2011), and Bozeman (2002, 2007), and entire conferences dedicated to this concept (for example, the “Creating Public Value Conference,” convened by the Center for Integrative Leadership at the University of Minnesota in September 2012), measurement of public value remains elusive, with little attention and some speculation. Based on our research, we can begin to advance this discussion, although a full schema awaits further inquiry.
As illustrated by our analysis of the different case examples in which public value was created (Table 2), the attainment—and measurement—of public value will be specifi c to the particular project. To the extent that a philanthropic initiative achieves its immediate goals (for example, the construction of Playhouse Square) as well as brings about the behavioral changes sought (clients patronize Playhouse Square), we conclude that public value is cre-ated. We would press forward in our measurement, though, in two important ways.
First, in our judgment public value can be observed in the desirable eff ects radiating out from a project beyond the immediate target group or clientele or area, that is, the positive externalities created. For example, Playhouse Square not only brought patrons to formerly unused property in downtown Cleveland but also generated other businesses, visitors to the downtown, tax revenues, new civic groups and associations (Friends of Cleveland Playhouse), and greater service opportunities (for example, on nonprofit boards of directors and in operational volunteering in the theater venues). Th ese results of the project developed over time and were not entirely expected, which leads us to propose as a second feature that any measurement of public value should incorporate a temporal dimension to capture its full eff ects. We would also propose a measurement scheme that valued those results that occur quickly more highly over those that take longer to develop (similar to a “social discount rate”), both because we have a preference for more public value created sooner, and eff ects over a longer time horizon are more diffi cult to attribute to the specifi c philanthropic project. In a multidimensional framework for the measurement of public value, other aspects of the eff ects experienced, such as amount of positive behavioral change realized, would also be taken into account.
Th is preliminary measurement framework has implications for philanthropic agencies. It sug-gests that these agencies seek from those they fund information not only on the achievement
34 MENDEL, BRUDNEY
Nonprofi t Management & Leadership DOI: 10.1002/nml
of proposed project goals, as commonly collected at present, but also on project results achieved as a product of these goals. Project reporting should also extend to the positive externalities created (both anticipated and not) and encompass a temporal dimension to cap-ture them over time.
As we have mentioned, the lens of successful PPPs off ers illustration of simple, observable ways that public value is created by philanthropic actors and institutions. But PPPs involv-ing philanthropic players also off er the opportunity to illustrate the inverse of public value creation. A prominent example of a PPP that did not lead to the creation of public value in Cleveland involved the well-documented and massive Urban Renewal project Phases I and II (Mendel 2005; Teaford 2000, 447–49).
Beginning in the 1950s and still incomplete as of this writing nearly six decades later, the complex endeavor involved the Cleveland Development Foundation, city government, local business, and local philanthropic institutions. Designed to remove densely packed residential and commercial districts that would then be replaced by new construction in planned com-munities in three Cleveland communities, the PPP resulted in many unanticipated nega-tive outcomes: dramatic population shifts within the city boundaries, accelerated resident movement out of the city, decline in housing values, fi nancial disinvestment in highly visible neighborhoods, a reduction of the property and income tax base, and a city with weakened services, bonding power, and overall affl uence (Squires 1989; Teaford 2000). Philanthropic institutions provided funding and agency to the PPP with the disappointing result of not ful-fi lling lofty expectations and, few would argue, an absence of positive public value.
Several aspects of public value are found consistently across the case examples. First, the mission-driven process of forming and carrying out the work of the initial endeavor stimu-lated the creation of new successful working collaborations. These associations led to the development of other nonprofi t organizations that served as mission stewards to the endeavor, which then carried out subsequent projects yielding public value without the intervention or involvement of the public sector. Second, philanthropic institutions drew together public and private actors to perform important functions that directly and indirectly benefi ted members of the larger community. Th is work included major activities unlikely to take place without the intervention or involvement of philanthropy, for purposes such as land use planning, pub-lic safety, economic development, and public works. Th ird, as tracked by the participants and promoted in the local press, the amplifi cation of resources informed and guided by the phil-anthropic institutions leveraged a return that far exceeded the initial investment (“Forty under Forty” 1995; Keating, Krumholz, and Metzger 1995; “Mayoral Administration of George V. Voinovich” 2012; Miller 2010; Miller and Bullard 2005; Ralser 2007, 59; Shatten 1995).
