Chapter 11

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The Role of Occupancy

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Learning Objectives (1 of 12)

• Classify occupant ability to evacuate using an occupancy factor matrix.

• Explain what is meant by occupant density and how it affects occupant safety.

• Given the dimensions, number of floors, and occupant density, determine the maximum number of people who could be in a building.

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• Define assembly occupancy and provide examples of different types of assembly occupancies.

• Compare and contrast the risk to fire fighters when fighting a fire in an assembly occupancy compared to a residential occupancy.

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• Define educational occupancy and compare the life hazards in elementary schools, high schools, and colleges.

• Define health care occupancy and explain how evacuations in health care occupancies are different than in most other occupancies.

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• Compare and contrast occupants in hospitals, nursing homes, and limited care facilities and describe how the occupant characteristics in each affect life safety during a structure fire.

• Define residential board and care occupancy and compare these facilities to nursing homes.

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• Define detention and correctional occupancy and explain the special challenges associated with combating a fire in a large correctional facility.

• Define residential occupancy and compare various types of residential buildings in terms of life safety.

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• Evaluate and discuss civilian fire deaths and fire fighter on-duty death rates in residential occupancies.

• Define mercantile occupancy and compare older style shopping centers to enclosed malls and lifestyle centers in terms of life safety and extinguishment.

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• Examine life safety and extinguishment problems related to “big box” stores.

• Explain how search and rescue procedures in a large commercial structure differ from search and rescue in a typical residential building.

• Define business occupancy.

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• Compare and contrast business and residential occupancies in terms of the risk to fire fighters during fire-ground operations.

• Define storage occupancy and evaluate the effect of fuel load on manual firefighting.

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• Describe the problems associated with changing the commodities stored in a sprinkler-protected storage occupancy.

• Compare and contrast storage and residential occupancies in terms of the risk to fire fighters during fire-ground operations.

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• Define industrial occupancy and the effect of hazardous materials related to life safety and extinguishment.

• Compare and contrast industrial and residential occupancies in terms of the risk to fire fighters during fire-ground operations.

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• Define multiple, mixed, and separated occupancies and explain the difference between a mixed and separated occupancy.

• Explain the increased hazard to occupants in multiple story buildings where the first floor is occupied by stores and shops with apartments above.

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• Describe the fire hazards associated with buildings under construction, renovation, or demolition.

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Overview (1 of 2)

• The building’s occupancy type should be considered as part of the size-up process.– Determines the level of risk to occupants

and fire fighters

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Overview (2 of 2)

• Residential, high-rise, and assembly occupancies all require different strategies.– Time of day and day of week are also

critical factors.

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Occupancy Type

• The function or use of a building has much to do with life safety.

• Codes and standards are written with a focus on the special hazards presented by the occupancy

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Major Factors (1 of 3)

• Mobility of the occupants

• Age of the occupants

• Leadership– Will there be an organized evacuation?

• Awareness– Sleeping, mentally impaired, etc.

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• Occupant density and total number of occupants– A measure of the number of people in a

given area – The number of ft2 per person

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• Familiarity – Do they know the building layout?

• Time factors – When are people present in the structure?

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Reports• Publications detailing large loss fires

– National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)– U.S. Fire Administration (USFA)– National Institute for Occupational Safety and

Health (NIOSH)– National Institute for Science and Technology

(NIST) – Periodicals

• NFPA Journal and Fire Engineering

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Assembly Occupancies

• 50 or more persons gathered for:– Worship– Entertainment– Eating– Drinking– Amusement– Awaiting transportation

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Assembly Concerns

• Large number of people in a small area

• Fuel load varies– Flame spread rate is critical

• Fire must be kept out of exits

• Fire can gain headway because building is unoccupied for long periods of time

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Churches (1 of 2)

• Often use open flames (candles)• Can be overcrowded• Most fires occur when the building is

unoccupied, resulting in delayed alarm.• Additional uses may add to fuel load.

– Child care, homeless shelters

• Old, gothic-style churches have large concealed spaces.

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Churches (2 of 2)

• Exposure problems from attached structures

• Priceless contents– Stained glass windows

• Defensive operation should be considered

• Collapse potential great– Bell towers

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Eating and Drinking Establishments

• Overcrowding is a common problem and exits may become blocked.

