Introduction to Arab and Islamic Introduction to Arab and Islamic CivilizationCivilization

Abir ChaabanAbir ChaabanLIULIU

The Golden Age of The Golden Age of IslamIslam

Muslims in HistoryMuslims in History

SourcesSources

The University of Calgary The University of Calgary the Islamic World Until the Islamic World Until 16001600 http://http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/indewww.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/index.htmlx.html

Cleveland, William L. The Development of Islamic Cleveland, William L. The Development of Islamic Civilization in Civilization in A History of the Modern Middle EastA History of the Modern Middle East (Third Edition) Part I pp. 5-57 (Westview, 2004)(Third Edition) Part I pp. 5-57 (Westview, 2004)

Philip Hitti Philip Hitti The Arabs: A Short History, The Arabs: A Short History, ( Princeton ( Princeton University Press: 1949).University Press: 1949).

Tarabay, Ali and Wakim, Jamal Tarabay, Ali and Wakim, Jamal Arabs and Muslims Arabs and Muslims in Historyin History ( (

Paper QuestionPaper Question

What were the characteristics of Arab What were the characteristics of Arab and Islamic civilization? In your and Islamic civilization? In your opinion how did these characteristics opinion how did these characteristics support in the development of the support in the development of the Arts and Sciences. In your answer you Arts and Sciences. In your answer you should attend to the factors instituted should attend to the factors instituted by each state leading to the Golden by each state leading to the Golden Age and the achievements of Muslims Age and the achievements of Muslims in the Arts and the Sciences. in the Arts and the Sciences.

The Golden AgeThe Golden Age In the ninth century two imperial powers stood opposite to In the ninth century two imperial powers stood opposite to

each other Charlemagne in the West and Harun al-Rashid in each other Charlemagne in the West and Harun al-Rashid in the East.the East.

Harun al-Rashid and Charlemagne were allies they Harun al-Rashid and Charlemagne were allies they exchanged letters of friendly relations. exchanged letters of friendly relations.

During the reign of Harun al-Rashid Baghdad was the world During the reign of Harun al-Rashid Baghdad was the world center of wealth and international significance, standing center of wealth and international significance, standing against its rival of Byzantium.against its rival of Byzantium.

Rashid’s era witnessed a the core of the development of Rashid’s era witnessed a the core of the development of Byzantine and Sasanide civilizations into a new awakening. Byzantine and Sasanide civilizations into a new awakening. This awakening was due in large measure to foreign This awakening was due in large measure to foreign influences. influences.

The Golden Age The Golden Age The Abbasid could rival their pre-Islamic predecessors in carrying and The Abbasid could rival their pre-Islamic predecessors in carrying and

developing a civilization that was the most superior of its time. developing a civilization that was the most superior of its time.

Arab Muslims, who brought with him from the desert a keen curiosity to Arab Muslims, who brought with him from the desert a keen curiosity to gathering knowledge adopted Aramaic civilization influenced by the gathering knowledge adopted Aramaic civilization influenced by the Greeks in Syria and Persian civilization in Iraq.Greeks in Syria and Persian civilization in Iraq.

The Arabic reading world was in position of the chief philosophical works of The Arabic reading world was in position of the chief philosophical works of Aristotle, of chief Neo-Platonic Commentators and of most of the medical Aristotle, of chief Neo-Platonic Commentators and of most of the medical writings of Galen, as well as Persian and Indian sciences works.writings of Galen, as well as Persian and Indian sciences works.

This development was enhanced by The Caliphs generous patronage of This development was enhanced by The Caliphs generous patronage of artists and artisans of all kinds. artists and artisans of all kinds.

Economic prosperity and intellectual exchange was enhanced by the trade Economic prosperity and intellectual exchange was enhanced by the trade rout established by the great 7,000-mile Silk Road from Xi’an [Sian], China rout established by the great 7,000-mile Silk Road from Xi’an [Sian], China to Baghdad—then the two largest cities in the world—helped provide the to Baghdad—then the two largest cities in the world—helped provide the wealth. wealth.

Translation Translation The ensuing literary florescence was promoted by the capture of a The ensuing literary florescence was promoted by the capture of a

group of Chinese papermakers at the Battle of Talas in 751. group of Chinese papermakers at the Battle of Talas in 751.

The Abbasid encouraged translation from pre-Islamic languages, The Abbasid encouraged translation from pre-Islamic languages, particularly Middle Persian, Greek, and Syriac. particularly Middle Persian, Greek, and Syriac.

