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Linguistics Linguistics Descriptive Linguistics Descriptive Linguistics and Culture and Culture

Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

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Covers the phonetics, phonology, morphology, and Syntax of language, the relates linguistics to culture.

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Page 1: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

LinguisticsLinguistics

Descriptive Linguistics and Descriptive Linguistics and CultureCulture

Page 2: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

Defining LinguisticsDefining Linguistics

Linguistics is the study of language.Linguistics is the study of language. In most instances, it is the study of spoken In most instances, it is the study of spoken

languagelanguage Language is an advanced system of Language is an advanced system of

communicationcommunication Speaking is one means of using a language, Speaking is one means of using a language,

involving hearing.involving hearing. Signing is another means of using a language, Signing is another means of using a language,

involving an elaborate system of gesturesinvolving an elaborate system of gestures Writing is studied, but it is not the primary Writing is studied, but it is not the primary

focus; not all cultures have writing. focus; not all cultures have writing. All cultures have language.All cultures have language.

Page 3: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

CommunicationCommunication

Most animals have some form of Most animals have some form of communicationcommunication

Definition: Ability of one organism to Definition: Ability of one organism to trigger anothertrigger another

Counterexample: Bouncer tosses out Counterexample: Bouncer tosses out unruly patronunruly patron

Counterexample: Sun’s rays wakens Counterexample: Sun’s rays wakens sleepersleeper

Entails stimulus and responseEntails stimulus and response

Page 4: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

Overview of LinguisticsOverview of Linguistics

Biological Roots of Language: Brain Biological Roots of Language: Brain and Articulatory Systemand Articulatory System

Descriptive Linguistics: Phones and Descriptive Linguistics: Phones and PhonemesPhonemes

Descriptive Linguistics: Morphology Descriptive Linguistics: Morphology and Syntaxand Syntax

Language and Animal CommunicationLanguage and Animal Communication Language and CultureLanguage and Culture

Page 5: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

The International The International Phonetic AlphabetPhonetic Alphabet How many vowels are there in English?How many vowels are there in English? Our written language is not entirely phoneticOur written language is not entirely phonetic The letter a could be pronounced as [æ] in The letter a could be pronounced as [æ] in

bat [bæt]bat [bæt] Or how about [e] as in bated breath? [bet]Or how about [e] as in bated breath? [bet] Or try [a] as in bah or “say ah” [ba] or [a]Or try [a] as in bah or “say ah” [ba] or [a] The a is pronounced in three different ways.The a is pronounced in three different ways. We have not 5, but 12 vowelsWe have not 5, but 12 vowels That means in linguistics we need 12 That means in linguistics we need 12

symbols to transcribe themsymbols to transcribe them

Page 6: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

The IPA: How It WorksThe IPA: How It Works

First, there are First, there are phonesphones, any speech sound, any speech sound The IPA ideally assigns one symbol to a The IPA ideally assigns one symbol to a

soundsound So [a] is used for “ah,” [e] for “bated,” [æ] So [a] is used for “ah,” [e] for “bated,” [æ]

for “bat”for “bat” Square brackets are used to enclose Square brackets are used to enclose

phonesphones If the sounds carry a language, they are If the sounds carry a language, they are

known as known as phonemes phonemes (more shortly)(more shortly) These are enclosed in slashes (//), e.g. /a/These are enclosed in slashes (//), e.g. /a/

Page 7: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

A Sample Set of Phones A Sample Set of Phones and Phonemesand Phonemes

We will use a sample of six We will use a sample of six consonantsconsonants known as known as stops:stops:

[p], [b], [t], [d], [k], and [g][p], [b], [t], [d], [k], and [g] First, we have to look at some First, we have to look at some

preliminaries:preliminaries: The speech mechanism (brain, The speech mechanism (brain,

lungs, larynx, and oral cavity)lungs, larynx, and oral cavity) Then how speech is articulatedThen how speech is articulated

Page 8: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

Biological Roots of Biological Roots of Language: The Brain and Language: The Brain and Nervous SystemNervous System

