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Covers the phonetics, phonology, morphology, and Syntax of language, the relates linguistics to culture.
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LinguisticsLinguistics
Descriptive Linguistics and Descriptive Linguistics and CultureCulture
Defining LinguisticsDefining Linguistics
Linguistics is the study of language.Linguistics is the study of language. In most instances, it is the study of spoken In most instances, it is the study of spoken
languagelanguage Language is an advanced system of Language is an advanced system of
communicationcommunication Speaking is one means of using a language, Speaking is one means of using a language,
involving hearing.involving hearing. Signing is another means of using a language, Signing is another means of using a language,
involving an elaborate system of gesturesinvolving an elaborate system of gestures Writing is studied, but it is not the primary Writing is studied, but it is not the primary
focus; not all cultures have writing. focus; not all cultures have writing. All cultures have language.All cultures have language.
CommunicationCommunication
Most animals have some form of Most animals have some form of communicationcommunication
Definition: Ability of one organism to Definition: Ability of one organism to trigger anothertrigger another
Counterexample: Bouncer tosses out Counterexample: Bouncer tosses out unruly patronunruly patron
Counterexample: Sun’s rays wakens Counterexample: Sun’s rays wakens sleepersleeper
Entails stimulus and responseEntails stimulus and response
Overview of LinguisticsOverview of Linguistics
Biological Roots of Language: Brain Biological Roots of Language: Brain and Articulatory Systemand Articulatory System
Descriptive Linguistics: Phones and Descriptive Linguistics: Phones and PhonemesPhonemes
Descriptive Linguistics: Morphology Descriptive Linguistics: Morphology and Syntaxand Syntax
Language and Animal CommunicationLanguage and Animal Communication Language and CultureLanguage and Culture
The International The International Phonetic AlphabetPhonetic Alphabet How many vowels are there in English?How many vowels are there in English? Our written language is not entirely phoneticOur written language is not entirely phonetic The letter a could be pronounced as [æ] in The letter a could be pronounced as [æ] in
bat [bæt]bat [bæt] Or how about [e] as in bated breath? [bet]Or how about [e] as in bated breath? [bet] Or try [a] as in bah or “say ah” [ba] or [a]Or try [a] as in bah or “say ah” [ba] or [a] The a is pronounced in three different ways.The a is pronounced in three different ways. We have not 5, but 12 vowelsWe have not 5, but 12 vowels That means in linguistics we need 12 That means in linguistics we need 12
symbols to transcribe themsymbols to transcribe them
The IPA: How It WorksThe IPA: How It Works
First, there are First, there are phonesphones, any speech sound, any speech sound The IPA ideally assigns one symbol to a The IPA ideally assigns one symbol to a
soundsound So [a] is used for “ah,” [e] for “bated,” [æ] So [a] is used for “ah,” [e] for “bated,” [æ]
for “bat”for “bat” Square brackets are used to enclose Square brackets are used to enclose
phonesphones If the sounds carry a language, they are If the sounds carry a language, they are
known as known as phonemes phonemes (more shortly)(more shortly) These are enclosed in slashes (//), e.g. /a/These are enclosed in slashes (//), e.g. /a/
A Sample Set of Phones A Sample Set of Phones and Phonemesand Phonemes
We will use a sample of six We will use a sample of six consonantsconsonants known as known as stops:stops:
[p], [b], [t], [d], [k], and [g][p], [b], [t], [d], [k], and [g] First, we have to look at some First, we have to look at some
preliminaries:preliminaries: The speech mechanism (brain, The speech mechanism (brain,
lungs, larynx, and oral cavity)lungs, larynx, and oral cavity) Then how speech is articulatedThen how speech is articulated