This activity provided a channel through which older thought could This activity provided a channel through which older thought could enter and be reoriented by Islamic societies. enter and be reoriented by Islamic societies.

In the field of mathematics, al-Khwārizmī, from whose name the In the field of mathematics, al-Khwārizmī, from whose name the word algorithm is derived, creatively combined Hellenistic and word algorithm is derived, creatively combined Hellenistic and Sanskritic concepts. Sanskritic concepts.

The word algebra derives from the title of his major work, Kitāb al-The word algebra derives from the title of his major work, Kitāb al-jabr wa al-muqābalah (“The Book of Integration and Equation”). jabr wa al-muqābalah (“The Book of Integration and Equation”).

Encyclopedia Britanica “The Abbasides”Encyclopedia Britanica “The Abbasides”

Tolerance and PluralismTolerance and Pluralism The Abbasids ability to expand and develop the The Abbasids ability to expand and develop the

Arab Islamic Civilization was mainly due to the Arab Islamic Civilization was mainly due to the principle of tolerance leading to the development of principle of tolerance leading to the development of a pluralistic society.a pluralistic society.

The State was secular administering Jews, The State was secular administering Jews, Christians, non believers, Zoroastrians and Muslims.Christians, non believers, Zoroastrians and Muslims.

In Medina the Prophet started this process by In Medina the Prophet started this process by making a defense alliance with the Jewish tribes making a defense alliance with the Jewish tribes that supported him. ( Mithaq al-Madina). The that supported him. ( Mithaq al-Madina). The Abbasid followed this example.Abbasid followed this example.

Jewish scholars as masters of Arabic, Hebrew and Jewish scholars as masters of Arabic, Hebrew and Latin languages were seminal in the translation Latin languages were seminal in the translation process.process.

Characteristics of Islamic Characteristics of Islamic CivilizationCivilization

Arabic Language (Umayyad and Arabic Language (Umayyad and Arabization)Arabization)

Islam ( Umar Conquest and spread of Islam ( Umar Conquest and spread of Koranic Education)Koranic Education)

Tolerance ( Abbasid and equality with Tolerance ( Abbasid and equality with non-Muslims)non-Muslims)

Translation ( Umar, Abbasid, Umayyads)Translation ( Umar, Abbasid, Umayyads) Paper and Education ( Islam and Paper and Education ( Islam and

Abbasid)Abbasid)

The ArtsThe Arts When studying Islamic art we should keep in mind that the When studying Islamic art we should keep in mind that the

presence of Christian, Jewish, Zoroastrian, and other artists presence of Christian, Jewish, Zoroastrian, and other artists in such regions was instrumental in developing the in such regions was instrumental in developing the civilizations of the Sasanide and the Greek Byzantine civilizations of the Sasanide and the Greek Byzantine Empires that were conquered by the Arabs . Empires that were conquered by the Arabs .

Not all Islamic art had a specifically religious purpose, Not all Islamic art had a specifically religious purpose, unique to the Islamic faith. However, there are certain unique to the Islamic faith. However, there are certain trends in the art of the Islamic world that distinguish it from trends in the art of the Islamic world that distinguish it from the art of other regions, and which signify the influence of the art of other regions, and which signify the influence of the Islamic faith and world outlook on artistic work. the Islamic faith and world outlook on artistic work.

One of the most important distinguishing features of Islamic One of the most important distinguishing features of Islamic art is the absence of iconography in religious contexts art is the absence of iconography in religious contexts

ArchitectureArchitecture

The most important building in the The most important building in the Islamic world was the mosque, Islamic world was the mosque, followed by the royal palace. followed by the royal palace.

Many early mosques were in fact Many early mosques were in fact converted Christian churches or converted Christian churches or Zoroastrian fire temples in the newly Zoroastrian fire temples in the newly acquired Islamic lands.acquired Islamic lands.

Intricate tile designs on the Masjid-i Shah in Isfahan Intricate tile designs on the Masjid-i Shah in Isfahan Courtesy of IslamiCity Courtesy of IslamiCity

Intricate tile designs on the Masjid-i Shah in Isfahan Intricate tile designs on the Masjid-i Shah in Isfahan Courtesy of IslamiCity Courtesy of IslamiCity

Calligraphy Calligraphy From the Greek word for "beautiful writing," calligraphy was From the Greek word for "beautiful writing," calligraphy was

considered the highest art form in Islam, for several considered the highest art form in Islam, for several reasons. reasons.

Muslims believe that God used the Arabic language to recite Muslims believe that God used the Arabic language to recite the Qur'an to Muhammad, and for that reason, it has a spiritual the Qur'an to Muhammad, and for that reason, it has a spiritual meaning for Muslims. meaning for Muslims.