Broca’s Area (speech Broca’s Area (speech production)production)

Wernicke’s Area (speech Wernicke’s Area (speech reception)reception)

Arcuate Fasciculus Arcuate Fasciculus (connect Broca’s with (connect Broca’s with Wernicke’s areaWernicke’s area

Angular Gyrus Angular Gyrus (interconnects the five (interconnects the five senses) senses)

Hypoglossal Nerve (nerve Hypoglossal Nerve (nerve connects brain to tongue) connects brain to tongue)

Page 9: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

Vocal TractVocal Tract

LungsLungs Diaphragm Diaphragm Larynx and Vocal Larynx and Vocal

CordsCords Hyoid BoneHyoid Bone Oral CavityOral Cavity Nasal CavityNasal Cavity

Page 10: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

Articulatory PhoneticsArticulatory Phonetics

When we utter any sound, we When we utter any sound, we articulatearticulate

We position our tongue or other speech We position our tongue or other speech part in certain wayspart in certain ways

When we speak, we useWhen we speak, we use Points of articulationPoints of articulation: Speech parts : Speech parts

in upper half of mouthin upper half of mouth Articulators:Articulators: Speech parts in lower Speech parts in lower

half of mouthhalf of mouth

Page 11: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

Oral CavityOral Cavity

Page 12: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

Points of ArticulationPoints of Articulation

All are immovable All are immovable except upper lipexcept upper lip

Upper lipUpper lip Upper teethUpper teeth Alveolar ridge (gum Alveolar ridge (gum

ridge behind teeth)ridge behind teeth) Hard palate (roof of Hard palate (roof of

mouth)mouth) Velum (soft palate)Velum (soft palate) Uvula (pendant lobe Uvula (pendant lobe

at border of velum)at border of velum)

Page 13: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

ArticulatorsArticulators

All articulators are All articulators are movablemovable

They include:They include: Lower lipLower lip Lower teethLower teeth TongueTongue Apex (tip)Apex (tip) Front (blade)Front (blade) Center Center Dorsum (backDorsum (back))

Page 14: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

Other Speech PartsOther Speech Parts

LarynxLarynx, or voice box which , or voice box which containscontains

Two Two Vocal Cords Vocal Cords (upper left)(upper left) When vocal cords are drawn tight When vocal cords are drawn tight

(lower right), they produce a voice(lower right), they produce a voice When relaxed (lower left), no voice When relaxed (lower left), no voice

is produced.is produced. Other species and infant: larynx is Other species and infant: larynx is

high on throathigh on throat Nasal Cavity: Nasalized phones Nasal Cavity: Nasalized phones

produced by lowering of velumproduced by lowering of velum

Page 15: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

Position of ArticulationPosition of Articulation

For For consonantsconsonants, position of articulator relative , position of articulator relative to point of articulationto point of articulation

For vowels, resonant sounds created byFor vowels, resonant sounds created by position of tongue (high, mid, or low vertically position of tongue (high, mid, or low vertically

and front, mid, or back horizontally) andand front, mid, or back horizontally) and lip shape (rounded or unroundedlip shape (rounded or unrounded Consonants include:Consonants include: Stops (momentary stop of air stream)Stops (momentary stop of air stream) Fricatives or Spirants (constricted passage of air)Fricatives or Spirants (constricted passage of air) Others, such as laterals, nasals, et al.Others, such as laterals, nasals, et al.

Page 16: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

Positions of Positions of Articulation: Stops Articulation: Stops A A stop stop is formed whenis formed when an articulator touchesan articulator touches a point of articulation a point of articulation halting the air stream momentarilyhalting the air stream momentarily A stop is namedA stop is named By naming the By naming the articulatorarticulator first first Then naming the Then naming the point of articulationpoint of articulation Examples: labio-labial, apico-alveolar, and Examples: labio-labial, apico-alveolar, and

dorso-velar stopsdorso-velar stops Shorthand version: bilabial, alveolar, and velar. Shorthand version: bilabial, alveolar, and velar.