• Occupants may be impaired.• Fire probability is fairly high due to

smoking, cooking, and highly combustible decorations and furnishings.

• Fire must be quickly confined and exits protected.

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Sports Arenas

• Extreme life-hazard threat

• Potential terrorist target

• Goal is to protect egress routes while directing/facilitating evacuation

• Newer facilities may be protected by fire sprinklers.

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Convention Centers

• Potential for large fires and high risk to life

• Tactics include protecting egress routes

• Sprinklers are commonplace.– Greatly diminish potential loss of life and

property – May be overwhelmed

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Theaters

• Older theaters were built for live shows and movies.

• Newer theaters are housed in very large, long buildings.

• Protecting egress routes is a priority.

• Newer theaters are often protected by fire sprinklers.

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Educational Occupancies (1 of 2)

• Used for educational purposes– Through the twelfth grade– Six or more persons – 4 or more hours per day or more than 12

hours per week

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Educational Occupancies (2 of 2)

• Types– Elementary schools– Middle, junior high, or high schools– Colleges and universities

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Mobility Factors in Schools (1 of 2)

• Tend to be very good in school settings – Younger elementary school students

depend on a high degree of leadership.– Most elementary and high school students

would be mobile. – College level should not pose a problem.

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Mobility Factors in Schools (2 of 2)

• All levels should be aware of fire conditions and be able to hear the evacuation alarm.

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Elementary Schools

• Tragic fires– Younger children are less likely to take

appropriate action on their own. – The younger the students, the greater the

danger

• Only recently have schools been protected with automatic sprinkler systems.

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Saving Factors

• Discipline gained through frequent fire drills

• Teachers are natural role models for the children to follow in an emergency.

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Special Challenges

• Fire extension

• Mobile buildings may suffer complete destruction in a short period of time.

• Additional fuel load– Stored clothing– Furniture– Other collected materials

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Middle, Junior High, and High Schools

• Fire drills are required through grade 12.

• Accountability may not be as efficient at the high school level.

• May be occupied outside of normal class hours

• Auditoriums may be classified as assembly occupancies.

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Colleges and Universities

• Larger campuses

• More evening and weekend activities

• Adult population is better able to take care of themselves.

• No occupant accountability system

• Rate-of-flow should be pre-planned.

• May contain high-value contents

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Health Care Occupancies (1 of 2)

• Used for purposes of medical or other treatment or care for four or more persons.

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Health Care Occupancies (2 of 2)

• Occupants are mostly incapable of self preservation due to:– Age– Physical or mental disability– Security measures not under the

occupants’ control

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Types

• Hospitals

• Nursing homes

• Limited care facilities

• Ambulatory care facilities

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Hospitals and Nursing Homes

• Mobility is a major concern.

• Many patients are non-ambulatory.– Unable to self-evacuate– Will need assistance from nursing staff

• Limited care facility– More mobile than nursing homes– Staff usually provides leadership

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Ambulatory Care Facilities

• Usually treat minor illnesses and injuries– Patients may be immobile and have limited or no

cognitive ability due to anesthesia.

• Should be indicated in pre-incident plans• Conscious patients will be more likely to take

independent action in an emergency.

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Areas of Safe Refuge (1 of 2)

• Used in place of evacuations

• Patients are moved through fire doors to safe areas.

• Patients are seldom evacuated to the outside.

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Areas of Safe Refuge (2 of 2)

• Defend-in-place strategy– Preferred option– Occupants are either protected at their

present location or moved to a safe location within the building.

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Hospitals (1 of 3)

• Building features assist in accomplishing the life safety mission.– Areas separated by substantial fire walls

and fire doors

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Hospitals (2 of 3)

• Accountability– Reliable for patients– Unreliable for visitors and doctors– Primary search must be conducted

• Large open areas may have heavy fuel load.– Laundries, storage, and refuse areas

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Hospitals (3 of 3)

• Patient rooms are usually within the flow capacity of hose lines.