Using words as artistry avoided the problem of using pictorial Using words as artistry avoided the problem of using pictorial images. Whereas decorative writing all but disappeared in images. Whereas decorative writing all but disappeared in Europe with the advent of the printing press, the Islamic world Europe with the advent of the printing press, the Islamic world retained it as an art form long after the necessity of writing retained it as an art form long after the necessity of writing longhand was removed by modern technology. longhand was removed by modern technology.

Calligraphy adorned architecture, decorative arts, coins, Calligraphy adorned architecture, decorative arts, coins, jewellery, textiles, weapons, tools, paintings, and manuscripts. jewellery, textiles, weapons, tools, paintings, and manuscripts.

Calligraphy Calligraphy Although the Arabic language and script existed before Although the Arabic language and script existed before

Islam, the spread of the religion also facilitated the spread Islam, the spread of the religion also facilitated the spread of the language throughout the new Muslim lands. of the language throughout the new Muslim lands.

Arabic became a basic component of Islamic culture, mostly Arabic became a basic component of Islamic culture, mostly because it was the language of the Qur'an. because it was the language of the Qur'an.

Caliph Abd al-Malik (r. 685-705) decreed that Arabic should Caliph Abd al-Malik (r. 685-705) decreed that Arabic should be the administrative language of the empire. be the administrative language of the empire.

There were many Muslim regions, of course, in which Arabic There were many Muslim regions, of course, in which Arabic was not the native language. Persian was the major non-was not the native language. Persian was the major non-Arabic language spoken in the Islamic world, and in the 7th Arabic language spoken in the Islamic world, and in the 7th century it had its own script. century it had its own script.

Calligraphy Calligraphy

The Persian language, also known as Farsi, The Persian language, also known as Farsi, added four letters to the Arabic script to added four letters to the Arabic script to represent sounds that existed in Persian, represent sounds that existed in Persian, but not in Arabic. but not in Arabic.

The Turks later also added another letter to The Turks later also added another letter to render a distinctly Turkish sound, although render a distinctly Turkish sound, although modern Turkish no longer uses the Arabic modern Turkish no longer uses the Arabic script. The Arabic script is still used to write script. The Arabic script is still used to write the Kazakh, Uzbek, and Tajik languages in the Kazakh, Uzbek, and Tajik languages in Central Asia, as well as Urdu in present-day Central Asia, as well as Urdu in present-day Pakistan. Pakistan.

Calligraphy Calligraphy

PaintingPainting Islamic art discouraged the use of pictorial imagery, opting instead Islamic art discouraged the use of pictorial imagery, opting instead

to use such decorative arts as calligraphy or geometric shapes, to use such decorative arts as calligraphy or geometric shapes, painting in the Muslim world was not completely devoid of human painting in the Muslim world was not completely devoid of human and animal images. and animal images.

The distinguishing feature of Islamic pictorial art was that it was The distinguishing feature of Islamic pictorial art was that it was secular. secular.

The earliest pictures occurred in illustrated manuscripts, particularly The earliest pictures occurred in illustrated manuscripts, particularly those relating to science. Medical books featured drawings of the those relating to science. Medical books featured drawings of the human body, for example, which was acceptable because it did not human body, for example, which was acceptable because it did not have any religious connotations. have any religious connotations.

Although some theologians still disapproved, pictorial art grew in Although some theologians still disapproved, pictorial art grew in popularity as Islamic rulers commissioned artists to develop new popularity as Islamic rulers commissioned artists to develop new ways to portray their world. Some of this art featured battle scenes ways to portray their world. Some of this art featured battle scenes or the enemy, the monarchs themselves, musicians, dancers, or or the enemy, the monarchs themselves, musicians, dancers, or animals. In places such as Egypt, Iran, and Central Asia, much of the animals. In places such as Egypt, Iran, and Central Asia, much of the early Islamic pictorial art was adopted from pre-Islamic artistic early Islamic pictorial art was adopted from pre-Islamic artistic traditions. traditions.

PaintingPainting The Fatimid and Seljuk dynasties began painting The Fatimid and Seljuk dynasties began painting

ordinary people in the 12th and 13th centuries, and ordinary people in the 12th and 13th centuries, and Persian miniature painting began under the Persian miniature painting began under the patronage of the Il-Khanate in the 14th century. patronage of the Il-Khanate in the 14th century.

The Il-Khans paid particular attention to patronizing The Il-Khans paid particular attention to patronizing the arts, in an attempt to repair some of the damage the arts, in an attempt to repair some of the damage their invasion in the early 13th century had caused. their invasion in the early 13th century had caused.