Biological Roots of Biological Roots of Language: The Brain and Language: The Brain and Nervous SystemNervous System
Broca’s Area (speech Broca’s Area (speech production)production)
Wernicke’s Area (speech Wernicke’s Area (speech reception)reception)
Arcuate Fasciculus Arcuate Fasciculus (connect Broca’s with (connect Broca’s with Wernicke’s areaWernicke’s area
Angular Gyrus Angular Gyrus (interconnects the five (interconnects the five senses) senses)
Hypoglossal Nerve (nerve Hypoglossal Nerve (nerve connects brain to tongue) connects brain to tongue)
Vocal TractVocal Tract
LungsLungs Diaphragm Diaphragm Larynx and Vocal Larynx and Vocal
CordsCords Hyoid BoneHyoid Bone Oral CavityOral Cavity Nasal CavityNasal Cavity
Articulatory PhoneticsArticulatory Phonetics
When we utter any sound, we When we utter any sound, we articulatearticulate
We position our tongue or other speech We position our tongue or other speech part in certain wayspart in certain ways
When we speak, we useWhen we speak, we use Points of articulationPoints of articulation: Speech parts : Speech parts
in upper half of mouthin upper half of mouth Articulators:Articulators: Speech parts in lower Speech parts in lower
half of mouthhalf of mouth
Oral CavityOral Cavity
Points of ArticulationPoints of Articulation
All are immovable All are immovable except upper lipexcept upper lip
Upper lipUpper lip Upper teethUpper teeth Alveolar ridge (gum Alveolar ridge (gum
ridge behind teeth)ridge behind teeth) Hard palate (roof of Hard palate (roof of
mouth)mouth) Velum (soft palate)Velum (soft palate) Uvula (pendant lobe Uvula (pendant lobe
at border of velum)at border of velum)
ArticulatorsArticulators
All articulators are All articulators are movablemovable
They include:They include: Lower lipLower lip Lower teethLower teeth TongueTongue Apex (tip)Apex (tip) Front (blade)Front (blade) Center Center Dorsum (backDorsum (back))
Other Speech PartsOther Speech Parts
LarynxLarynx, or voice box which , or voice box which containscontains
Two Two Vocal Cords Vocal Cords (upper left)(upper left) When vocal cords are drawn tight When vocal cords are drawn tight
(lower right), they produce a voice(lower right), they produce a voice When relaxed (lower left), no voice When relaxed (lower left), no voice
is produced.is produced. Other species and infant: larynx is Other species and infant: larynx is
high on throathigh on throat Nasal Cavity: Nasalized phones Nasal Cavity: Nasalized phones
produced by lowering of velumproduced by lowering of velum
Position of ArticulationPosition of Articulation
For For consonantsconsonants, position of articulator relative , position of articulator relative to point of articulationto point of articulation
For vowels, resonant sounds created byFor vowels, resonant sounds created by position of tongue (high, mid, or low vertically position of tongue (high, mid, or low vertically
and front, mid, or back horizontally) andand front, mid, or back horizontally) and lip shape (rounded or unroundedlip shape (rounded or unrounded Consonants include:Consonants include: Stops (momentary stop of air stream)Stops (momentary stop of air stream) Fricatives or Spirants (constricted passage of air)Fricatives or Spirants (constricted passage of air) Others, such as laterals, nasals, et al.Others, such as laterals, nasals, et al.
Positions of Positions of Articulation: Stops Articulation: Stops A A stop stop is formed whenis formed when an articulator touchesan articulator touches a point of articulation a point of articulation halting the air stream momentarilyhalting the air stream momentarily A stop is namedA stop is named By naming the By naming the articulatorarticulator first first Then naming the Then naming the point of articulationpoint of articulation Examples: labio-labial, apico-alveolar, and Examples: labio-labial, apico-alveolar, and
dorso-velar stopsdorso-velar stops Shorthand version: bilabial, alveolar, and velar. Shorthand version: bilabial, alveolar, and velar.
