- 1. Growth-Enhancing Environments in Educational
Organizations
2. Chapter 1
- Organizational Behavior is the study and application of
knowledge about how people, individuals and groups act in
organizations.
3. B = f(P,E)
- It states thatBehavioris a function of thePersonand his or
herEnvironment . The equation is the psychologist's most well known
formula in social psychology, of which Lewin was a modern pioneer.
When first presented in Lewin's bookPrinciples of Topological
Psychology , published in 1936, it contradicted most popular
theories in that it gave importance to a person's momentary
situation in understanding his or her behavior, rather than relying
entirely on the past.
4.
- It follows thatorganizational environmentis a key to
influencingorganizational behavior .
- The behavior of the people in an organizational life arises
from the interaction between theirinner motivational needs and
characteristics(temperaments, intelligences, beliefs, perceptions)
and characteristics oforganizational environment.
5.
- Organization and its environment is a socially constructed
reality. It is not tangible.
- Building is tangible, furniture and equipment, files and other
artifacts that make up the physical entity that we often call
school. But this is not the organization.
6.
- Organization exists largely in the eye and themind of the
beholder , it is in reality pretty muchwhat people think it is
.
7. Two Major Perspectives on Educational Organizations
- Human Resources Development (HRD)
8. Bureaucratic Views
- Classical/traditional/ factory model of organization
- Epitomized by the 18 thcentury army of Frederick the Great with
its characteristically mechanical regimentation , top-down
authority, going by the book.
- On this view an organization is though as an old fashioned
clockwith all the various parts articulated so that everything
works smoothly and predictably.
- Up to this day this is the most common ideal of an
organization.
9. Bureaucratic Views
- Five mechanisms for dealing with controlling and coordinating
the behavior of people in an organization.
-
- 1. Maintain firm hierarchical control of authority and close
supervision of those in the lower ranks.(role of administrator as
an inspector and evaluator)
-
- Establish and maintain adequate vertical communication .(assure
that good information will be transmitted up the hierarchy to the
decision makers and orders will be clearly and quickly transmitted
down the line for the implementation.)
-
- Develop clear written rules and procedures to set standards and
guide actions.(these includes curriculum guides, policy, handbooks,
instructions, standard forms, duty rosters, rules and regulations
ad standard operating procedures)
10. Bureaucratic Views
-
- 4. Promulgate clear plans and schedules for participants to
follow.(these includes teachers lesson plans, bell schedules,
meeting schedules, budgets, special teacher schedules, lunch
schedules, and many others)
-
- Add supervisory and administrative positions to the hierarchy
of the organization as necessary to meet problems that arise from
changing conditions confronted by the organization.(new positions
appeared as the need arises)
11.
- The overwhelming widespread acceptance of these preferred
mechanism for exercising control and coordination in schools is
illustrated by the reform movement that burst upon the scene in the
earl 1980s in America.
- The effectiveness of the school arose as the major theme in the
agenda on education in 1980s to joined the linked duo that had been
inherited from the 1970s
12.
- In 1982 a virtually unrelated reform movement suddenly
eruptedthat seized the center stage and strongly influenced
numerous efforts to improve the functioning of schools.
- In 1983 , A Nation at Riskand other reports brought
recommendations that resulted in
- longer days, focus on time on task, more homework, career
ladders, call for stronger school leadership of the principal,
tougher curriculum, longer school calendar and others
13.
- Virtually all of the reform proposals have assumed a top-down
strategy similar to this: that is, decision are made in the
legislature or another place in the hierarchy, such as the state
department, and handed down to be implemented by teachers in their
classrooms.
14. Dennis Doyle and Terry Hartle observed;
- It simply doesnt work that way.The impulse to reform the
schools from top down is not working.
- The model for such reform was the factory; Frederick Taylors
Scientific management. It created an environment whose principal
characteristics were pyramidalthe teacher was the worker on the
assembly line, the student, the product; the superintendent, the
chief executive, the trustees and the taxpayers are the
shareholders.
- It doesnt work because factory (business and industry) and
schools are completely different organizations.
15. Dennis Doyle and Terry Hartle continue
- To present a different set of assumptions about the
organizational characteristics of schools and the behavior of
teachers in their classrooms;a view that places the teacher
foremost in creating instructional change.Be the cha to
- They call it theHuman Resources Development Views.
16. Human Resources Development Views
- Human Resources Development (HRD) views the teacher as foremost
in creating instructional change.
- HRD uses newer concepts such as loose coupling (allowing
subunits autonomy) and the power of organization culture to
influence behavior.