With its Mongol roots, the Il-Khanate opened the With its Mongol roots, the Il-Khanate opened the door for Chinese artistic influences to travel to Iran, door for Chinese artistic influences to travel to Iran, which can be seen in the Persian art of that period. which can be seen in the Persian art of that period.

Painting Painting The height of Persian miniature painting occurred in Timurid Iran, when The height of Persian miniature painting occurred in Timurid Iran, when

influences from China and India came together to produce a distinct style. influences from China and India came together to produce a distinct style.

The tradition of high-quality Persian painting continued under the Safavids, The tradition of high-quality Persian painting continued under the Safavids, but, as in other regions of the Islamic world, depended on the patronage of but, as in other regions of the Islamic world, depended on the patronage of the monarch. the monarch.

When Shah Tahmasp I withdrew his support in the 1540s, the artists at his When Shah Tahmasp I withdrew his support in the 1540s, the artists at his court spread to surrounding centers, such as Bukhara and northern India. court spread to surrounding centers, such as Bukhara and northern India.

Mughal painting developed from these migrant artists; Akbar even Mughal painting developed from these migrant artists; Akbar even encouraged mixing Persian and Indian art, as a means of promoting encouraged mixing Persian and Indian art, as a means of promoting goodwill between Muslims and Hindus. goodwill between Muslims and Hindus.

Mughal art was more humanistic than decorative, and figures were Mughal art was more humanistic than decorative, and figures were portrayed in a realistic, rather than fantasy, form. In the Ottoman Empire, portrayed in a realistic, rather than fantasy, form. In the Ottoman Empire, the court commissioned painting of distinctly Ottoman events, such as the court commissioned painting of distinctly Ottoman events, such as battles and festivals, and placed almost all works in the Imperial Library in battles and festivals, and placed almost all works in the Imperial Library in Istanbul. Istanbul.

Carpet WeavingCarpet Weaving In the West, Persian carpets are perhaps the best known Islamic In the West, Persian carpets are perhaps the best known Islamic

art form. art form.

Highly valued in the West since they were first introduced by Highly valued in the West since they were first introduced by Italian merchants in the 14th century, they were sometimes used Italian merchants in the 14th century, they were sometimes used to wrap relics in church treasuries. to wrap relics in church treasuries.

Carpet-weaving is not a specifically Persian enterprise, nor was it Carpet-weaving is not a specifically Persian enterprise, nor was it even the Islamic world that first began the practice. The exact even the Islamic world that first began the practice. The exact origin of carpet-weaving is unknown, carpet fragments dating origin of carpet-weaving is unknown, carpet fragments dating back to the 5th century BCE have been found in Central Asia. back to the 5th century BCE have been found in Central Asia.

It was practiced in that region long before the Islamic conquests of It was practiced in that region long before the Islamic conquests of the 7th century, probably by nomadic peoples who used the the 7th century, probably by nomadic peoples who used the carpets to line their tents and cover their horses. The fact that carpets to line their tents and cover their horses. The fact that they were nomadic likely helped spread the practice. they were nomadic likely helped spread the practice.

Persian manuscripts from the time of the Sassanid ruler Khusrau I Persian manuscripts from the time of the Sassanid ruler Khusrau I also describe carpet-weaving. As the Islamic world expanded, the also describe carpet-weaving. As the Islamic world expanded, the art became common not only in Central Asia and Iran, but also in art became common not only in Central Asia and Iran, but also in Asia Minor, the Caucasus, northern India, and Islamic Spain. Asia Minor, the Caucasus, northern India, and Islamic Spain.

Islam and Knowledge Islam and Knowledge Throughout the Qur'an one can find a strong emphasis on Throughout the Qur'an one can find a strong emphasis on

the value of knowledge in the Islamic faith. the value of knowledge in the Islamic faith.

The Qur'an encourages Muslims to learn and acquire The Qur'an encourages Muslims to learn and acquire knowledge, stemming from, but not limited to, the Muslim knowledge, stemming from, but not limited to, the Muslim emphasis on knowing the unity of God. emphasis on knowing the unity of God.

Because Muslims believe that God is all-knowing, they also Because Muslims believe that God is all-knowing, they also believe that the human world's quest for knowledge leads believe that the human world's quest for knowledge leads to further knowing of God. to further knowing of God.

Muslims must thus pursue knowledge not only of God's Muslims must thus pursue knowledge not only of God's laws, but of the natural world as well, extending the laws, but of the natural world as well, extending the frontiers of human knowledge. frontiers of human knowledge.