Bilabial StopsBilabial Stops
Upper lip is pressed Upper lip is pressed against lower lipagainst lower lip
Labio- describes the Labio- describes the lower lip (articulator)lower lip (articulator)
Labial describes the Labial describes the upper lip (point of upper lip (point of articulation_articulation_
Called Called bilabial stop bilabial stop for shortfor short
Example: [p] as in Example: [p] as in [pın] or pin[pın] or pin
Apico-Alveolar StopsApico-Alveolar Stops
Tip (apex) of tongue Tip (apex) of tongue presses against gum presses against gum ridge (alveolar ridge) ridge (alveolar ridge) behind upper teethbehind upper teeth
Apico describes apex Apico describes apex of tongue (articulator)of tongue (articulator)
Alveolar describes Alveolar describes alveolar ridge (point alveolar ridge (point of articulation)of articulation)
Example: [t] as in tın] Example: [t] as in tın] or tinor tin
Dorso-Velar StopsDorso-Velar Stops
Back (dorsum) of Back (dorsum) of tongue presses tongue presses against soft palate against soft palate (velum)(velum)
Dorso describes Dorso describes dorsal part of tongue dorsal part of tongue (articulator)(articulator)
Velar describes velum Velar describes velum (point of articulation)(point of articulation)
Example: [k] as in Example: [k] as in [kın] or kin[kın] or kin
Contrasting SoundsContrasting Sounds
Across the board, Across the board, [p] contrasts with [t][p] contrasts with [t] [t] contrasts with [k][t] contrasts with [k] [p] contrasts with [k][p] contrasts with [k] But there are But there are twotwo bilabial stops: [p] and [b]bilabial stops: [p] and [b] apico-alveolar stops: [t] and [d]apico-alveolar stops: [t] and [d] Dorsal o-velar stops [k] and [g]Dorsal o-velar stops [k] and [g] Why? What’s going on?Why? What’s going on?
Voiced and Voiceless Voiced and Voiceless StopsStops One set of stops is voiceless or One set of stops is voiceless or
unvoicedunvoiced Namely [p], [t], and [k]Namely [p], [t], and [k] The other set of stops is voicedThe other set of stops is voiced [b] the bilabial voiced stop[b] the bilabial voiced stop [d] the voiced apico-alveolar stop[d] the voiced apico-alveolar stop [g] the voiced dorso-velar stop[g] the voiced dorso-velar stop A small experimentA small experiment
How Vocal Cords WorkHow Vocal Cords Work
When vocal cords are When vocal cords are relaxed (upper relaxed (upper diagram), they produce diagram), they produce no voiceno voice
When drawn tight with a When drawn tight with a small aperture or hole small aperture or hole (lower diagram), they (lower diagram), they produce a voiceproduce a voice
That is what causes the That is what causes the throat to vibratethroat to vibrate
Summing upSumming up
Voicing involves tightening of vocal cords Voicing involves tightening of vocal cords to produce a soundto produce a sound
When unvoiced phones are uttered, the When unvoiced phones are uttered, the vocal cords are relaxedvocal cords are relaxed
Voiced sounds contrast with unvoiced Voiced sounds contrast with unvoiced soundssounds
voiced [b] contrasts with unvoiced [p]voiced [b] contrasts with unvoiced [p] voiced [d] contrasts with unvoiced [t]voiced [d] contrasts with unvoiced [t] voiced [g] contrasts with unvoiced [k]voiced [g] contrasts with unvoiced [k]
PhonemesPhonemes
The sounds we described are also The sounds we described are also phonemesphonemes
Definition: The smallest significant Definition: The smallest significant unit of speechunit of speech
Significance: the speaker Significance: the speaker can hear can hear the difference.the difference.
We can hear the difference between We can hear the difference between [bın] and [pın], [dın] and [tın], and [bın] and [pın], [dın] and [tın], and [gın] and [kın][gın] and [kın]
Minimal PairsMinimal Pairs
[bın] and [pın]: what’s the [bın] and [pın]: what’s the difference?difference?