Based on our analysis of the multiple case examples and the scholarship on public value, we conclude that philanthropic institutions may achieve their goals of doing good by contribut-ing to the public good when they conceive of their roles as acting strategically to do the hard work of creating public value. An important strategy is working with other organizations—public, private, and nonprofi t—in meaningful partnerships. Th e critical process of forming partnerships requires that philanthropic institutions—and the nonprofi t organizations with which they work—investigate and devise conditions for partnership and help those col-laborations to succeed. To this end, an important, yet little appreciated strategy is providing a third space in which philanthropic institutions serve as relationship stewards that off er the sanctuary of time, place, fi nancial support, and expertise for participants in the partnership to work out the issues leading to meaningful partnership (Mendel 2013) and public value.
DOING GOOD, PUBLIC GOOD, AND PUBLIC VALUE 35
Nonprofi t Management & Leadership DOI: 10.1002/nml
Tab
le 3
. Sp
ecifi
c Ex
amp
les
of D
oing
Goo
d, P
ublic
Goo
d, P
ublic
Val
ue fr
om t
he C
leve
land
PPP
Cas
es
PPP
Nam
eD
oing
Goo
dFo
r th
e Pu
blic
Goo
dPu
blic
Val
ue G
ener
ated
Play
hous
e Sq
uare
, In
c.En
hanc
ed th
e liv
es o
f all
resid
ents
of
grea
ter C
leve
land
by
pres
ervi
ng
rede
velo
pmen
t of p
rivat
ely
owne
d,
high
ly v
isibl
e en
terta
inm
ent d
istric
t th
eate
r ass
ets h
eade
d fo
r the
w
reck
ing
ball.
Cre
ated
a to
urist
des
tinat
ion
of c
once
ntra
ted
perfo
rmin
g ar
ts; g
ener
ated
incr
ease
d pr
oper
ty v
alue
s in
the
surro
undi
ng d
istric
ts; r
esto
red
and
incr
ease
d ta
x re
venu
es
to th
e ci
ty in
from
spill
over
bus
ines
ses s
uch
as p
arki
ng,
adve
rtise
men
t, an
d se
rvic
es su
ppor
ting
the
arts
; inc
reas
ed
empl
oym
ent.
Led
to p
ositi
ve c
hang
e of
long
time
trend
s tow
ard
urba
n di
sinve
stm
ent a
nd d
eclin
e. G
ener
ated
wea
lth fr
om u
nder
uti-
lized
and
und
erpe
rform
ing
tax
reve
nue
asse
ts to
the
bene
fit o
f th
e en
tire
com
mun
ity. C
reat
ed a
safe
invi
ting
spac
e fo
r the
co
mm
unity
to g
athe
r in
a pr
evio
usly
dor
man
t nei
ghbo
rhoo
d.
Nei
ghbo
rhoo
d Pr
ogre
ss, I
nc.
Pres
erve
d ex
istin
g ho
usin
g to
re
deve
lop
olde
r hou
sing
stoc
k in
C
leve
land
and
its u
rban
com
mun
ities
.
Enco
urag
ed a
nd st
imul
ated
the
cond
ition
s lea
ding
to
hom
e co
nstru
ctio
n, re
nova
tion,
and
reha
bilit
atio
n pr
ogra
ms.
Phila
nthr
opic
pla
yers
spea
rhea
ded
the
ende
avor
by
fund
ing
a pr
ojec
t fea
sibili
ty st
udy
and
begi
nnin
g an
ad
voca
cy p
roce
ss to
cre
ate
city
and
cou
nty
land
-ban
ks
owne
d an
d op
erat
ed u
nder
pub
lic a
utho
rity.
Stim
ulat
ed p
ublic
pol
icy
deve
lopm
ent,
conv
ened
pub
lic a
nd
priv
ate
reso
urce
s, an
d in
stitu
tiona
lized
the
proc
ess o
f pub
lic
valu
e cr
eatio
n. P
rovi
ded
way
s for
all
resid
ents
to p
rese
rve
and
prot
ect t
he v
alue
of t
heir
pers
onal
pro
perty
.