Islam and Knowledge Islam and Knowledge

Unlike the revealed knowledge of the Unlike the revealed knowledge of the Qur'an, Muslims believe that human Qur'an, Muslims believe that human knowledge is not perfect, and requires knowledge is not perfect, and requires constant exploration and advancement constant exploration and advancement through research and experimentation. through research and experimentation.

According to the Qur'an, learning and According to the Qur'an, learning and gaining knowledge is the highest form of gaining knowledge is the highest form of religious activity for Muslims, and the one religious activity for Muslims, and the one which is most pleasing to God. which is most pleasing to God.

Islam and Knowledge Islam and Knowledge In the medieval period of Islam, from about the 9th to the 14th centuries, In the medieval period of Islam, from about the 9th to the 14th centuries,

the Muslims led the world in their pursuit of knowledge.the Muslims led the world in their pursuit of knowledge.

The Islamic world at this time was the most scientifically advanced region The Islamic world at this time was the most scientifically advanced region of the globe, while also making important contributions in philosophy and of the globe, while also making important contributions in philosophy and literature. literature.

Part of the Muslim advantage came from the synthesis of ideas from Part of the Muslim advantage came from the synthesis of ideas from diverse cultures such as the Greek, Persian, Egyptian, Indian, and Chinese, diverse cultures such as the Greek, Persian, Egyptian, Indian, and Chinese, when the Islamic empire expanded in the 7th and 8th centuries. when the Islamic empire expanded in the 7th and 8th centuries.

The Muslims made a priority of translating scholarly books from other The Muslims made a priority of translating scholarly books from other cultures into Arabic and using them in developing Muslim ideas. cultures into Arabic and using them in developing Muslim ideas.

The Muslims took Aristotle's philosophy, Ptolemy's geography, Hippocrates' The Muslims took Aristotle's philosophy, Ptolemy's geography, Hippocrates' medicine, as well as Persian and Indian works on astronomy and medicine, as well as Persian and Indian works on astronomy and mathematics, and either added to or contradicted them with new mathematics, and either added to or contradicted them with new discoveries. Every major Islamic city in medieval times had an extensive discoveries. Every major Islamic city in medieval times had an extensive library; in Cordoba and Baghdad the libraries claim to have had over library; in Cordoba and Baghdad the libraries claim to have had over 400,000 books. 400,000 books.

Medicine Medicine Muslim physicians were responsible for many notable Muslim physicians were responsible for many notable

developments in the field of medicine. While European developments in the field of medicine. While European "hospitals" at this time were usually simply monasteries "hospitals" at this time were usually simply monasteries where the sick were told they would live or die according to where the sick were told they would live or die according to God's will, not human intervention, Muslim hospitals God's will, not human intervention, Muslim hospitals pioneered the practices of diagnosis, cure, and future pioneered the practices of diagnosis, cure, and future prevention. prevention.

The first hospital in the Islamic world was built in Damascus The first hospital in the Islamic world was built in Damascus in 707, and soon most major Islamic cities had hospitals, in in 707, and soon most major Islamic cities had hospitals, in which hygiene was emphasized and healing was a priority. which hygiene was emphasized and healing was a priority. Hospitals were open 24 hours a day, and many doctors did Hospitals were open 24 hours a day, and many doctors did not charge for their services. not charge for their services.

The medical school at the University of Jundishapur, once the The medical school at the University of Jundishapur, once the capital of Sassanid Persia, became the largest in the Islamic capital of Sassanid Persia, became the largest in the Islamic world by the 9th century. Its location in Central Asia allowed world by the 9th century. Its location in Central Asia allowed it to incorporate medical practices from Greece, China, and it to incorporate medical practices from Greece, China, and India, as well as developing new techniques and theories. India, as well as developing new techniques and theories.

Medicine Medicine

Al-Razi, a 9th century Persian physician, made the first Al-Razi, a 9th century Persian physician, made the first major Muslim contribution to medicine when he developed major Muslim contribution to medicine when he developed treatments for smallpox and measles. He also made treatments for smallpox and measles. He also made significant observations about hay fever, kidney stones, and significant observations about hay fever, kidney stones, and scabies, and first used opium as an anesthetic. scabies, and first used opium as an anesthetic.

A generation later, Ibn Sina earned his place as one of the A generation later, Ibn Sina earned his place as one of the greatest physicians in the world, with his most famous book greatest physicians in the world, with his most famous book used in European medical schools for centuries. used in European medical schools for centuries.