• Smoke spread should be considered. – Contain expensive equipment that may be

sensitive to water and smoke damage

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Nursing Homes

• Present many evacuation and rescue problems– Residents are unable or only partially able

to assist themselves.– Requires significant commitment of fire

department resources

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Sprinklered Buildings

• Fires are generally limited to one room.

• Primary tactic is to move patients out of smoky areas to places of safe refuge.

• Sprinkler system must be supported.

• Fire doors should be used to contain the fire.

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Limited Care Facilities

• Sometimes called assisted living facilities

• Similar to nursing homes except occupants do not require continuous nursing care

• Many resemble apartment buildings • Primary search and quick

extinguishment are the principal tactics.

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Residential Board and Care Occupancies (1 of 2)

• A building or portion thereof that is used for lodging and boarding– Four or more residents– Not related by blood or marriage to the

owners or operators– For providing personal care services

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Residential Board and Care Occupancies (2 of 2)

• Residents will usually be mentally or physically disadvantaged.– May result in problems evacuating the

building

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Detention and Correctional Occupancies

• Used to house four or more persons under varied degrees of restraint or security – Occupants are mostly incapable of self-

preservation because of security measures not under the occupants’ control.

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Residential Occupancies

• Provides sleeping accommodations for purposes other than health care or detention and correctional.

• Account for the most fires, most fatal fires, and most property loss.

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Types

• One- and two-family dwellings

• Apartment buildings

• Dormitories

• Hotels/motels

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One- and Two-Family Dwellings

• More line-of-duty deaths occur in these properties than any other occupancy.– Primarily due to the large number of fires

• No fire should ever be considered routine.• There is a direct correlation between life

safety and the time of day.– Primarily occupied at night and on weekends

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Tactics

• Primary and secondary search

• Life safety objective is achieved through extinguishment. – One or two pre-connected hose lines

• Property conservation

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Apartment Buildings

• Large number of people concentrated in smaller area– Life safety problem is directly proportional

to the number of units in a single building. – Requires a larger staffing commitment

• Exposure problems likely

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Dormitories

• Small living spaces with common public areas

• Life safety is a critical issue.• The number of people is fairly high

compared to most residential properties.• May be regulated by the University

– Safety policies should be in place.

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Fraternity/Sorority Housing

• Can be old residential properties– Modified to hold more tenants than the

original design intended– May or may not be controlled by the

college

• Occupant load increases substantially due to social events.– Guests may not be familiar with building

and exit facilities.

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Student Housing

• Alcohol consumption results in a lack of awareness and reduces mobility.

• Arson is the leading cause of fire.

• Most rooms will be within the flow capacity of standard hose streams.

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Hotels and Motels

• Little leadership– Except parents traveling with children

• Hotels and motels are transient in nature.– Most occupants will not know the location

of alternative means of egress.

• Greater occupant density than most residential occupancies

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Mercantile Occupancies (1 of 2)

• Used for the display and sale of merchandise

• Shoppers and employees should be fully alert. – Most will be able to evacuate with little

assistance.

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Mercantile Occupancies (2 of 2)

• Leadership is not provided in most stores.

• Occupant density can be very high.

• Time factors are critical in sizing up a mercantile occupancy.

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Shopping Centers

• May lack sprinkler protection

• Required rate-of-flow could be very large

• Internal exposure hazards

• May have common attic space– Allows for horizontal fire spread

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Enclosed Shopping Malls

• Larger than shopping centers

• Can be two or more levels

• Can have confusing layout

• Stores may be separated by non-combustible partitions.– Remain open to the front

• Most are sprinkler protected

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Lifestyle Centers

• Laid out like blocks of stores resembling a city street

• Each store is accessible from the outside.

• Normally protected by sprinklers

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“Big-Box” Stores

• Open layout store to the front with an attached storage area to the rear

• Should be sprinkler protected– May have standpipe drops

• Height and configuration of storage can require substantial effort to achieve final extinguishment.

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Multi-Level Department Stores

• Can be part of a shopping center, enclosed mall, lifestyle center or a stand-alone building

• Multiple stories may make life safety and extinguishment more difficult.

• Large fuel load also may complicate extinguishment.