- HRD exercises coordination and control through socialization of
participants to the values and goals of the organization, rather
then through written rules and close supervision.
17. Human Resources Development Views
- On this view, close inspection and supervision are far from the
only means of assuring the predictable performance of
participants.
- Personal identification with the values of the organizations
culture can provide a powerful motivation for dependable
performance even under conditions of great uncertainty and
stress.(What is it that causes an individual to join an
organization, stay in it, and work toward the organizations
goals?)
18. Theory X and Theory Y
- Assumptions underlying the assumptions that one holds about the
people in organization.
- this can be use as a guide to action in dealing with employees
in the organization.
19.
- Theory Xrests on four assumptions that an administrator holds
about people in organization.
- They dislike work, must be supervised closely, will shirk
responsibility and seek formal direction, and have a little
ambition.
- Theory Yembraces four different assumptions administrators hold
about the nature of people at work.
-
- They view work as satisfying, exercise initiative and self
direction if committed to the organization, learn to accept
responsibility and seek it, and have the ability to make good
decisions.
20. Comparison of Assumptions underlying Chris Argyris Behavior
Pattern A and Behavior Pattern B. 21. ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING
BEHAVIOR PATTERN A (Theory X- Soft) ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING BEHAVIOR
PATTERN B (Theory Y) With Regard to People
- People in our culture, teachers among them, share a common set
of needs to belong, to be liked, to be respected.
- 2.Although teachers desire individual recognition, they, more
importantly, want to feel useful to the school.
- 3. They tend to cooperate willingly and to comply with school,
department, and unit goals if these important needs are
fulfilled.
- In addition to sharing common needs for belonging and respect,
most people in our culture, teachers among them, desire to
contribute effectively and creatively to the accomplishment of
worthwhile objectives.
- . The majority of teachers are capable of exercising far more
initiative responsibility, and creativity than their present job or
work circumstances require or allow.
- These capabilities represent untapped resources which are
currently being wasted.
22. ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING BEHAVIOR PATTERN A, SOFT (Theory X-
Soft) ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING BEHAVIOR PATTERN B (Theory Y) With
Regard to Participation
- The administrators basic task is to make each teacher believe
that he or she is a useful and an important part of the team.
- The administrator is willing to explain his or her decisions
and to discuss teachers objections to his or her plans. On routine
matters, teachers are encouraged in planning and in decision
making.
- Within narrow limits, the faculty unit or individual teachers
who comprise the faculty units should be allowed to exercise self
direction and self control.
- The administrators basic task is to create an environment in
which the teachers can contribute their full range of talents to
the accomplishment of school goals. The administrator works to
uncover the creative resources of the teachers.
- The administrator allows and encourages teachers to participate
in important as well as routine decisions. In fact, the more
important a decision is to the school, the greater are the
administrators effort to tap faculty resources.
- . Administrators work continually to expand the areas over
which teachers exercise self-direction and self-control as they
develop and demonstrate greater insight and ability.
23. ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING BEHAVIOR PATTERN A, SOFT (Theory X-
Soft) ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING BEHAVIOR PATTERN B (Theory Y) With
Regard to Expectations
- Sharing information with teachers and involving them in school
decision making will help satisfy their basic needs for belonging
and for individual recognition.
- Satisfying these needs will improve teacher morale and will
reduce resistance to formal authority.
- The overall quality of decision making and performance will
improve as administrators and teachers make use of the full range
of experience, insight, and creative ability that exists in their
school.
- Teachers will exercise responsible self-direction and
self-control the accomplishment of worthwhile objectives that they
understand and have helped establish.
24. RensisLikertsManagement Systems Theory related to McGregors
Theory X and Theory Y 25. Theory X System 1
- Management is seen as having no trust in subordinates.
- Decision imposed made at the top
- Subordinates motivated by fear, threats and punishment.
- Control centered on top management.
- Little superior-subordinate interaction
- People informally opposed to goal by management.
System 2
- Management has condescending confidence and trust in
subordinates.
- Subordinate seldom involved in decision making.
- Rewards and punishment used to motivate
- Interaction used with condescension
- Fear and caution displayed by subordinates.
- Control centered on top management but some delegation
26. System 3
- Management seen as having substantialbut not complete trust in
subordinates
- Subordinates makes specific decisions at lower level.
- Communication flows up and down hierarchy.
- Rewards, occasional punishment, and some involvement are used
to motivate.
- Moderate interaction and fair trust exist.
- Control is delegated downward
Theory Y System 4
- Management is seen as having complete trust and confidence in
subordinates.