He is credited with discovering the contagious nature of He is credited with discovering the contagious nature of diseases like tuberculosis, which he correctly concluded diseases like tuberculosis, which he correctly concluded could be transmitted through the air, and led to the could be transmitted through the air, and led to the introduction of quarantine as a means of limiting the spread introduction of quarantine as a means of limiting the spread of such infectious diseases. of such infectious diseases.

Medicine Medicine

Other Muslim physicians accurately Other Muslim physicians accurately diagnosed the plague, diphtheria, leprosy, diagnosed the plague, diphtheria, leprosy, rabies, diabetes, gout, epilepsy, and rabies, diabetes, gout, epilepsy, and hemophilia long before the rest of the world. hemophilia long before the rest of the world.

In the 10th century, Al-Zahravi first In the 10th century, Al-Zahravi first conducted surgery for the eye, ear, and conducted surgery for the eye, ear, and throat, as well as performing amputations throat, as well as performing amputations and cauterizations. He also invented several and cauterizations. He also invented several surgical instruments, including those for the surgical instruments, including those for the inner ear, the throat, and the urethra. inner ear, the throat, and the urethra.

Pharmacology Pharmacology Muslims also advanced the field of pharmacology. Muslims also advanced the field of pharmacology.

They experimented with the medical effects of various They experimented with the medical effects of various herbs and other drugs, and familiarized themselves with herbs and other drugs, and familiarized themselves with anesthetics used in India. anesthetics used in India.

There is evidence that some Muslim physicians also There is evidence that some Muslim physicians also adopted the practice of acupuncture from China. Despite adopted the practice of acupuncture from China. Despite many advancements in medicine, however, Muslim many advancements in medicine, however, Muslim physicians still based their work on the idea of the ancient physicians still based their work on the idea of the ancient Greek, Galen, that the body was made up of the same four Greek, Galen, that the body was made up of the same four elements as the world in general - earth, air, fire, and elements as the world in general - earth, air, fire, and water. water.

Contrary to Christian beliefs, Muslim physicians concluded Contrary to Christian beliefs, Muslim physicians concluded that illness was not due to supernatural forces, but rather that illness was not due to supernatural forces, but rather to an imbalance in the body's elements, which physicians to an imbalance in the body's elements, which physicians were able, in many cases, to correct. were able, in many cases, to correct.

AstronomyAstronomy The medieval Islamic world made significant advancements The medieval Islamic world made significant advancements

in the field of astronomy. Part of the reason for the Muslim in the field of astronomy. Part of the reason for the Muslim interest in astronomy is unique to the Islamic faith, and interest in astronomy is unique to the Islamic faith, and grew from the Muslim attempt to solve practical problems. grew from the Muslim attempt to solve practical problems.

The Muslim calendar is a lunar calendar, for example, the The Muslim calendar is a lunar calendar, for example, the ability to see, and even predict, the arrival of the new moon ability to see, and even predict, the arrival of the new moon was fundamental to marking the beginning and ending of was fundamental to marking the beginning and ending of each month. each month.

This issue was particularly significant for the month of This issue was particularly significant for the month of Ramadan, when fasting is required during the day, and for Ramadan, when fasting is required during the day, and for determining the date of the Hajj, the annual pilgrimage to determining the date of the Hajj, the annual pilgrimage to Mecca. Mecca.

Secondly, the study of astronomy grew out of a need to map Secondly, the study of astronomy grew out of a need to map the coordinates of the stars, in order to determine the the coordinates of the stars, in order to determine the direction of Mecca from any city, because Muslims are direction of Mecca from any city, because Muslims are required to face that direction when praying required to face that direction when praying

AstronomyAstronomy Observatories were first established in the Islamic world, in major Observatories were first established in the Islamic world, in major

cities such as Baghdad, Hamadan, Toledo, Maragha, Samarkand, cities such as Baghdad, Hamadan, Toledo, Maragha, Samarkand, and Istanbul, and new instruments were developed. and Istanbul, and new instruments were developed.

The Muslim invention of the astrolabe was one of the most The Muslim invention of the astrolabe was one of the most important in astronomy until the invention of the telescope in the important in astronomy until the invention of the telescope in the 17th century. 17th century.

Muslims were also the first astronomers to challenge the long-Muslims were also the first astronomers to challenge the long-accepted theories of Ptolemy and Aristotle regarding eclipses, accepted theories of Ptolemy and Aristotle regarding eclipses, planetary orbits, and the position of the stars. planetary orbits, and the position of the stars.