[tın] and [dın]: same question[tın] and [dın]: same question [gın] and [kın]: Again, what differs?[gın] and [kın]: Again, what differs? Short answer: the speech Short answer: the speech
environment environment is identicalis identical Only the stops differOnly the stops differ the [-ın] utterance is identicalthe [-ın] utterance is identical
Summary of Phonemic Summary of Phonemic Stops in EnglishStops in English
Notice that:Notice that: English doesn’t have all possible stops: labiodental, English doesn’t have all possible stops: labiodental,
interdental, or palatal interdental, or palatal We do have labio-dental fricatives {f], [v] and We do have labio-dental fricatives {f], [v] and
interdental ones [interdental ones [θθ] and [ð]] and [ð] The Russians have a palatal shop [tThe Russians have a palatal shop [tjj].]. There are numerous others in the world’s languagesThere are numerous others in the world’s languages
Phones as ClustersPhones as Clusters
Now the bad news: phonemes are not just one phoneNow the bad news: phonemes are not just one phone Rather they are clusters called speech units. Rather they are clusters called speech units. In other words, a phoneme usually comprises two or In other words, a phoneme usually comprises two or
more phones. more phones. We can best understand this by looking at allophones of We can best understand this by looking at allophones of
a phonemesa phonemes AllophonesAllophones are phonetic variations of a phoneme. are phonetic variations of a phoneme. The term The term allo-allo- is derived from the Greek that means is derived from the Greek that means
“other”“other” Allophones, unlike phones, do not affect the meaning of a Allophones, unlike phones, do not affect the meaning of a
wordword This is the second part of the definition: phonemes are This is the second part of the definition: phonemes are
significant significant speech unitsspeech units, not (single) speech sounds., not (single) speech sounds.
AllophonesAllophones
Two examples of allophones are from Two examples of allophones are from another exampleanother example: key: key and and skiski
Put a paper in front of your mouth and repeatPut a paper in front of your mouth and repeat The differencesThe differences [k[kh] in key [k] in key [khhi] is i] is aspiratedaspirated [[kk־־] in ski [sk] in ski [sk־־i] is i] is unaspiratedunaspirated In English, [kIn English, [kh] and [k] and [k־־] never form minimal ] never form minimal
pairspairs Therefore, [kTherefore, [khh] and [k] and [k־־] are ] are allophonesallophones
Allophones of Allophones of PhonemesPhonemes Definition: Variations of the same Definition: Variations of the same
phonemephoneme Our example: [kOur example: [khh] and [k] and [k־־] are ] are
allophones of the phoneme /k/ allophones of the phoneme /k/ Notation:Notation: Slash marks (//) indicate phonemeSlash marks (//) indicate phoneme Square brackets ([]) indicates Square brackets ([]) indicates
phone (and allophone)phone (and allophone)
Allophones in One Allophones in One Language: Phonemes in Language: Phonemes in AnotherAnother Old Sanskrit (from which Hindi and Urdu Old Sanskrit (from which Hindi and Urdu
are derived):are derived): [k[khhil] and [kil] and [k־־il] form minimal pairsil] form minimal pairs [k[khhil]: “parched grain”il]: “parched grain” [k[k־־il]: “small nail”il]: “small nail” [-il] is identical as for speech environment[-il] is identical as for speech environment Therefore, /kTherefore, /khh/ and /k/ and /k־־/ are phonemes in / are phonemes in
Old SanskritOld Sanskrit Every language has its own phonemesEvery language has its own phonemes
Phonemes as Phonemes as Structural Duality IStructural Duality I Note diagram in other panels. Note diagram in other panels. [b] contrasts with [d] which contrasts with [b] contrasts with [d] which contrasts with