Page 17: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

Bilabial StopsBilabial Stops

Upper lip is pressed Upper lip is pressed against lower lipagainst lower lip

Labio- describes the Labio- describes the lower lip (articulator)lower lip (articulator)

Labial describes the Labial describes the upper lip (point of upper lip (point of articulation_articulation_

Called Called bilabial stop bilabial stop for shortfor short

Example: [p] as in Example: [p] as in [pın] or pin[pın] or pin

Page 18: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

Apico-Alveolar StopsApico-Alveolar Stops

Tip (apex) of tongue Tip (apex) of tongue presses against gum presses against gum ridge (alveolar ridge) ridge (alveolar ridge) behind upper teethbehind upper teeth

Apico describes apex Apico describes apex of tongue (articulator)of tongue (articulator)

Alveolar describes Alveolar describes alveolar ridge (point alveolar ridge (point of articulation)of articulation)

Example: [t] as in tın] Example: [t] as in tın] or tinor tin

Page 19: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

Dorso-Velar StopsDorso-Velar Stops

Back (dorsum) of Back (dorsum) of tongue presses tongue presses against soft palate against soft palate (velum)(velum)

Dorso describes Dorso describes dorsal part of tongue dorsal part of tongue (articulator)(articulator)

Velar describes velum Velar describes velum (point of articulation)(point of articulation)

Example: [k] as in Example: [k] as in [kın] or kin[kın] or kin

Page 20: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

Contrasting SoundsContrasting Sounds

Across the board, Across the board, [p] contrasts with [t][p] contrasts with [t] [t] contrasts with [k][t] contrasts with [k] [p] contrasts with [k][p] contrasts with [k] But there are But there are twotwo bilabial stops: [p] and [b]bilabial stops: [p] and [b] apico-alveolar stops: [t] and [d]apico-alveolar stops: [t] and [d] Dorsal o-velar stops [k] and [g]Dorsal o-velar stops [k] and [g] Why? What’s going on?Why? What’s going on?

Page 21: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

Voiced and Voiceless Voiced and Voiceless StopsStops One set of stops is voiceless or One set of stops is voiceless or

unvoicedunvoiced Namely [p], [t], and [k]Namely [p], [t], and [k] The other set of stops is voicedThe other set of stops is voiced [b] the bilabial voiced stop[b] the bilabial voiced stop [d] the voiced apico-alveolar stop[d] the voiced apico-alveolar stop [g] the voiced dorso-velar stop[g] the voiced dorso-velar stop A small experimentA small experiment

Page 22: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

How Vocal Cords WorkHow Vocal Cords Work

When vocal cords are When vocal cords are relaxed (upper relaxed (upper diagram), they produce diagram), they produce no voiceno voice

When drawn tight with a When drawn tight with a small aperture or hole small aperture or hole (lower diagram), they (lower diagram), they produce a voiceproduce a voice

That is what causes the That is what causes the throat to vibratethroat to vibrate

Page 23: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

Summing upSumming up

Voicing involves tightening of vocal cords Voicing involves tightening of vocal cords to produce a soundto produce a sound

When unvoiced phones are uttered, the When unvoiced phones are uttered, the vocal cords are relaxedvocal cords are relaxed

Voiced sounds contrast with unvoiced Voiced sounds contrast with unvoiced soundssounds

voiced [b] contrasts with unvoiced [p]voiced [b] contrasts with unvoiced [p] voiced [d] contrasts with unvoiced [t]voiced [d] contrasts with unvoiced [t] voiced [g] contrasts with unvoiced [k]voiced [g] contrasts with unvoiced [k]

Page 24: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

PhonemesPhonemes

The sounds we described are also The sounds we described are also phonemesphonemes

Definition: The smallest significant Definition: The smallest significant unit of speechunit of speech

Significance: the speaker Significance: the speaker can hear can hear the difference.the difference.

We can hear the difference between We can hear the difference between [bın] and [pın], [dın] and [tın], and [bın] and [pın], [dın] and [tın], and [gın] and [kın][gın] and [kın]

Page 25: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

Minimal PairsMinimal Pairs

[bın] and [pın]: what’s the [bın] and [pın]: what’s the difference?difference?