Cle
an L
and
Impr
oved
ride
rshi
p on
ligh
t rai
l to
crea
te a
mor
e in
vitin
g at
mos
pher
e fo
r em
ploy
ees c
omm
utin
g to
mid
tow
n C
leve
land
.
Cre
ated
a sa
fe, a
ttrac
tive
spac
e th
at im
prov
ed th
e en
viro
nmen
t for
bus
ines
ses t
o ca
rry o
ut th
eir o
pera
tions
an
d fo
rm c
lust
ers o
f ind
ustry
hub
s and
bus
ines
s dev
elop
-m
ent.
Used
pub
lic–p
rivat
e pa
rtner
ship
as a
mec
hani
sm to
org
anize
re
sour
ces,
plan
, and
then
inst
itutio
naliz
e th
e en
deav
or th
roug
h th
e cr
eatio
n of
a n
onpr
ofit
to se
rve
as p
erm
anen
t miss
ion
stew
ard.
Also
cre
ated
aes
thet
ics o
f a sa
fer,
mor
e pl
easa
nt
com
mut
e fo
r em
ploy
ees a
nd lo
wer
cos
ts o
f hiri
ng e
mpl
oyee
s in
the
neig
hbor
hood
.
Jum
psta
rt, In
c.Ad
dres
sed
north
east
Ohi
o’s d
eclin
ing
econ
omy,
loss
of j
obs,
and
lack
of
entre
pren
euria
l gro
wth
by
incu
batin
g id
eas a
nd ta
king
adv
anta
ge o
f st
rate
gic
busin
ess d
evel
opm
ent
oppo
rtuni
ties i
n th
e te
chno
logy
fiel
ds.
Serv
ed to
focu
s pub
lic a
nd p
rivat
e re
sour
ces o
n di
vers
e en
trepr
eneu
rs a
nd th
e co
mm
unity
, acc
eler
atin
g th
e gr
owth
of
ear
ly st
age
busin
esse
s and
idea
s int
o ve
ntur
e-re
ady
com
pani
es, a
nd u
ltim
atel
y tra
nsfo
rmed
nor
thea
st O
hio
into
a
natio
nally
sign
ifica
nt c
ente
r of e
ntre
pren
eurs
hip
and
inno
vatio
n.
Incr
ease
d re
gion
al e
mpl
oym
ent,
pros
pect
s for
bus
ines
s de
velo
pmen
t, an
d st
imul
ated
the
trans
form
atio
n of
the
old-
grow
th m
anuf
actu
ring
indu
strie
s int
o a
“nex
t-gen
erat
ion”
ec
onom
y.
Esta
blish
ed th
e fra
mew
ork
for n
orth
east
ern
Ohi
o to
take
ac
tion
as a
n in
tegr
ated
regi
onal
eco
nom
y.
Gat
eway
Eco
nom
ic
Dev
elop
men
t C
orpo
ratio
n
Esta
blish
ed a
val
uabl
e pu
blic
ass
et
arou
nd w
hich
bus
ines
s act
ivity
re
turn
ed to
an
unde
rper
form
ing
and
crim
e-fil
led
area
nea
r the
hea
rt of
the
city
’s do
wnt
own.
Cre
ated
com
forta
ble
mod
ern
faci
litie
s for
pat
rons
to v
iew
an
d pa
rtici
pate
in p
rofe
ssio
nal s
ports
end
eavo
rs. P
rese
rved
th
e ci
ty a
s a h
ome
to tw
o m
ajor
leag
ue sp
orts
fran
chise
s an
d th
e sp
illov
er b
usin
ess a
ctiv
ities
attr
ibut
able
to th
em.
Mai
ntai
ned
the
regi
on’s
stat
us a
s a “
big
leag
ue”
mar
ket
wor
thy
of in
vest
men
t and
atte
ntio
n by
glo
bal a
nd n
atio
nal
mar
kets
and
pol
icym
aker
s.