[g][g] [p] contrasts with [t] which contrasts with [p] contrasts with [t] which contrasts with
[k][k] All the voiced stops contrast with All the voiced stops contrast with
unvoiced ones:unvoiced ones: [b] with [p], [d] with [t] and [g] with [k][b] with [p], [d] with [t] and [g] with [k] So we have a structureSo we have a structure
Structural Duality II: Structural Duality II: Morphemes and Morphemes and SyntaxSyntax Once the phonemes are identified:Once the phonemes are identified: They must be arranged for meaningThey must be arranged for meaning Morphemes and SyntaxMorphemes and Syntax Morphemes: The smallest Morphemes: The smallest meaningful meaningful
unit of speechunit of speech Syntax: Rules and principles of phrase Syntax: Rules and principles of phrase
and sentence constructionand sentence construction Grammar: Entire formal structure of a Grammar: Entire formal structure of a
language’s morphemes and syntaxlanguage’s morphemes and syntax
MorphemesMorphemes
Morphology:Morphology: Study of morphemes Study of morphemes and their construction into wordsand their construction into words
Types of morphemesTypes of morphemes Free morphemes: Free morphemes: Morphemes that Morphemes that
can stand unattached in a language: can stand unattached in a language: catcat
Bound morphemes: Bound morphemes: Morphemes that Morphemes that cannot stand unattached in a cannot stand unattached in a language: catlanguage: catss
Bound Morphemes: Bound Morphemes: Affixes, Inflection and Affixes, Inflection and DerivationDerivation Affix: Affix: a bound morpheme that modifies a a bound morpheme that modifies a
free morpheme or free morpheme or rootroot PrefixPrefix: An affix that precedes the root, as in : An affix that precedes the root, as in
the pre- for previewthe pre- for preview Suffix: Suffix: An affix that follows the root, as in –s An affix that follows the root, as in –s
for catsfor cats Inflectional bound morphemesInflectional bound morphemes: those that : those that
change number or tense, but not meaning: change number or tense, but not meaning: e.g., cat, cate.g., cat, catss
Derivational bound morphemes:Derivational bound morphemes: those those that change the meaning: e.g., part, partthat change the meaning: e.g., part, partyy
AllomorphsAllomorphs
Allomorphs: Allomorphs: Variants of a Variants of a morphememorpheme
Examples: plurals of dogs, cats, Examples: plurals of dogs, cats, horseshorses
Others: tooth/teeth; sheep/sheepOthers: tooth/teeth; sheep/sheep MorphophonemicsMorphophonemics: Study of : Study of
allomorphsallomorphs
Syntax: Parts of Syntax: Parts of SpeechSpeech Describes rules and principles of Describes rules and principles of
phrase and sentence construction.phrase and sentence construction. Parts of speech are similar to those in Parts of speech are similar to those in
high school grammarhigh school grammar Noun:Noun: Word referring to a person, Word referring to a person,
place, or thingplace, or thing Pronoun: Pronoun: Word that replaces a noun Word that replaces a noun
or other pronounor other pronoun Verb:Verb: Action word Action word
Syntax: More Parts of Syntax: More Parts of SpeechSpeech Adjective: Adjective: Word that modifies nounsWord that modifies nouns Adverb: Adverb: Word that modifies a verb, an Word that modifies a verb, an
adjective, and another adverbsadjective, and another adverbs Preposition:Preposition: Word that indicates a relation Word that indicates a relation
between an object in time, space, or logic to between an object in time, space, or logic to the rest of a sentencethe rest of a sentence
ConjunctionConjunction: Word connecting words or : Word connecting words or groups of wordsgroups of words
Interjection: Interjection: Word that expresses feelings, Word that expresses feelings, but usually not part of a sentence.but usually not part of a sentence.