[tın] and [dın]: same question[tın] and [dın]: same question [gın] and [kın]: Again, what differs?[gın] and [kın]: Again, what differs? Short answer: the speech Short answer: the speech

environment environment is identicalis identical Only the stops differOnly the stops differ the [-ın] utterance is identicalthe [-ın] utterance is identical

Page 26: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

Summary of Phonemic Summary of Phonemic Stops in EnglishStops in English

Notice that:Notice that: English doesn’t have all possible stops: labiodental, English doesn’t have all possible stops: labiodental,

interdental, or palatal interdental, or palatal We do have labio-dental fricatives {f], [v] and We do have labio-dental fricatives {f], [v] and

interdental ones [interdental ones [θθ] and [ð]] and [ð] The Russians have a palatal shop [tThe Russians have a palatal shop [tjj].]. There are numerous others in the world’s languagesThere are numerous others in the world’s languages

Page 27: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

Phones as ClustersPhones as Clusters

Now the bad news: phonemes are not just one phoneNow the bad news: phonemes are not just one phone Rather they are clusters called speech units. Rather they are clusters called speech units. In other words, a phoneme usually comprises two or In other words, a phoneme usually comprises two or

more phones. more phones. We can best understand this by looking at allophones of We can best understand this by looking at allophones of

a phonemesa phonemes AllophonesAllophones are phonetic variations of a phoneme. are phonetic variations of a phoneme. The term The term allo-allo- is derived from the Greek that means is derived from the Greek that means

“other”“other” Allophones, unlike phones, do not affect the meaning of a Allophones, unlike phones, do not affect the meaning of a

wordword This is the second part of the definition: phonemes are This is the second part of the definition: phonemes are

significant significant speech unitsspeech units, not (single) speech sounds., not (single) speech sounds.

Page 28: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

AllophonesAllophones

Two examples of allophones are from Two examples of allophones are from another exampleanother example: key: key and and skiski

Put a paper in front of your mouth and repeatPut a paper in front of your mouth and repeat The differencesThe differences [k[kh] in key [k] in key [khhi] is i] is aspiratedaspirated [[kk־־] in ski [sk] in ski [sk־־i] is i] is unaspiratedunaspirated In English, [kIn English, [kh] and [k] and [k־־] never form minimal ] never form minimal

pairspairs Therefore, [kTherefore, [khh] and [k] and [k־־] are ] are allophonesallophones

Page 29: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

Allophones of Allophones of PhonemesPhonemes Definition: Variations of the same Definition: Variations of the same

phonemephoneme Our example: [kOur example: [khh] and [k] and [k־־] are ] are

allophones of the phoneme /k/ allophones of the phoneme /k/ Notation:Notation: Slash marks (//) indicate phonemeSlash marks (//) indicate phoneme Square brackets ([]) indicates Square brackets ([]) indicates

phone (and allophone)phone (and allophone)

Page 30: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

Allophones in One Allophones in One Language: Phonemes in Language: Phonemes in AnotherAnother Old Sanskrit (from which Hindi and Urdu Old Sanskrit (from which Hindi and Urdu

are derived):are derived): [k[khhil] and [kil] and [k־־il] form minimal pairsil] form minimal pairs [k[khhil]: “parched grain”il]: “parched grain” [k[k־־il]: “small nail”il]: “small nail” [-il] is identical as for speech environment[-il] is identical as for speech environment Therefore, /kTherefore, /khh/ and /k/ and /k־־/ are phonemes in / are phonemes in

Old SanskritOld Sanskrit Every language has its own phonemesEvery language has its own phonemes

Page 31: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

Phonemes as Phonemes as Structural Duality IStructural Duality I Note diagram in other panels. Note diagram in other panels. [b] contrasts with [d] which contrasts with [b] contrasts with [d] which contrasts with

[g][g] [p] contrasts with [t] which contrasts with [p] contrasts with [t] which contrasts with

