Communication always takes place in a context

Context could be social, cultural, political, technological…..

Utilization of communication is context specific

In a nutshell, contexts give perspective to communication

Communication Perspectives

Academically the following communication perspectives are identified

1.Basic Communication2.Development Communication3.Information & Communication Technology4.International Communication& Globalization5. Communication Management6.Business Communication Practices7. Communication Research

Communication Perspectives

Complexity and constant change mark the communication process

To analyze the structure and function of these changes and complications, a generalized and simple representation becomes imperative.

Communication Models offer this simplification.

Models of Communication – WHY?

Organize the various elements and processes of communication in a more structured way

Help in discovery of new facts about communication (generate research functions)

Help focus on ‘patterns’ rather than ‘individual messages’ and on ‘interactions’ rather than ‘movement of messages’ from one place to the other

Functions of communication models

Can lead to oversimplificationCan lead to confusion between the model and

the behavior it portrays

Limitations of communication models

Communication reduced to a question of transmitting information

Source-Message/Channel-Receiver as the basic process of communication

Traditional social-scientific paradigm/ process school

Linear or Transmission Models

Aristotle’s Model

Laswell’s research area – Political Communication and propaganda

Takes for granted that communicator intends to influence receiver

Treats communication as a persuasive process

Assumes that messages always have effectsRaises issue of effect rather than meaningOmits the feedback element

Laswell’s Formula – explanation

Very significant in the technical side of communication research

Applied to human communication though a bit misleading

Came out of research at the Bell telephone Laboratory

Shannon and Weaver’s Mathematical Model

Level A. The Technical ProblemConcerned with the accuracy of transference of symbols of communication from sender to receiver, the accuracy depending on the technical efficacy of the medium (e.g. a telephone set) and of the channel (e.g. a telephone cable).Level B. The Semantic ProblemIt is concerned with identity or satisfactorily close approximation of the intended meaning of the sender and the interpretation of meaning by the receiver.Level C. The Effectiveness ProblemIt is concerned with the extent to which the received meaning affects the conduct of the receiver in the way desired by the sender

Explanation

To reduce noise and increase capacity requires –

i)Decreased entropy (uncertainty) ii)Increased redundancy (predictability)

Effective communication needs right balance between entropy and redundancy – Shannon and Weaver

Concepts of entropy and redundancy

Towards non-linearityCommunication process is not one way in nature.Human communication consists of mutual causation

rather than one-way mechanistic causation.Patterns of interaction, self-generation, mutual

exchange and sharing characterize communication. Presence of communication network circuits indeed!In nutshell, communication is about information,

feedback, networks and purpose.Various loops lend non-linearity.

Non-linear modelsSchramm’s Model of CommunicationOsgood-Schramm Model of CommunicationGerbner’s ModelThe triangular model of NewcombWestley and Mc Lean’s Model

Wilbur Schramm’s Model

1. Schramm provided the additional notion of a “field of experience,” or the psychological frame of reference.2. Communication is reciprocal, two-way, even though the feedback may be delayed. 3. Limitation: Doesn’t go beyond the bilateral interactions in communication.

Image Source: http://www.shkaminski.com/Classes/Handouts/Communication%20Models.htm#SchrammsInteractiveModel1954

FIELD OF EXPERIENCE

Osgood- Schramm Model

(Image Source: eldar.cz/mishutka/mn/%9Akola/.../Osgood.doc)

1. Evolved from the previous model.

2. The ‘Field of Experience’ is substituted with PERSONALITY

Model to be read from left to right beginning at ‘E’.

‘E’: event (reality)‘M’: Receiver‘E 1’: Perceptual

Dimension‘SE’: Communicating

Dimension

Image Source: http://madanmaniadhikary.blogspot.com/2008/08/gerbners-general-model-1956.htmlGERBNER’

S MODEL

Gerbner’s Model: An AnalysisInsight into media institutions, messages, and

impacts.Acknowledges media (hence a mass

communication model)Comments on media’s role as both a

perceiver and communicator of an event.Highlights the gatekeeping function of the

media.

Newcomb’s Model : Co-orientation Model for Relational analysis

A&B:Communicators

X: Object of communication

Features of Newcomb’s ModelBased on psychological view of

communication.Communication restores balance in the

process.Earlier models to introduce the role of

community in society or a social relationship.

Model of Public Service Programming

Westley and Mc Lean’s Conceptual Model for Communication ResearchDeveloped with the intention to order

existing findings of researchProvides a more systematic treatmentOriginates from social psychologyBased on ideas of cognitive dissonanceImmediate Predecessor – Newcomb’s Model

of Communication

Basic ConceptsC stands for Channel roles - GatekeeperB represents the "behavioral system roles“A stands for advocacy roles, or those people, institutions,

or organizations that have something to sayX's represent all the events, topics or ideas that Advocates

might want to want to make a message about

X1 A2X2    A1 >>>>> C >>>>>BX 3    A3    <fca<<        << fbc<

(FEEDBACK LOOPS)

What does it mean?

Several selection stagesSelf-regulating character of channelDistinction between purposive and non-

purposive communicationImportance of feedback

Applications of the modelHelps to pose several research questions like

–1.What criteria is applied by C to choose from

X’s or A’s?2.How adequately are needs of B interpreted?3.In what ways are messages from X altered as

they pass vis C?‘This model has been cited in several

gatekeeping and other empirical/conceptual studies’.

LimitationsPractically the relationship between the three

main participants can be very imbalanced.Political relationship between A and C

sometimes – so A can have a control over C – hence may not be non-purposive

Similar relationship between C and B – the model overstates the independence of communicator from society

Model bit more idealist and normative than the reality