Cle
vela
nd
Dev
elop
men
t Fo
unda
tion
and
Urba
n Re
new
al
Phas
es I
and
II
Elim
inat
ed sl
um c
ondi
tions
and
pr
omot
e ur
ban
rede
velo
pmen
t.Pl
anne
d an
d or
gani
zed
appr
oach
to re
deve
lop
“old
” pl
aces
in u
rban
nei
ghbo
rhoo
d se
tting
s of C
leve
land
that
in
clud
e re
vita
lized
land
and
pro
perty
use
.
Did
not
wor
k. S
lum
rem
oval
was
not
acc
ompa
nied
by
initi
ativ
es th
at w
ere
attra
ctiv
e to
priv
ate
inve
stm
ents
and
led
to
dram
atic
pop
ulat
ion
shift
s and
pro
perty
disi
nves
tmen
t tha
t ac
cele
rate
d th
e ur
ban
path
olog
ies o
f dec
line.
36 MENDEL, BRUDNEY
Nonprofi t Management & Leadership DOI: 10.1002/nml
Philanthropic institutions may conceive of their obligations primarily with respect to mission fulfi llment, due diligence of grant applicants and transactional grantee accountability in the form of dollars spent, clients served, and resources leveraged. Although these components constitute an important part of the operational work of philanthropy, in this article we argue that philanthropic institutions realize transformational achievements to do good for the pub-lic good when their initiatives are designed to lead to the creation of public value. Table 3 illustrates the relationships among the concepts doing good, public good, and public value that emerge from the fi ve case examples.
ConclusionIn our view, the public sector focus of existing scholarship on public value largely overlooks the role of philanthropic institutions, civic leaders, and decision makers in the creation of public value. To the contrary, we argue here that philanthropy at its best is in the business of creating public value.
Based upon the literature and case examples examined in this article, we believe that philanthropic institutions should consider not only transactional accountability but also how their grant making is transformative toward public value creation. Using the framework presented in Table 2, leaders of philanthropy can view their possible impact by tracing the amplifi cation of their work beyond transactional accountability, with which they typically evaluate grantee performance, to transformational results that benefi t the larger society. For example, in the Playhouse Square, NPI, and particularly the Jumpstart case examples, the process of creating public value through program delivery and quality of programs was more important to overall philanthropic impact than the number of individuals directly served by philanthropic dollars. Although precise measurement must await further inquiry, phil-anthropic institutions can further this development by off ering funding opportunities that contribute to public value creation and consider how their investment stimulates societal transformation.
Th e role of philanthropy in creating public value holds important strategic and manage-ment implications for nonprofi t leaders and board members whose organizations’ health and well-being depend upon grants and charitable gifts. As we have shown, proposals to philanthropic institutions that align with nonprofi t missions can serve the public good and generate return on investment beyond the particular project when they can be linked to the creation of public value. Organized philanthropy should prioritize requests for grants and gifts that conceive the transactional work as part of a larger system of services, leading to eff ective, transformational change. Accordingly, nonprofi ts should articulate the public value outcomes as direct and indirect benefi ts of their involvement. From this larger perspective, grants and charitable gifts are more than opportunities for nonprofi t “work” but for the creation of public value as well
ReferencesAlford, J., and O. Hughes. 2007. “Public Value Pragmatism as the Next Phase of Public Management.”
American Review of Public Administration 38 (2): 130–48.Anheier, H., and D. Hammack. 2010. American Foundations: Roles and Contributions. Washington, DC:
Brookings Institution Press.
DOING GOOD, PUBLIC GOOD, AND PUBLIC VALUE 37
Nonprofi t Management & Leadership DOI: 10.1002/nml
Baynes, K. 2002. “A Critical Theory Perspective on Civil Society and the State.” In Civil Society and Govern-ment, edited by N. Rosenblum and R. Post. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Benington, J. 2011. “From Private Choice to Public Value?” In Public Value: Theory and Practice, edited by J. Benington, and M. Moore. New York: Palgrave MacMillan.