Syntax and Word OrderSyntax and Word Order
Word order (sentence, verb, object) vary by Word order (sentence, verb, object) vary by language:language:
Subject (S): Subject (S): The thing or person of what a sentence The thing or person of what a sentence is aboutis about
Predicate (V): Predicate (V): Phrase that says something about the Phrase that says something about the subject; always include the verbsubject; always include the verb
Verb (O): Verb (O): Action word that forms the main part of the Action word that forms the main part of the predicatepredicate
Object:Object: The person or thing affected by the verb The person or thing affected by the verb In English, the word order is typically S-V-OIn English, the word order is typically S-V-O In Spanish, the word order is sometimes V-S-OIn Spanish, the word order is sometimes V-S-O Other languages have other word ordersOther languages have other word orders
So Why Aren’t Morphemes So Why Aren’t Morphemes and Syntax Separate and Syntax Separate Structures?Structures?
An exercise: catsAn exercise: cats Two cats (upper photo)Two cats (upper photo) Cat’s meow (lower picture: Cat’s meow (lower picture:
spoken, how do you use spoken, how do you use the apostrophe?)the apostrophe?)
Rest of sentence defines Rest of sentence defines morphememorpheme
Another exampleAnother example ““I lent my comb to Cookie”I lent my comb to Cookie” ““I comb my hair.”I comb my hair.”
Gesture Call Systems: Gesture Call Systems: KinesicsKinesics
Kinesics:Kinesics: System of System of analyzing postures, analyzing postures, facial expressions, facial expressions, “body language”“body language”
Gender differencesGender differences Smiles and frownsSmiles and frowns See that thumbs up?See that thumbs up? In other countries, it In other countries, it
would mean—well, you would mean—well, you know!know!
(Need a hint? Think (Need a hint? Think middle finger)middle finger)
Gesture Call Systems: Gesture Call Systems: Paralanguage Paralanguage
Paralanguage:Paralanguage: Extralinguistic noises Extralinguistic noises accompanying accompanying language language
Voice qualities:Voice qualities: tone, tone, slur (cartoon), other slur (cartoon), other background noisesbackground noises
VocalizationsVocalizations: : Identifiable noises Identifiable noises turned on and off at turned on and off at short intervals—”uh,” short intervals—”uh,” “um”“um”
More ParalanguageMore Paralanguage
Vocal characteristics:Vocal characteristics: Sound production such Sound production such as laughingas laughing
Vocal qualifiers:Vocal qualifiers: Tone Tone or pitch-”Get Out!”or pitch-”Get Out!”
Segregates:Segregates: “Shh!” “Oh “Shh!” “Oh oh,” “hmmm!” (cartoon) oh,” “hmmm!” (cartoon) among othersamong others
Linguistic ChangeLinguistic Change
Language FamilyLanguage Family Group of languages descended from a Group of languages descended from a
single ancestral languagesingle ancestral language Example: Indo-European is descended Example: Indo-European is descended
from Proto-Indo-Europeanfrom Proto-Indo-European GlottochronologyGlottochronology Technique of reconstructing past languageTechnique of reconstructing past language Core vocabulary: Core vocabulary: Comparing words Comparing words
common to all languagescommon to all languages
EthnolinguisticsEthnolinguistics
Definition: Study of relationship Definition: Study of relationship between language and culturebetween language and culture
Named after Named after Edward SapirEdward Sapir (top) and (top) and Benjamin Lee WhorfBenjamin Lee Whorf (bottom), the (bottom), the
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis states thatstates that language,language,
By providing habitual “grooves” of By providing habitual “grooves” of expressionexpression
Predisposes people to see world in Predisposes people to see world in certain wayscertain ways
Thus guiding thinking and behaviorThus guiding thinking and behavior
Ethnolinguistics: What Ethnolinguistics: What Comes First? Language Comes First? Language or Culture?or Culture?
Example of Sapir-Whorf Example of Sapir-Whorf hypothesishypothesis
Hopi:Hopi: Conception of time as Conception of time as processes, not discrete unitsprocesses, not discrete units
Nuer:Nuer: 400 words for cattle 400 words for cattle U.S. Militaristic vocabularyU.S. Militaristic vocabulary Chicken and Egg QuestionChicken and Egg Question Does language condition cultureDoes language condition culture Or does culture condition Or does culture condition
language?language?