In the early 11th century, the Muslim physicist, Ibn al-Haytham, In the early 11th century, the Muslim physicist, Ibn al-Haytham, measured the height of the earth's atmosphere to be the measured the height of the earth's atmosphere to be the equivalent of about 52 kilometers; today we know it is about 50 equivalent of about 52 kilometers; today we know it is about 50 kilometers. kilometers.

In the early 14th century, Ibn al-Shatir designed models for the In the early 14th century, Ibn al-Shatir designed models for the movement of the moon and the planet Mercury, which are very movement of the moon and the planet Mercury, which are very similar to those later done by Copernicus in the 16th century. similar to those later done by Copernicus in the 16th century.

MathematicsMathematics Al-Khwarizmi was the first major Muslim mathematician, and he is Al-Khwarizmi was the first major Muslim mathematician, and he is

most famous for introducing the field of algebra into the discipline. most famous for introducing the field of algebra into the discipline.

He introduced Arabic numerals to Europe, which replaced Roman He introduced Arabic numerals to Europe, which replaced Roman numerals in many places by the 11th century and became known numerals in many places by the 11th century and became known as algorithms, derived from his name. as algorithms, derived from his name.

Muslims also developed trigonometry as a distinct branch of Muslims also developed trigonometry as a distinct branch of mathematics. mathematics.

In the 9th century, Al-Batani was the first mathematician to use In the 9th century, Al-Batani was the first mathematician to use the concept of signes and cotangents.the concept of signes and cotangents.

Thabit Ibn Qurra studied conics, especially the parabola and Thabit Ibn Qurra studied conics, especially the parabola and ellipse, and helped develop an early form of calculus. ellipse, and helped develop an early form of calculus.

Al-Buzjani furthered their work a century later in developing Al-Buzjani furthered their work a century later in developing theories of triangles and conics.theories of triangles and conics.

PhilosophyPhilosophy The Islamic world produced many great philosophers in the The Islamic world produced many great philosophers in the

medieval period, and as in other religions, a rift between medieval period, and as in other religions, a rift between philosophy and theology soon developed. philosophy and theology soon developed.

The debate largely revolved around the nature and The debate largely revolved around the nature and existence of God, and the legitimacy of the prophecy. existence of God, and the legitimacy of the prophecy.

Many Muslim philosophers were influenced by the works of Many Muslim philosophers were influenced by the works of Aristotle and Plato, and struggled to apply the principles of Aristotle and Plato, and struggled to apply the principles of these ancient Greeks to the Islamic world.these ancient Greeks to the Islamic world.

That is not to say, however, that Islamic philosophy would That is not to say, however, that Islamic philosophy would not have developed without the impetus of Greek thought. not have developed without the impetus of Greek thought. Muslim philosophers also took ideas from the Qur'an as a Muslim philosophers also took ideas from the Qur'an as a starting point for pondering philosophical issues. starting point for pondering philosophical issues.

Philosophy Philosophy

At the heart of the debate between At the heart of the debate between philosophy and theology were arguments philosophy and theology were arguments for faith versus reason. In the event of a for faith versus reason. In the event of a conflict between human knowledge and conflict between human knowledge and revealed knowledge, the philosophers revealed knowledge, the philosophers asked, which should prevail? asked, which should prevail?

Muslim philosophers were Muslims first, and Muslim philosophers were Muslims first, and philosophers second. Their faith in Islam led philosophers second. Their faith in Islam led them to recognize that even reason could them to recognize that even reason could not be used to fully understand God or his not be used to fully understand God or his knowledge. knowledge.

PhilosophyPhilosophy Al-Farabi and other early Muslim philosophers tried to find Al-Farabi and other early Muslim philosophers tried to find

rational arguments for the existence of God. rational arguments for the existence of God.

Theologians, led by Al-Ghazali, defended religion by pointing Theologians, led by Al-Ghazali, defended religion by pointing out contradictions and limitations to human reason. out contradictions and limitations to human reason.

Ibn Rushd, one of Islam's greatest philosophers, responded Ibn Rushd, one of Islam's greatest philosophers, responded to Al-Ghazali's argument by urging philosophers to use to Al-Ghazali's argument by urging philosophers to use reason to reach genuine knowledge of the truth, reason to reach genuine knowledge of the truth, independent of revelation. independent of revelation.

He attempted to show how Al-Ghazali's objections to He attempted to show how Al-Ghazali's objections to philosophy were based on his misunderstanding of philosophy were based on his misunderstanding of Aristotle's ideas and their effect on Islamic philosophy. Aristotle's ideas and their effect on Islamic philosophy.