[k][k] All the voiced stops contrast with All the voiced stops contrast with

unvoiced ones:unvoiced ones: [b] with [p], [d] with [t] and [g] with [k][b] with [p], [d] with [t] and [g] with [k] So we have a structureSo we have a structure

Page 32: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

Structural Duality II: Structural Duality II: Morphemes and Morphemes and SyntaxSyntax Once the phonemes are identified:Once the phonemes are identified: They must be arranged for meaningThey must be arranged for meaning Morphemes and SyntaxMorphemes and Syntax Morphemes: The smallest Morphemes: The smallest meaningful meaningful

unit of speechunit of speech Syntax: Rules and principles of phrase Syntax: Rules and principles of phrase

and sentence constructionand sentence construction Grammar: Entire formal structure of a Grammar: Entire formal structure of a

language’s morphemes and syntaxlanguage’s morphemes and syntax

Page 33: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

MorphemesMorphemes

Morphology:Morphology: Study of morphemes Study of morphemes and their construction into wordsand their construction into words

Types of morphemesTypes of morphemes Free morphemes: Free morphemes: Morphemes that Morphemes that

can stand unattached in a language: can stand unattached in a language: catcat

Bound morphemes: Bound morphemes: Morphemes that Morphemes that cannot stand unattached in a cannot stand unattached in a language: catlanguage: catss

Page 34: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

Bound Morphemes: Bound Morphemes: Affixes, Inflection and Affixes, Inflection and DerivationDerivation Affix: Affix: a bound morpheme that modifies a a bound morpheme that modifies a

free morpheme or free morpheme or rootroot PrefixPrefix: An affix that precedes the root, as in : An affix that precedes the root, as in

the pre- for previewthe pre- for preview Suffix: Suffix: An affix that follows the root, as in –s An affix that follows the root, as in –s

for catsfor cats Inflectional bound morphemesInflectional bound morphemes: those that : those that

change number or tense, but not meaning: change number or tense, but not meaning: e.g., cat, cate.g., cat, catss

Derivational bound morphemes:Derivational bound morphemes: those those that change the meaning: e.g., part, partthat change the meaning: e.g., part, partyy

Page 35: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

AllomorphsAllomorphs

Allomorphs: Allomorphs: Variants of a Variants of a morphememorpheme

Examples: plurals of dogs, cats, Examples: plurals of dogs, cats, horseshorses

Others: tooth/teeth; sheep/sheepOthers: tooth/teeth; sheep/sheep MorphophonemicsMorphophonemics: Study of : Study of

allomorphsallomorphs

Page 36: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

Syntax: Parts of Syntax: Parts of SpeechSpeech Describes rules and principles of Describes rules and principles of

phrase and sentence construction.phrase and sentence construction. Parts of speech are similar to those in Parts of speech are similar to those in

high school grammarhigh school grammar Noun:Noun: Word referring to a person, Word referring to a person,

place, or thingplace, or thing Pronoun: Pronoun: Word that replaces a noun Word that replaces a noun

or other pronounor other pronoun Verb:Verb: Action word Action word

Page 37: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

Syntax: More Parts of Syntax: More Parts of SpeechSpeech Adjective: Adjective: Word that modifies nounsWord that modifies nouns Adverb: Adverb: Word that modifies a verb, an Word that modifies a verb, an

adjective, and another adverbsadjective, and another adverbs Preposition:Preposition: Word that indicates a relation Word that indicates a relation

between an object in time, space, or logic to between an object in time, space, or logic to the rest of a sentencethe rest of a sentence

ConjunctionConjunction: Word connecting words or : Word connecting words or groups of wordsgroups of words

Interjection: Interjection: Word that expresses feelings, Word that expresses feelings, but usually not part of a sentence.but usually not part of a sentence.