Ethnolinguistics: Some Ethnolinguistics: Some Areas of ResearchAreas of Research Kinship terms:Kinship terms: Father or Mother may be extended to Father or Mother may be extended to
uncles and aunts.uncles and aunts. GenderGender Meaning of “I’m sorry”Meaning of “I’m sorry” Social dialectsSocial dialects Example: Afro-American or “Spanglish”Example: Afro-American or “Spanglish” Regional differences: Beijing vs. CantonRegional differences: Beijing vs. Canton
Code Switching: Martin Code Switching: Martin Luther KingLuther King
Definition: Switching style Definition: Switching style of speech according to of speech according to occasion and audienceoccasion and audience
Formal discourse in formal Formal discourse in formal settings (Washington settings (Washington Monument, 1963, I Have a Monument, 1963, I Have a Dream speech)Dream speech)
Informal discourse in Informal discourse in others (Ebenezer Baptist others (Ebenezer Baptist Church, 1967, anti-Church, 1967, anti-Vietnam War speech)Vietnam War speech)
Language OriginsLanguage Origins
Comparison of communication attributes Comparison of communication attributes was first stepwas first step
Chimpanzee communication: calls and Chimpanzee communication: calls and gesturesgestures
Indirect evidenceIndirect evidence Reconstructed anatomy: hyoid boneReconstructed anatomy: hyoid bone Endocasts indicating size of cerebrumEndocasts indicating size of cerebrum Control language among othersControl language among others Size indirect indicationSize indirect indication
Features of Language Features of Language Shared with Other SpeciesShared with Other Species
ArbitrarinessArbitrariness ProductivityProductivity InterchangeabilityInterchangeability DisplacementDisplacement SpecializationSpecialization Cultural TransmissionCultural Transmission
ArbitrarinessArbitrariness Definition: Absence of Definition: Absence of
intrinsic relation between intrinsic relation between communication element communication element (speech sound) and thing (speech sound) and thing or event to which it refers or event to which it refers (referent)(referent)
Iconic Relationship: Iconic Relationship: Existence of such a Existence of such a relationship between relationship between element (e.g. gesture) and element (e.g. gesture) and its referentits referent
Importance: Utterance is Importance: Utterance is not “married” to meaning, not “married” to meaning, such as this gibbon’s such as this gibbon’s warning callwarning call
Arbitrariness (ExamplesArbitrariness (Examples)) Example [k], [æ], and [t] are not Example [k], [æ], and [t] are not
meaningful in and of themselvesmeaningful in and of themselves Meaning emerges when sounds are Meaning emerges when sounds are
combined:combined: [kæt] “cat” has one meaning (feline, [kæt] “cat” has one meaning (feline,
the one who caught a mouse)the one who caught a mouse) [tæk] “tack” has another (small nail)[tæk] “tack” has another (small nail) [ækt] “act” has a third (dog and pony [ækt] “act” has a third (dog and pony
show)show) Even then, this string is language Even then, this string is language
specific (English), not intrinsicspecific (English), not intrinsic
Arbitrariness (Across Arbitrariness (Across Languages)Languages)
Evidence of Arbitrariness: Diverse LanguagesEvidence of Arbitrariness: Diverse Languages Cat has different pronunciations in different Cat has different pronunciations in different
languageslanguages Similarities are the product of historical contactSimilarities are the product of historical contact
Productivity Productivity (Definition)(Definition)
Definition:Definition: Capacity for elements of Capacity for elements of
communication systemcommunication system To be combined to form To be combined to form
new meaningsnew meanings Which speaker and Which speaker and
listener may never have listener may never have learned beforelearned before
Yet understands perfectlyYet understands perfectly Exercise:Exercise: pronounce pronounce
wugwug then two of them then two of them
Productivity Productivity (Examples)(Examples)
From From Jabberwocky Jabberwocky by by Lewis Carroll (see Lewis Carroll (see illustration}illustration}
‘‘Twas brillig and the Twas brillig and the sllthy tovessllthy toves