- Decision making is widely dispersed.
- Communication flows up and down and laterally.
- Motivation is by participation and rewards.
- High degree of confidence and trust exists.
- Widespread of responsibility for the control process
exists.
27. Defining and Describing Organizational Climate and Culture
28. Climate
- Is generally defined asthe characteristics of the total
environment in a school building.
- According to the work of Renato Tagiuri the total environment
of an organization, that is the organizational climate, are
comprised by 4 dimension.
29.
- 1. Ecology refers to physical and material factors in the
organization:for example the size, age, design, facilities, and
condition of the building or buildings. It also refers to
technology used by people in the organization: desks and chairs,
chalkboards, elevators, everything used to carry out organizational
activities.
- 2. Milieu is the social dimension in the organization. This
includes virtually everything relating to people in the
organization .This would include race and ethnicity, salary level
of teachers, socioeconomic level of students,education levels
attained by teachers, the morale and motivation of adults and
students, level of job satisfaction and others.
30.
- 3. Social System refers to the organizational and
administrative structure of the organization.It includes how the
school is organized, the ways in which decisions are made and who
is involved in making them, the communication patterns among
people, what work groups there are, etc.
- 4. Culture refers to the value, belief systems, norms, and ways
of thinking that are characteristics of the people in the
organization.It is the way we do things around here.
31. 32. The Importance of Culture
- Once a culture is established it is not only shapes peoples
behavior, perception and understanding of events, it provides a
template for learning. Culture exerts a profound impact on the
induction and orientation of organizational members and on the way
an organization responds to changes in its environment.
33. Definition of Organizational Culture
- Schein describes the culture of a group as:
- A pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as
it solved its problems of external adaptation and internal
integration, that has worked well enough to be considered valid
and, therefore to be taught to new members as the correct way to
perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems.
34. Components of Culture ScheinsModel of Levels of Culture 35.
Artifacts and Creations
- Physical and social environment
- Includes the myths and stories about the organization, the
architecture ,published lists of values, the norms of behavior, the
technology, the style of dress, rituals, ceremonies, customs and
languages
- Most easily observed and readily visible but it is often
difficult to interpret.
36. Organizational Values
- Testable in the physical environment.
- Testable only by social consensus.
- Less visible and very complex.
- Sometimes encoded in written language such as mission statement
statement of philosophy, or credo.
37. Basic Assumptions
- Relationship to environment
- Nature of reality, time and space
- Nature of Human Relationships
- Nature of Relationship on time and space
- Assumptions are those unconscious taken for granted beliefs,
perceptions, thoughts, underlying shared convictions that guide
behavior and are the ultimate source of values and action.
38. 2 Major themes in a definition of Organizational
culture.
- Norms. An important way in which organizational culture
influencesbehavior is through the norms or standards that the
social system institutionalizes and enforces. These are encountered
by the individual as group norms, which are ideas that can be put
in the form of statement specifying what members . Should do. They
are in other words ,rules of behavior which have been accepted as
legitimate by members of a group. They are of course, unwritten
rules , that nonetheless express the shared beliefs of most group
members about what behavior is appropriate in order to be a member
in good standing.
39.
- Assumptions. Underneath these behavioral norms lie the
assumptions that comprise the bedrock upon which norms and all
other aspects of culture are built. These assumptions deal withwhat
people in the organization accept as true in the world and what is
false., what is sensible and what is absurd, what is possible and
what is impossible . Assumptions are tacit instead, unconsciously
taken for granted, rarely considered or talked about and accepted
as true and nonnegotiable.
40. Research on Organizational Culture
- Theory Zby William Ouichi (1981)
- It was published at a moment when American corporate managers
were groping for some solution to their difficulties in meeting
Japanese competition.
- Ouichi a Japanese-American compared and contrasted the
management styles used in the two nations. He found that Japanese
management practices tended to be quite different from American and
that some of them (not all, due to societal differences) could
profitable be adopted by American corporations.
41.
- Theory Z accepts the main assumptions of HRD:
- Of all its values, commitment of a Z culture to its people- its
workers is the most important . .Theory Z assumes that any workers
life is a whole, not a Jekyll-Hyde personality, half machine from
nine to five and half human in the hours preceding and following.
Theory Z suggestthat humanized working conditions not only increase
productivity and profits to the company but also self-esteem for
employees Up to now American managers have assumed that technology
makes for increased productivity. What theory Z calls for instead
is a redirection of attention to human relations in the corporate
world.
42.