Page 38: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

Syntax and Word OrderSyntax and Word Order

Word order (sentence, verb, object) vary by Word order (sentence, verb, object) vary by language:language:

Subject (S): Subject (S): The thing or person of what a sentence The thing or person of what a sentence is aboutis about

Predicate (V): Predicate (V): Phrase that says something about the Phrase that says something about the subject; always include the verbsubject; always include the verb

Verb (O): Verb (O): Action word that forms the main part of the Action word that forms the main part of the predicatepredicate

Object:Object: The person or thing affected by the verb The person or thing affected by the verb In English, the word order is typically S-V-OIn English, the word order is typically S-V-O In Spanish, the word order is sometimes V-S-OIn Spanish, the word order is sometimes V-S-O Other languages have other word ordersOther languages have other word orders

Page 39: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

So Why Aren’t Morphemes So Why Aren’t Morphemes and Syntax Separate and Syntax Separate Structures?Structures?

An exercise: catsAn exercise: cats Two cats (upper photo)Two cats (upper photo) Cat’s meow (lower picture: Cat’s meow (lower picture:

spoken, how do you use spoken, how do you use the apostrophe?)the apostrophe?)

Rest of sentence defines Rest of sentence defines morphememorpheme

Another exampleAnother example ““I lent my comb to Cookie”I lent my comb to Cookie” ““I comb my hair.”I comb my hair.”

Page 40: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

Gesture Call Systems: Gesture Call Systems: KinesicsKinesics

Kinesics:Kinesics: System of System of analyzing postures, analyzing postures, facial expressions, facial expressions, “body language”“body language”

Gender differencesGender differences Smiles and frownsSmiles and frowns See that thumbs up?See that thumbs up? In other countries, it In other countries, it

would mean—well, you would mean—well, you know!know!

(Need a hint? Think (Need a hint? Think middle finger)middle finger)

Page 41: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

Gesture Call Systems: Gesture Call Systems: Paralanguage Paralanguage

Paralanguage:Paralanguage: Extralinguistic noises Extralinguistic noises accompanying accompanying language language

Voice qualities:Voice qualities: tone, tone, slur (cartoon), other slur (cartoon), other background noisesbackground noises

VocalizationsVocalizations: : Identifiable noises Identifiable noises turned on and off at turned on and off at short intervals—”uh,” short intervals—”uh,” “um”“um”

Page 42: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

More ParalanguageMore Paralanguage

Vocal characteristics:Vocal characteristics: Sound production such Sound production such as laughingas laughing

Vocal qualifiers:Vocal qualifiers: Tone Tone or pitch-”Get Out!”or pitch-”Get Out!”

Segregates:Segregates: “Shh!” “Oh “Shh!” “Oh oh,” “hmmm!” (cartoon) oh,” “hmmm!” (cartoon) among othersamong others

Page 43: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

Linguistic ChangeLinguistic Change

Language FamilyLanguage Family Group of languages descended from a Group of languages descended from a

single ancestral languagesingle ancestral language Example: Indo-European is descended Example: Indo-European is descended

from Proto-Indo-Europeanfrom Proto-Indo-European GlottochronologyGlottochronology Technique of reconstructing past languageTechnique of reconstructing past language Core vocabulary: Core vocabulary: Comparing words Comparing words

common to all languagescommon to all languages

Page 44: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

EthnolinguisticsEthnolinguistics

Definition: Study of relationship Definition: Study of relationship between language and culturebetween language and culture

Named after Named after Edward SapirEdward Sapir (top) and (top) and Benjamin Lee WhorfBenjamin Lee Whorf (bottom), the (bottom), the

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis states thatstates that language,language,

By providing habitual “grooves” of By providing habitual “grooves” of expressionexpression

Predisposes people to see world in Predisposes people to see world in certain wayscertain ways

Thus guiding thinking and behaviorThus guiding thinking and behavior

Page 45: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

Ethnolinguistics: What Ethnolinguistics: What Comes First? Language Comes First? Language or Culture?or Culture?

Example of Sapir-Whorf Example of Sapir-Whorf hypothesishypothesis

Hopi:Hopi: Conception of time as Conception of time as processes, not discrete unitsprocesses, not discrete units

Nuer:Nuer: 400 words for cattle 400 words for cattle U.S. Militaristic vocabularyU.S. Militaristic vocabulary Chicken and Egg QuestionChicken and Egg Question Does language condition cultureDoes language condition culture Or does culture condition Or does culture condition

language?language?