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Business Occupancies (1 of 2)

• Used for account and record keeping or the transaction of business other than mercantile

• Occupants should be awake and alert. – Mobility is generally not a major problem.– Physically or mentally challenged people

may be in the building, requiring special assistance.

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Business Occupancies (2 of 2)

• Leadership depends on the specific occupancy.– Many rehearse evacuation plans.

• Light-to-moderate fuel load– Rate-of-flow depends on volume of largest

compartment.

• Property conservation must protect electronic equipment and records.

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Storage Occupancies (1 of 5)

• Used primarily for the storage or sheltering of goods, merchandise, products, vehicles, or animals

• Most employees will be mobile, awake, alert, and familiar with the building layout and exit facilities.

• Age should not be a factor in evacuation.

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• Occupant density is generally low.

• Could have an immense fuel load– Increasing risk of fast-moving fire or

explosion

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• Most are of non-combustible construction with metal truss roof structures– Prone to early roof collapse

• Most modern warehouses are equipped with fire sprinklers.

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• More challenging than a small residential building due to: – Size and complexity of the building– Extremely high fuel load – Longer occupant escape time – Confusing interior layouts

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• Fire fighters are more likely to be killed in these structures than in residential fires.– The danger increases exponentially in

large vacant buildings.– Fatality rate is nearly four times as great in

vacant buildings as compared to residential structures.

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Storage Occupancy Tactics

• Suppression systems should be supported and augmented.

• Rate-of-flow requirements should be pre-planned.

• Sprinkler system calculations should be used in pre-plans.– V/100 calculations may not be adequate.

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Industrial Occupancies (1 of 4)

• Occupancy in which products are manufactured or in which processing, assembling, mixing, packaging, finishing, decorating, or repair operations are conducted

• Tend to suffer a large loss of life and/or high dollar loss

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• Occupant density is usually higher as compared to a storage occupancy.

• Required to have emergency evacuation plans– Including an accountability process

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• Pre-incident planning is key.– Critical to fire fighter safety and efficient

operations

• Cooperation with plant personnel is important.

• Knowledgeable plant personnel can act as advisors to the IC.

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• Special tactics must be developed to handle the number of hazards and the potential for harm in some settings.

• The main tactical activity often involves:– Controlling a manufacturing process– Stabilizing the incident to protect life and

property

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Multiple- and Mixed-Occupancy Buildings

• A building or structure in which two or more classes of occupancy exist

• Mixed-occupancies are intermingled.

• Separated-occupancies are separated by fire resistance–rated assemblies. – Can be handled as two buildings due to

fire-resistive separations

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Buildings Under Construction, Renovation, or Demolition

• Not classified as specific occupancies– Are vulnerable to fire and warrant special

attention– May lack fire protection equipment and

structural features designed to impede fire• Could also have large quantities of building

materials stored within

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Buildings Being Demolished

• Fire protection equipment and structural features designed to impede fire are often removed first.– Includes disabling the sprinkler system and

removing interior walls– Large quantities of debris could be present

from demolition of the outer shell.

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Renovated Buildings (1 of 2)

• Classification may change once the renovation process is completed.

• Converted buildings may be safer due to building and fire codes upgrades.

• Potential problems can be avoided by enforcing building and rehab codes.

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Renovated Buildings (2 of 2)

• Buildings may contain:– False spaces

• Can hide fire and provide channels for fire extension

– Confusing floor plans and large open areas• Can complicate search-and-rescue efforts and

require a large rate of flow

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General Occupancy Considerations

• Special occupancy fires require pre-planning for specific properties.

• Plans of action should be developed for use within particular types of buildings and occupancies.

• The size and complexity of business and industrial buildings place fire fighters at additional risk.

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Estimating the Number of Potential Victims

• Closely related to the type of occupancy

• Occupant load is time-sensitive. – Office occupancy: occupied during normal

working hours– Residential building: occupied at night

• The more complex the structure, the greater the need for personnel

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Determining Evacuation Needs

• Requires evaluation of:– Time of day– Building size– Occupancy type

• Provides a rough estimate of how many people could be in the building

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Summary

• Occupancy type will directly affect the fire-ground strategy.

• Primary responsibility is life safety of occupants and fire fighters.

• IC must conduct a complete size-up that will guide the decision-making process.