- In Search of Excellence (1982)
- Described eight management characteristics that sixty-two
successful American corporation had in common. Cutting across the
eight characteristics was a consistent theme: the power of values
and culture in these corporations, rather than procedures and
control systems, provides the glue that holds them together,
stimulates commitment to a common mission, and galvanizes the
creativity and energy of their participants.The values are not
usually transmitted formally or in writing. Instead, they permeate
the organization in the form of stories, myths, legends, and
metaphors and these companies have people in them who attend to
this awareness of organizational culture.
- Tom Peters and Robert H. Waterman.
43. 8 management characteristics that sixty-two successful
American corporation had in common
- A bias for action, active decision making getting on with
it.
- Close to the customer learning from people served by the
business.
- Autonomy and entrepreneurship fostering innovation and
nurturing champions
- Productivity through people treating rank and file employees as
a source of quality.
- Hands-on, value driven management philosophy that guides
everyday practice management showing its commitment.
- Stick to the knitting stay with the business that you
know.
- Simple form, lean staff some of the best companies have minimal
HQ staff.
- Simultaneous loose-tight properties autonomy in shop-floor
activities plus centralized values.
44. Relationship between Organizational Culture Organizational
effectiveness. 45.
- Do various organizational cultures produce different outcomes,
in terms of effectiveness, in the organization achieving its
goals?
- Measuring organizational effectiveness is a complex
undertaking. Here you need to consider a lot of factors that is not
sometimes quantifiable.
- So instead of measuring organizational effectiveness researcher
focused for defining and describing the variables of organizational
culture or in some cases cautiously suggesting a possible
relationship.
46. Rensis Likert (Cause and Effect)
- Suggests that Organizational Performance is related to the
internal characteristics of the organization.
- The performance of an organization is determined by a 3 link
chain of causes and effect.
47. 1. Causal Variables
- Under the control of administration
- choose the design of the organizations structure.
- can choose the leadership style
- choose a philosophy of operation
48. 2. Intervening Variables
- Flows directly from the causal variables. Thus the nature of
motivation, communication, and other critical aspects of
organizational functioning is determined.
49. 3. End Result Variables
- The measure of an organization success, depends heavily, of
course on the nature and quality of the internal functioning of the
organization.
50. Corporate Cultures: The Rites and Rituals of Corporate Life
(1982)
- Helped to clarify what culture is: a system of shared values
andbeliefs that interact with an organizations people,
organizational structure, and control systems to produce behavioral
norms. They helped make clear that in practical terms, shared
values means what is important; beliefs means what we think is
true; and behavioral norms means how we do things around here
51. Organizational Culture and Organizational Climate Compared
and Contrasted 52.
- School leaders who want to address morale in their buildings
must know the distinction between culture and climate
53.
- Rosabeth Moss Kanter findings: most high performing companiesis
found to have a culture of pride and a climate of success.
- Culture of pride means there is emotional and values commitment
between person and organization ; people feel that they belong to a
meaningful entity and can realize cherished values by their
contributions. With this feeling of pride in belonging to a
worthwhile organization with a record of achievement, of being a
member rather than an employee, the confidence of an individual is
bolstered : confidence that the organization will be supportive of
creative new practices and will continue to perform well.
54. What Is School Climate?
- School climate is a term that has been used for many decades.
Its early use denoted the ethos, or spirit, of an organization.
More recently, school climate is thought to represent the attitude
of an organization. The collective mood, or morale, of a group of
people has become a topic of concern, especially in our new age of
accountability. It seems that a happy teacher is considered a
better teacher, and this attitude influences the quality of
instruction.
55.
- If happy people truly perform better, then leaders must create
conditions in which happiness thrives. Unfortunately, some leaders
do not research the most effective strategies for creating a happy
school climate, instead relying on extrinsic rewards. Bringing
doughnuts to the faculty lounge on Fridays may help a few teachers
wake up quicker, but this act will not affect the morale of the
building.
56.
- Activities designed to address low morale by creating a more
positive climate need to be scrutinized using the following
criteria:
- How much of an investment of time, money, and energy is
involved?
- How much time will elapse before the activity begins to make a
difference?
- Is the activity designed to impact an individual or a
group?
- Is the activity built around intrinsic or extrinsic
rewards?
- What will the culture say about it?
57.
- The last criterion is significant because an organizations
culture determines its climate.
58. C ulture Always Wins
- Whenever a group of people spend a significant amount of time
together, they develop a common set of expectations. These
expectations evolve into unwritten rules to which group members
conform in order to remain in good standing with their colleagues.
Groups develop a common culture in order to pass on information to
the next generation. That information, however, represents a set of
beliefs that have been passed down by imperfect humans with
personal preferences.
