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Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

Chapter ElevenWatching And Listening: Qualitative Research For In-depth Understanding

Key Concepts

•Primary interest is in people’s subjectivity.

•Emphasis on capturing participant viewpoints.

•Reporting often uses participant’s language.

•Qualitative more than quantitative.

•Theories about human communication may emerge from research rather than being a starting point.


Observational Methods Advantages & Disadvantages

Advantages DisadvantagesIn-depth exploration of attitudes and behavior.

May be difficult to access participants.

Validity. Reliability.

Access to participants’ views of phenomena.

Research outcomes affected by researcher-participant relationships.

Provide insight and explanation. May be time-consuming.


Qualitative & Quantitative Research

•Similarities▫Begin with qualitative observations▫Emphasis on precise reporting.

•Differences▫Qualitative: reporting in words,

understanding in depth, emphasis on participant perspectives, judgmental sampling.

▫Quantitative: reporting in numbers, understanding in breadth, statistical sampling, generalizing from samples.


Watching and Listening Methods

•Interviews

•Focus groups

•Ethnography

•Observational studies

•Unobtrusive measures

•Conversation analysis

•Case studies


Observational Methods: Basic Assumptions

•Individuality and subjectivity of each participant is important.

•Participants are assumed to have insights and perspectives the researcher is unaware of.

•Interpretation and meaning are more important than information.


Ethnography: Key Ideas•Focus on meaning and interpretation.•Conduct research in participants’ own

settings.•Engage directly with participants.•Focus on local, individual, subjective

knowledge.•Record participants’ own language,

concepts and logic.•Report results as detailed description.


Basic Researcher-Participant Relationships

•Complete observer.

•Observer as participant.

•Participant as observer.

•Complete participant.


Terminology

•Participant▫volunteer in a research project.

•Informant▫can speak about others as well as themselves.

•Respondent▫speaks only for himself or herself.

•Interviewee▫anyone interviewed.

•Subject▫participant in experimental research.


InterviewA series of questions designed to elicit information a researcher is interested in.

Questions may be –

•Predetermined and specific ▫for example, a survey questionnaire

or•Flexible and open-ended

▫for example, “Tell me about . . .?”


Interview: Strategy & Decisions

Strategy:▫Generally a “master” question and then

specific questions to “check it out.”

Decisions:▫Setting

▫Sensitivities

▫Structure

▫Sequence


Interview: Decisions - cont.

Setting▫Participants’ or researcher’s location.

Sensitivities▫Dress, language, gender, status.

Structure▫Fully, partially, or unstructured.

Sequence▫Funnel or inverted funnel.


Interview: Types of Questions

•Descriptive▫Ask participants to describe.

e.g. “What is a typical ____ like, for you?•Structural

▫Ask participants to explain relationships.e.g. Would you describe X as part of Y?

•Contrast▫Ask participants to describe similarities,

differences or relative importance.e.g. “What is the difference between X and Y?


Focus Group: Assumptions

Group discussion can generate - More information than interviewing

individuals. Different information than interviewing

individuals A “2+2 = 5” effect Ideas the researcher may not have

considered.


Focus Group: Success • Members - recruited for similar knowledge but

divergent views of the topic.• Objectives - clear.• Atmosphere - relaxed.• Discussion - free-wheeling.

• Moderator:▫ listens▫maintains focus▫refrains from discussion▫ensures every member participates.


Analyzing Qualitative DataMost analyses use categorization.

•Fixed Coding ▫Assigns units of information to

theoretically-determined categories.•Flexible Coding

▫Allows additional categories to emerge during analysis.


Analyzing Qualitative Data – cont.

The Grounded Theory Approach –

•Assumes theory will emerge as data analysis proceeds.

•Uses the “constant comparative method.”

▫Test each new statement or idea against initial categories.

▫Rework categories as data analysis proceeds.


Unobtrusive MeasuresObserving people without them being aware of the observation.

•Why?▫To assess differences between what people tell

us and what they actually do.•Examples –

▫Observing crowd behavior at sports events.▫Observing social behavior at parties.▫Observing group problem solving.


Conversation Analysis•Studies the processes that enable

people to converse successfully.

•Analyzes transcripts of conversations to determine how people negotiate understanding.

•Focuses on social acts more than language.


Case StudyBrings all relevant information into a story

to help readers learn how organizations or individuals managed a project, problem or crisis.

Usually –

•uses multiple sources of evidence•focuses on a specific issue•provides in-depth understanding more

than generalization or prediction.


Chapter Summary

Watching and Listening Methods –•General interest in people’s idiosyncratic,

subjective views.•Begin with theory, or allow theory to

emerge.•Preference for eliciting people’s views in

their own words. •Typically reported in participants’

language.•Observation provides a check on whether

people’s words match their behavior. Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

Vocabulary Review


Web Resources

•Forum: Qualitative Social Research -http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs

•Qualitative Research Consultants Association

http://www.qrca.org

•University of Surrey, social research update -

http://sru.soc.surrey.ac.uk/Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

Technology

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