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1-2McGraw-Hill/Irwin copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, inc. All Rights Reserved
Leadership Is Developed through Education and Experience
“Leadership and learning are indispensable to each other.”
~John F. Kennedy
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The Action-Observation-Reflection Model
• Making the most of experience is key to developing one’s leadership ability.
• The theory shows that leadership development is enhanced when the experience involves three different processes:– Action– Observation– Reflection
• Spiral of experience: Colin Powell’s example.
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The Spiral of Experience
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The Key Role of Perception in the Spiral of Experience
• Experience is not just a matter of what events happen to you; it also depends on how you perceive those events.
• Perception affects all three phases of the action-observation-reflection model.
• People actively shape and construct their experiences.
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Perception and Observation
• Observation and perception both deal with attending to events around us.– We are selective in what we attend to and what we,
in turn, perceive.
• Perceptual sets can influence any of our senses:– They are the tendency or bias to perceive one thing
and not another.– Feelings, needs, prior experience and expectations
can all trigger a perceptual set.
• Stereotypes represent powerful impediments to learning.– Awareness of biases occurs upon reflection.
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Perception and Reflection
• Reflection deals with how we interpret our observations.
• Perception is inherently an interpretive, or a meaning-making, activity.
• Attributions: Explanations we develop for the behaviors or actions we attend to.
• Fundamental attribution error: Tendency to overestimate the dispositional causes of behavior and underestimate the environmental causes when others fail.
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Perception and Reflection (continued)
• Self-serving bias: Tendency to make external attributions for one’s own failures, yet make internal attributions for one’s successes.
• Actor/observer difference: Refers to the fact that people who are observing an action are much more likely than the actor to make the fundamental attribution error.
• Reflection also involves higher functions like evaluation and judgment, not just perception and attribution.
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Perception and Action
• Research found that perceptions and biases affect supervisors’ actions towards poorly performing subordinates.
• Self-fulfilling prophecy: Occurs when our expectations or predictions play a causal role in bringing about the events we predict.
• Research has shown that having expectations about others can subtly influence our actions.
• These actions can, in turn, affect the way others behave.
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The Role of Expectations in Social Interaction
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Reflection and Leadership Development
• Reflection provides leaders with insights into several ways of framing problems, multiple perspectives, or better understanding.
• Leaders tend to ignore reflection due to lack of time or lack of awareness of its value.
• Intentional reflection might prompt one to see potential benefits in experience not initially considered relevant.
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Single and Double-Loop Learning
• Single-loop learners seek relatively little feedback that may significantly confront their fundamental ideas or actions.– Individuals learn only about subjects within the
“comfort zone” of their belief systems.
• Double-loop learning involves a willingness to confront one’s own views and an invitation to others to do so, too.– Mastering double-loop learning can be thought
of as learning how to learn.
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Leadership Development through Experience
• Factors that make any given experience potent in fostering managerial growth:– The people you work with– The characteristics of the task itself
• Leaders in any field tend to first stand out by virtue of their technical proficiency.– Competence or proficiency are factors that
serve as basis for emergence or selection of a leader.
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Changing Requirements for Success
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The People You Work With
• A boss can be a powerful catalyst for growth.• People from different backgrounds,
perspectives, or agendas can impact the growth experience.
• Working with problem subordinates can stimulate managerial growth, as can peers.
• Both mentors and mentorees benefit from having the relationship.
• Executive coaching: General responsibility of all executives towards managers who report to them.
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Developmental Tasks
• Leadership development can be enhanced in a changing, dynamic, uncontrollable, and unpredictable environment.– Strategic planning and projections can contribute
to a leader’s development.
• Opportunities that stretch individuals and allow them to test themselves provide learning.
• The risk of possible failure is a strong incentive for managers to learn.
• Organizations may not provide the same development opportunities for all their members.
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Making the Most of Your Leadership Experiences: Learning to Learn from Experience
• The learning events and developmental experiences that punctuate one’s life are usually stressful.
• A flat learning curve can result due to an inability to move against one’s grain of personal success and tolerate a dip in performance results.
• To be successful, learning must continue throughout life, beyond the completion of one’s formal education.
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Anatomy of a Learning Experience
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Leadership Development through Education and Training
• Research has shown that:– Education level or academic performance in
college was positively related to future managerial success.
– Educational programs generally have a positive effect on leadership development.
– Formal education and training programs can help one become a better leader.
• The content of different leadership programs varies considerably, depending on the target audience.
• Leadership education is a component of leadership development.
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University Courses in Leadership
• Leadership training programs can include formal courses or extracurricular leadership activities.
• The pedagogy used to impart different leadership concepts vary greatly.
• Many courses use the standard lecture methods, or provide individualized feedback through:– Case studies– Role Playing– Simulations– Games
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Leadership Training Programs
• Programs aimed particularly at industry and public service leaders and supervisors use:– Lectures– Case studies– Role-playing exercises
• Programs for midlevel managers often focus on:– Individualized feedback, case studies,
presentations– Role playing, simulations– In-basket exercises– Leaderless group discussions
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Leadership Training Programs (continued)
• Conger offers that a multi-tiered approach is effective.
• Leadership development in the 21st century must occur in more lifelike situations and contexts.
• Leadership programs for senior executives and CEOs focus on strategic planning, PR, and interpersonal skills.
• No matter the type of program chosen, a systematic approach guarantees its usefulness.
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Building Your Leadership Self-Image
• Leadership develops through experience and formal education.
• Not everyone wants to be a leader or believes he/she can be.
• Avoid selling yourself short.• Understand the importance of leadership, keep
an open mind.• Avoid self-defeating generalizations.• Experiment and take a few risks with different
leadership roles.
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Summary
• One way to add value to your leadership courses and experiences is by applying the action-observation-reflection model.
• Be aware of the role perception plays in leadership development.
• Education and experience can contribute to your development as a leader.
• To become a better leader, one must seek challenges and try to make the best of any leadership opportunity.
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