59.
- In schools, new teachers arrive with their own ideas about how
to do their jobs. Through their schooling, they will have been
immersed in theories of best practices and cutting-edge
methodologies. If the culture of their first job does not embrace
these new ideas, they will soon learn that to fit in they will need
to assimilate. Because new teachers want to fit in and to feel like
experienced teachers, they are vulnerable to the schools culture
and all the unwritten rules that have been passed on through the
decades.
60.
- An organizations culture dictates its collective personality.
Continuing this analogy, if culture is the personality of the
organization, then climate represents that organizations
attitude.It is much easier to change an organizations attitude
(climate) than it is to change its personality (culture).
61. C omparing Climate with Culture
- The relationship between culture and climate can be observed
through our perceptions of the days of the week. Typically in U.S.
schools, Mondays are perceived as miserable and Fridays are thought
of as fun. This viewpoint reflects the business models values and,
thus, we learn that we are not supposed to want to come to school
on Mondays. Teachers and students often talk about the weekend or
the next holiday or vacation, often counting down the days. To come
in on Monday morning, happy about being there andnot looking
forward to the weekend would challenge the existing climate. As a
result, we can expect the climate to be less positive on Mondays
than it is on Fridays.
62.
- Placing a higher value on weekends is a particularly American
phenomenon. There are many societies, or cultures, that do not
place value on the day of the week. Cultures create the negative
stigma of Monday mornings and we teach this preference to each
generationit usually takes hold around the fourth or fifth grade
for students. When the climate is negative, as is the case on most
Monday mornings, it is the culture that dictates how members of the
group are supposed to feel. The culture tells us that were supposed
to feel miserable on Mondays.
63. Table 1 provides some examples of the differences between
climate and culture and how culture influences climate. 64.
- Monday versus Friday Gives Mondays permission tobe
miserable
- Attitude or mood of the groupPersonality of the group
- Provides a state of mindProvides a (limited) way
ofthinking
- Flexible, easy to changeTakes many years to evolve
- Based on perceptionsBased on values and beliefs
- Feel it when you come in the doorMembers cannot feel it
- Is all around usIs part of us
- The way we feel around hereThe way we do things aroundhere
- First step to improvementDetermines if improvement
ispossible
- Its in your headIts in your head
65. Shaping Culture Through Climate 66.
- Climate is the main leverage point for any culture, which means
that if school leaders want to shape a new culture, they should
start with an assessment of the climate.
67.
- If the culture is ineffective, there are probably climate
issues that were missed before they became rooted in the culture.
In the doughnut example, if the principal brings doughnuts to the
teachers lounge on Friday, the climate might change that day. If
the principal brings doughnuts every Friday for a year, that
behavior will become part of the culture, an unwritten expectation.
The first Friday the principal doesnt bring doughnuts, however, the
climate might change that day. You can replace doughnuts with a
smile, formal attire, tardiness, a walk around the building, or
practically anything.
68.
- The two concepts are also related in that they are both
conceptual.
- Everything around you, including what you see, hear, feel, and
smell, are all artifacts of the culture. Reaction to each of these
senses is influenced by the culture because culture taps into
belief systems and helps to decide preferences, dislikes, who to
trust, when to go home, what to wear, how fast to drive, and how to
teach. The culture will provide you with information about customs
and how you should react to certain situations.
69.
- How we behave in the light of student misfortunes is determined
by the culture; conversely, how we reward student success must also
fit within the social architecture of the group.
70.
- A holistic view of the statements in Table 1 reveals that
changing the climate can be accomplished without much effort,
suggesting that it is somewhat out of our control.
71.
- For example, events may transpire that will affect the attitude
of teachers before they get to school. If happy teachers are better
teachers, should we be concerned about what they are happy about?
Or for that matter, what might make them sad? Would a teacher who
won $10,000 from a lottery ticket on his or her way to work do a
better job of teaching that day? Would a teacher who slipped on ice
outside his or her home do a worse job of teaching that day?
72.
- The answer lies in what the culture expects them to do. Perhaps
all that school leaders can do is attempt to create optimal
conditions for staff and remain vigilant over those aspects that
may sabotage their efforts.
73.
- Understanding the differences and similarities between culture
and climate gives us a more precise instrument by which we might
improve our schools . To implement a strategy designed to change
our mood, or climate, is certainly not the same as one that targets
our belief systems, or culture. Real school improvement has been
boiled down by many authors as simply changing the way teachers
teach. This will not be accomplished by bringing doughnuts to
school.