Benington, J., and M. Moore, eds. 2011. Public Value: Theory and Practice. New York: Palgrave MacMillan.Benjamin, L. 2010. “Funders as Principals.” Nonprofit Management and Leadership 20 (4): 383–403.Berry, J. 2005. “Nonprofit and Civic Engagement.” Public Administration Review 65 (5): 568–78.Boris, E. 1999. “The Nonprofit Sector in the 1990s.” In Philanthropy and the Nonprofit Sector, edited by
C. Clotfleter and T. Ehrlich. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Bozeman, B. 2002. “Public-Value Failure: When Efficient Markets May Not Do.” Public Administration
Review 6 (22): 145–61.———. 2007. Public Values and Public Interest. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.Bremner, R. 1980. The Public Good: Philanthropy and Welfare in the Civil War Era. New York: Knopf.———. 1988. American Philanthropy, 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.———. 1996. Giving: Charity and Philanthropy in History. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.Bryson, J. 2011. Strategic Planning for Public and Nonprofit Organizations: A Guide to Strengthening and
Sustaining Organizational Achievement. New York: Wiley.Cleveland Foundation. n.d. www.Clevelandfoundation.org/about/background.Dahl, R. 1989. Who Governs: Democracy and Power in an American City. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Original publication date 1961.“Doing Well and Doing Good: Why a New Golden Age of Philanthropy May Be Dawning.” 2004. Economist.
July 29. www.economist.com/node/2963247.Domhoff, G. W. 2005. “Who Rules America? Power Structure, Research and the Search for Democracy.”
http://sociology.ucsc.edu/whorulesamerica/methodspower_structure_research.html.Drucker, P. 1990. Managing the Nonprofit Organization: Practices and Principles. New York: HarperCollins.Fleishman, J. 1999. “Public Trust in Not-For-Profit Organizations and the Need for Regulatory Reform.” In
Philanthropy and the Nonprofit Sector, edited by C. Clotfleter and T. Ehrlich. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
———. 2007. The Foundation: A Great American Secret, How Private Wealth Is Changing the World. New York: Public Affairs, Perseus Group.
“Forty under Forty—Lee Goodman, Executive Director of Clean Land, Ohio.” 1995. Crain’s Cleveland News. November 27. www.crainscleveland.com/article/19951127/SUB/511270725/0/SEARCH.
Frumkin, P. 1999. “Private Foundations as Public Institutions: Regulation, Professionalization and the Redef-inition of Organized Philanthropy.” In Philanthropic Foundations: New Scholarship, New Possibilities, edited by E. Condliffe Lagemann. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
———. 2002. On Being Nonprofit: A Conceptual and Policy Primer. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Graddy, E., and D. Morgan. 2006. “Community Foundations, Organizational Strategy and Public Policy.” Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 35 (4): 605–30.
Hammack, D. 1998. Making the Nonprofit Sector in the United States. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.———. 1989. “Private Organizations, Public Purposes: Nonprofits and Their Archives.” Journal of American
History 76 (1): 181–91.———. 1999. “Foundations in the American Polity.” In Philanthropic Foundations: New Scholarship, New
Possibilities, edited by E. Condliffe Lagemann. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Hammack, D., and S. Heydemann. 2009. “Philanthropic Projections: Sending Institutional Logics Abroad.”
In Globalization, Philanthropy and Civil Society, edited by D. Hammack and S. Heydemann. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Hartz, L. 1955. The Liberal Tradition in America and the Men Who Made It. New York: Harcourt Brace.
38 MENDEL, BRUDNEY
Nonprofi t Management & Leadership DOI: 10.1002/nml
Herman, R., and D. O. Renz. 1999. “Theses on Nonprofit Organizational Effectiveness.” Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 28 (2): 107–26.
Jorgensen, T., and B. Bozeman. 2007. “Public Values: An Inventory.” Administration and Society 39 (3): 354–81.Judd, D., and T. Swanstrom. 2003. City Politics: Private Power and Public Policy, 4th ed. London: Pearson.“Jumpstart.” 2012. Encyclopedia of Cleveland History online. Entry modified May 4. http://ech.case.edu/cgi/
article.pl?id=JI.Kass, A. 2008. “Introduction.” In Giving Well, Doing Good: Readings for Thoughtful Philanthropists, edited by
Amy Kass. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Keating, W., N. Krumholz, and J. Metzger. 1995. “Postpopulist Public-Private Partnerships.” In Cleveland: A
Metropolitan Reader, edited by W. Dennis Keating, Norman Krumholz, and David C. Perry. Kent, OH: Kent State University Press.