Did gyre and gimble in Did gyre and gimble in the wabethe wabe
Identify:Identify: The nounsThe nouns The verbsThe verbs The adjectivesThe adjectives
Productivity Productivity (Conclusion)(Conclusion) Language drillsLanguage drills English: I am, you are. . .English: I am, you are. . . Spanish: Yo soy, tu eres. . .Spanish: Yo soy, tu eres. . . Other species: Bee danceOther species: Bee dance Variations indicate location, direction, and Variations indicate location, direction, and
amount of nectar sourceamount of nectar source Speed: proximity or distance of sourceSpeed: proximity or distance of source Angle of body: directionAngle of body: direction Amount of pollen: amount at sourceAmount of pollen: amount at source
InterchangeabilityInterchangeability Definition: Use of same Definition: Use of same
communication system to send and communication system to send and receive messagesreceive messages
Illustrative Counterexample: Three-Illustrative Counterexample: Three-spine stickleback fish courtship (see spine stickleback fish courtship (see diagram)diagram)
Female elicits male response by Female elicits male response by presenting distended bellypresenting distended belly
Male performs zigzag dance around Male performs zigzag dance around femalefemale
She follow him to nestShe follow him to nest Male point to nest on arrivalMale point to nest on arrival Female enters nest, male rubs Female enters nest, male rubs
abdomen, abdomen, She discharges eggs, and male She discharges eggs, and male
fertilizes them with spermfertilizes them with sperm
Displacement Displacement (Definition)(Definition) Ability to refer to things and events not Ability to refer to things and events not
present, nonvisible, intangible, or present, nonvisible, intangible, or nonexistentnonexistent
Not present: Golden Gate Bridge in San Not present: Golden Gate Bridge in San FranciscoFrancisco
Not visible: Termites in sealed moundNot visible: Termites in sealed mound Intangible: math equations, square Intangible: math equations, square
rootsroots Nonexistent: dragons, unicornsNonexistent: dragons, unicorns
Displacement Displacement (Importance)(Importance)
Ability to represent unseen Ability to represent unseen parts of worldparts of world
Part of toolmaking abilityPart of toolmaking ability: to : to conceive a design (above)conceive a design (above)
Bee DanceBee Dance Scouting bee gives information on Scouting bee gives information on
non-present blossomsnon-present blossoms Direction of dance rel. to sun: Direction of dance rel. to sun:
indicates direction of sourceindicates direction of source Length of tail waggle: distance of Length of tail waggle: distance of
sourcesource Other bees act on this informationOther bees act on this information
Cultural TransmissionCultural Transmission
Learning of an element of Learning of an element of communication (speech sound, communication (speech sound, gestures)gestures)
Bees and stickleback acquire behavior Bees and stickleback acquire behavior geneticallygenetically
Dogs learn by conditioning, do not Dogs learn by conditioning, do not pass learning onpass learning on
Chimpanzees do learn by imitation and Chimpanzees do learn by imitation and pass it on: e.g., termite fishing. pass it on: e.g., termite fishing.
SpecializationSpecialization
Definition: Ability to transmit Definition: Ability to transmit message with minimal physical effortmessage with minimal physical effort
Language is most specialized Language is most specialized communication systemcommunication system
Examples of unspecialized Examples of unspecialized communicationcommunication
Chimpanzee displaysChimpanzee displays Bee danceBee dance Stickleback courtshipStickleback courtship
ConclusionConclusion
Language is basis of cultureLanguage is basis of culture Knowledge of linguistics is prerequisiteKnowledge of linguistics is prerequisite Descriptive LinguisticsDescriptive Linguistics Language and SocietyLanguage and Society Culture can condition languageCulture can condition language Chicken-egg question remainsChicken-egg question remains One more technique: content analysis One more technique: content analysis
of languageof language