Page 46: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

Ethnolinguistics: Some Ethnolinguistics: Some Areas of ResearchAreas of Research Kinship terms:Kinship terms: Father or Mother may be extended to Father or Mother may be extended to

uncles and aunts.uncles and aunts. GenderGender Meaning of “I’m sorry”Meaning of “I’m sorry” Social dialectsSocial dialects Example: Afro-American or “Spanglish”Example: Afro-American or “Spanglish” Regional differences: Beijing vs. CantonRegional differences: Beijing vs. Canton

Page 47: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

Code Switching: Martin Code Switching: Martin Luther KingLuther King

Definition: Switching style Definition: Switching style of speech according to of speech according to occasion and audienceoccasion and audience

Formal discourse in formal Formal discourse in formal settings (Washington settings (Washington Monument, 1963, I Have a Monument, 1963, I Have a Dream speech)Dream speech)

Informal discourse in Informal discourse in others (Ebenezer Baptist others (Ebenezer Baptist Church, 1967, anti-Church, 1967, anti-Vietnam War speech)Vietnam War speech)

Page 48: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

Language OriginsLanguage Origins

Comparison of communication attributes Comparison of communication attributes was first stepwas first step

Chimpanzee communication: calls and Chimpanzee communication: calls and gesturesgestures

Indirect evidenceIndirect evidence Reconstructed anatomy: hyoid boneReconstructed anatomy: hyoid bone Endocasts indicating size of cerebrumEndocasts indicating size of cerebrum Control language among othersControl language among others Size indirect indicationSize indirect indication

Page 49: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

Features of Language Features of Language Shared with Other SpeciesShared with Other Species

ArbitrarinessArbitrariness ProductivityProductivity InterchangeabilityInterchangeability DisplacementDisplacement SpecializationSpecialization Cultural TransmissionCultural Transmission

Page 50: Linguistics: Descriptive and Anthropological

ArbitrarinessArbitrariness Definition: Absence of Definition: Absence of

intrinsic relation between intrinsic relation between communication element communication element (speech sound) and thing (speech sound) and thing or event to which it refers or event to which it refers (referent)(referent)

Iconic Relationship: Iconic Relationship: Existence of such a Existence of such a relationship between relationship between element (e.g. gesture) and element (e.g. gesture) and its referentits referent

Importance: Utterance is Importance: Utterance is not “married” to meaning, not “married” to meaning, such as this gibbon’s such as this gibbon’s warning callwarning call

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Arbitrariness (ExamplesArbitrariness (Examples)) Example [k], [æ], and [t] are not Example [k], [æ], and [t] are not

meaningful in and of themselvesmeaningful in and of themselves Meaning emerges when sounds are Meaning emerges when sounds are

combined:combined: [kæt] “cat” has one meaning (feline, [kæt] “cat” has one meaning (feline,

the one who caught a mouse)the one who caught a mouse) [tæk] “tack” has another (small nail)[tæk] “tack” has another (small nail) [ækt] “act” has a third (dog and pony [ækt] “act” has a third (dog and pony

show)show) Even then, this string is language Even then, this string is language

specific (English), not intrinsicspecific (English), not intrinsic

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Arbitrariness (Across Arbitrariness (Across Languages)Languages)

Evidence of Arbitrariness: Diverse LanguagesEvidence of Arbitrariness: Diverse Languages Cat has different pronunciations in different Cat has different pronunciations in different

languageslanguages Similarities are the product of historical contactSimilarities are the product of historical contact

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Productivity Productivity (Definition)(Definition)

Definition:Definition: Capacity for elements of Capacity for elements of

communication systemcommunication system To be combined to form To be combined to form

new meaningsnew meanings Which speaker and Which speaker and

listener may never have listener may never have learned beforelearned before

Yet understands perfectlyYet understands perfectly Exercise:Exercise: pronounce pronounce

wugwug then two of them then two of them

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Productivity Productivity (Examples)(Examples)