Lecy, J., and D. Van Slyke. 2012. “Nonprofit Sector Growth and Density: Testing Theories of Government Support.” Journal of Public Administration Research. First published online May 10. doi: 10.1093/jopart/mus010.
“Mayoral Administration of George V. Voinovich.” 2012. Encyclopedia of Cleveland History online. Entry modified July 31. http://ech.case.edu/ech- cgi/article.pl?id=MAOGVV.
McCarthy, K. 2003. American Creed: Philanthropy and the Rise of Civil Society, 1700–1865. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
McDonald, M. 2011. “Philanthropic Leadership at the Community Level.” In Leadership in Nonprofit Organ-izations: A Reference Handbook, edited by Kathryn A. Agaard, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Mendel, S. 2003. “The Ecology of Games between Public Policy and Private Action: Nonprofit Community Organizations as Bridging and Mediating Institutions.” Nonprofit Management and Leadership 13 (3): 229–36.
———. 2005. Mediating Organizations, Private Government, and Civil Society: Disinvestment through the Preservation of Wealth in Cleveland, Ohio 1950–1990. Lewiston, NY: Edwin G. Mellen Press.
———. 2010. “Are Private Government, the Nonprofit Sector and Civil Society the Same Thing?” Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 39 (4): 717–33.
———. 2013. “Achieving Meaningful Partnerships with Nonprofit Organizations: A View from the Field.” Journal of Nonprofit Education and Leadership 3 (2).
Mendel, S., and J. Brudney. 2012a. “Putting the NP in PPP: Considering the Role of Nonprofit Organizations in Public Private Partnerships.” Public Performance and Management Review 354 (June): 617–42.
Mendel, S., and J. Brudney. 2012b. “The Role of Nonprofit Organizations in the Creation of Public Value.” Presented at the “Creating Public Value Conference,” convened by the Center for Integrative Leadership at the University of Minnesota, September.
Miller, J. 2010. “Richard Shatten: Former Executive Director—Cleveland Tomorrow.” Crain’s Cleveland Busi-ness. May 24. www.crainscleveland.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20100524/FREE/305249995/0/SEARCH.
Miller, J., and S. Bullard. 2005. “Talks Expose Cloudy Future of Tower City.” Crain’s Cleveland Business. June 13. www.Crainscleveland.Com/Article/20050613/Sub/50612020/0/Search.
Miller, R. 2002. “Overview: The Virtues and Vices of Civil Society.” In Civil Society and Government, edited by N. Rosenblum and R. Post. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Moore, M. 1995. Creating Public Value: Strategic Management in Government. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
———. 2000. “Managing for Value: Organizational Strategy in For-Profit, Nonprofit and Governmental Organizations.” Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 29 (1), supplement, 183–204.
O’Connell, B. 1983. America’s Voluntary Spirit: A Book of Readings. New York: Foundation Center.O’Flynn, J. 2007. “From New Public Management to Public Value: Paradigmatic Change and Managerial
Implications.” Australian Journal of Public Administration 66 (3): 353–66.
DOING GOOD, PUBLIC GOOD, AND PUBLIC VALUE 39
Nonprofi t Management & Leadership DOI: 10.1002/nml
Orosz, J. 2007. Effective Foundation Management: Fourteen Challenges of Philanthropic Leadership—And How to Outfox Them. Lanham, MD: AltaMira.
Payton, R., and M. Moody. 2008. Understanding Philanthropy: Its Meaning and Mission. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Powell, W., and E. Clemens. 1998. Private Action and the Public Good. New Haven: Yale University Press.Powell, W., and R. Steinberg. 2002. The Nonprofit Sector: A Research Handbook. New Haven: Yale University
Press.Prewitt, K. 2006. “American Foundations: What Justifies Their Unique Privileges and Powers.” In K. Prewitt
et al., The Legitmacy of Philanthropic Foundations: United States and European Perspectives. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
———. 2009. “Foreword.” In Globalization, Philanthropy and Civil Society, edited by D. Hammack and S. Heydemann. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Ralser, T. 2007. ROI for Nonprofits: The Key to Sustainability. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Rich, A. 2004. Think Tanks, Public Policy, and the Politics of Expertise. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Rojas, R. R. 2000. “A Review of Models for Measuring Organizational Effectiveness among For-Profit and
Nonprofit Organizations.” Nonprofit Management and Leadership 11:97–104.Roelofs, J. 2007. “Foundations and Collaboration.” Critical Sociology 33 (3): 479–504.Salamon, L. 1995. Partners in Public Service: Government-Nonprofit Relations in the Modern Welfare State.
Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.———., ed. 2002. The Tools of Government: A Guide to the New Governance. New York: Oxford University
Press.Salamon, L., and H. Anheier. 1996. The Emerging Nonprofit Sector: An Overview. Manchester, UK: Manchester
University Press.Scalet, S., and D. Schmidtz. 2002. “State, Civil Society, and Classical Liberalism.” In Civil Society and
Government, edited by N. Rosenblum and R. Post. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Shatten, R. 1995. “Cleveland Tomorrow: A Practicing Model of New Roles and Processes for Corporate Lead-
ership in Cities.” In Cleveland: A Metropolitan Reader, edited by W. Dennis Keating, Norman Krumholz, and David C. Perry. Kent, OH: Kent State University Press.
Smith, D. 2000. Grassroots Associations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.———. 2005. “Introduction.” In Good Intentions: Moral Obstacles and Opportunities, edited by David
H. Smith. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Squires, G. 1989. Unequal Partnerships: The Political Economy of Urban Redevelopment in Postwar America. New
Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.Stoker, G. 2006. “Public Value Management: A New Narrative for Networked Governance.” American Review
of Public Administration 36 (1): 1–57.Stone, M., and F. Ostrower. 2007. “Acting in the Public Interest? Another Look at Research on Nonprofit
Governance.” Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 36 (3): 416–38.Swanstrom, T. 1985. The Crisis of Growth Politics: Cleveland, Kucinich, and the Challenge of Urban Populism.
Philadelphia: Temple University Press.Teaford, J. 2000. “Urban Renewal and its Aftermath.” Housing Policy Debate, 11 (2): 443–65.Van Tassel. D., and J. Grabowski, eds. 1996. Encyclopedia of Cleveland History, 2nd ed. Bloomington: Indiana
University Press.Van Til, J. 2000. Growing Civil Society: From Nonprofit Sector to Third Space. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.———. 2008. “Searching for Critical Issues in Philanthropy.” Nonprofit Management and Leadership 19 (1):
123–28.Weisbrod, B. 1986. “Toward a Theory of the Voluntary Nonprofit Sector in a Three Sector Economy.” In The
Economics of Nonprofit Institutions: Studies in Structure and Policy, edited by Susan Rose-Ackerman. New York: Oxford University Press.
40 MENDEL, BRUDNEY
Nonprofi t Management & Leadership DOI: 10.1002/nml
Wettenhall, R. 2003. “The Rhetoric and Reality of Public–Private Partnerships.” Public Organization Review 31:77–107.
Whitman, J. 2008. “Evaluating Philanthropic Foundations According to Their Social Values.” Nonprofit Management and Leadership 18 (4): 417–34.
———. 2009. “Measuring Social Values in Philanthropic Foundations.” Nonprofit Management and Leadership 19 (3): 305–25.
Williams, I., and H. Shearer. 2010. “Public Value and the English NHS: A Review of the Literature.” Unpublished research report. Coventry, UK: Warwick Business School Institute of Governance and Public Management.
———. 2011. “Appraising Public Value: Past, Present and Futures.” Public Administration. doi: 10.111/j. 1467–9299.2011.01942.x.
Young, D. 2000. “Alternative Models of Government-Nonprofit Sector Relations: Theoretical and Interna-tional Perspectives.” Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 29 (1): 149–72.
STUART C. MENDEL is assistant dean and director at the Center for Nonprofit Policy and Practice at Cleveland State University.
JEFFREY L. BRUDNEY is the Betty and Dan Cameron Family Distinguished Professor of Innovation in the Nonprofit Sector at the Department of Public and International Affairs, University of North Carolina Wilmington.
Recommended