From From Jabberwocky Jabberwocky by by Lewis Carroll (see Lewis Carroll (see illustration}illustration}

‘‘Twas brillig and the Twas brillig and the sllthy tovessllthy toves

Did gyre and gimble in Did gyre and gimble in the wabethe wabe

Identify:Identify: The nounsThe nouns The verbsThe verbs The adjectivesThe adjectives

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Productivity Productivity (Conclusion)(Conclusion) Language drillsLanguage drills English: I am, you are. . .English: I am, you are. . . Spanish: Yo soy, tu eres. . .Spanish: Yo soy, tu eres. . . Other species: Bee danceOther species: Bee dance Variations indicate location, direction, and Variations indicate location, direction, and

amount of nectar sourceamount of nectar source Speed: proximity or distance of sourceSpeed: proximity or distance of source Angle of body: directionAngle of body: direction Amount of pollen: amount at sourceAmount of pollen: amount at source

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InterchangeabilityInterchangeability Definition: Use of same Definition: Use of same

communication system to send and communication system to send and receive messagesreceive messages

Illustrative Counterexample: Three-Illustrative Counterexample: Three-spine stickleback fish courtship (see spine stickleback fish courtship (see diagram)diagram)

Female elicits male response by Female elicits male response by presenting distended bellypresenting distended belly

Male performs zigzag dance around Male performs zigzag dance around femalefemale

She follow him to nestShe follow him to nest Male point to nest on arrivalMale point to nest on arrival Female enters nest, male rubs Female enters nest, male rubs

abdomen, abdomen, She discharges eggs, and male She discharges eggs, and male

fertilizes them with spermfertilizes them with sperm

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Displacement Displacement (Definition)(Definition) Ability to refer to things and events not Ability to refer to things and events not

present, nonvisible, intangible, or present, nonvisible, intangible, or nonexistentnonexistent

Not present: Golden Gate Bridge in San Not present: Golden Gate Bridge in San FranciscoFrancisco

Not visible: Termites in sealed moundNot visible: Termites in sealed mound Intangible: math equations, square Intangible: math equations, square

rootsroots Nonexistent: dragons, unicornsNonexistent: dragons, unicorns

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Displacement Displacement (Importance)(Importance)

Ability to represent unseen Ability to represent unseen parts of worldparts of world

Part of toolmaking abilityPart of toolmaking ability: to : to conceive a design (above)conceive a design (above)

Bee DanceBee Dance Scouting bee gives information on Scouting bee gives information on

non-present blossomsnon-present blossoms Direction of dance rel. to sun: Direction of dance rel. to sun:

indicates direction of sourceindicates direction of source Length of tail waggle: distance of Length of tail waggle: distance of

sourcesource Other bees act on this informationOther bees act on this information

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Cultural TransmissionCultural Transmission

Learning of an element of Learning of an element of communication (speech sound, communication (speech sound, gestures)gestures)

Bees and stickleback acquire behavior Bees and stickleback acquire behavior geneticallygenetically

Dogs learn by conditioning, do not Dogs learn by conditioning, do not pass learning onpass learning on

Chimpanzees do learn by imitation and Chimpanzees do learn by imitation and pass it on: e.g., termite fishing. pass it on: e.g., termite fishing.

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SpecializationSpecialization

Definition: Ability to transmit Definition: Ability to transmit message with minimal physical effortmessage with minimal physical effort

Language is most specialized Language is most specialized communication systemcommunication system

Examples of unspecialized Examples of unspecialized communicationcommunication

Chimpanzee displaysChimpanzee displays Bee danceBee dance Stickleback courtshipStickleback courtship

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ConclusionConclusion

Language is basis of cultureLanguage is basis of culture Knowledge of linguistics is prerequisiteKnowledge of linguistics is prerequisite Descriptive LinguisticsDescriptive Linguistics Language and SocietyLanguage and Society Culture can condition languageCulture can condition language Chicken-egg question remainsChicken-egg question remains One more technique: content analysis One more technique: content analysis

of languageof language