Al Khawarizmi Al Khawarizmi Abu Ja'far Muhammad Ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi was born in Abu Ja'far Muhammad Ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi was born in

Khwarizm, in present-day Uzbekistan. He thrived in Khwarizm, in present-day Uzbekistan. He thrived in Baghdad under the patronage of the Abbasid Caliph, Al-Baghdad under the patronage of the Abbasid Caliph, Al-Mamun, between 813 and 833, during a so-called "Golden Mamun, between 813 and 833, during a so-called "Golden Age" of Islamic science. Age" of Islamic science.

A celebrated mathematician in his own time, as well as A celebrated mathematician in his own time, as well as many centuries later, Al-Khwarizmi is best known for many centuries later, Al-Khwarizmi is best known for introducing the concept of algebra into mathematics. introducing the concept of algebra into mathematics.

The title of his most famous book, The title of his most famous book, Kitab Al-Jabr wa al-Kitab Al-Jabr wa al-MuqabilahMuqabilah ("The Book of Integration and Equation") in fact ("The Book of Integration and Equation") in fact provides the origin of the word, algebra. provides the origin of the word, algebra.

Over the course of his work in mathematics, Al-Khwarizmi Over the course of his work in mathematics, Al-Khwarizmi introduced the use of Indo-Arabic numerals, which became introduced the use of Indo-Arabic numerals, which became known as algorithms, a Latin derivative of his name. He known as algorithms, a Latin derivative of his name. He also began using the zero as a place-holder, paving the also began using the zero as a place-holder, paving the way for the development of the decimal system. way for the development of the decimal system.

Al-Farabi Al-Farabi Abu'l-Nasr Al-Farabi, a Muslim of Persian descent Abu'l-Nasr Al-Farabi, a Muslim of Persian descent

who studied in Baghdad, was considered in his who studied in Baghdad, was considered in his time to be the greatest philosopher since Aristotle. time to be the greatest philosopher since Aristotle. Indeed, in the Islamic world he was known as the Indeed, in the Islamic world he was known as the "Second Teacher," with Aristotle being the first. "Second Teacher," with Aristotle being the first.

He was fluent in several languages, and through He was fluent in several languages, and through his translations of ancient Greek works, he was one his translations of ancient Greek works, he was one of the earliest Islamic philosophers to introduce of the earliest Islamic philosophers to introduce Greek philosophy to the Islamic world. Greek philosophy to the Islamic world.

Al Farabi wrote on numerous subjects, including Al Farabi wrote on numerous subjects, including logic, sociology, political science, medicine, and logic, sociology, political science, medicine, and music, but his legacy lies in his work in philosophy. music, but his legacy lies in his work in philosophy.

Al-FarabiAl-Farabi

In writing commentaries on the works of the ancient Greeks, Al-In writing commentaries on the works of the ancient Greeks, Al-Farabi sought to reconcile Aristotelian and Platonian thought with Farabi sought to reconcile Aristotelian and Platonian thought with Islamic theology. (Islamic theology. (المدينةالفاضلةالمدينةالفاضلة

Al-Farabi became the first Islamic philosopher to separate Al-Farabi became the first Islamic philosopher to separate philosophy and theology, influencing scholars of many different philosophy and theology, influencing scholars of many different religions who followed him. religions who followed him.

He concluded that human reason, the tool of the philosopher, was He concluded that human reason, the tool of the philosopher, was superior to revelation, the tool of religion, resulting in the superior to revelation, the tool of religion, resulting in the advantage of philosophy over religion. advantage of philosophy over religion.

He claimed that philosophy was based on intellectual perception, He claimed that philosophy was based on intellectual perception, while religion was based on imagination. He thus attributed while religion was based on imagination. He thus attributed impressive characteristics to the philosopher, and advocated the impressive characteristics to the philosopher, and advocated the philosopher as the ideal head of state. He blamed political philosopher as the ideal head of state. He blamed political upheavals in the Islamic world to the fact that the state was not upheavals in the Islamic world to the fact that the state was not run by philosophers, whose superior powers of reason and intellect run by philosophers, whose superior powers of reason and intellect would result in ideal leadership would result in ideal leadership

Ibn SinaIbn Sina Abu Ali al-Husayn Ibn Abdullah Ibn Sina was born in Abu Ali al-Husayn Ibn Abdullah Ibn Sina was born in

Bukhara in 980. Sometimes known in the West by the Latin Bukhara in 980. Sometimes known in the West by the Latin name, Avicenna, this Persian physician became the most name, Avicenna, this Persian physician became the most famous and influential of all the Islamic philosopher-famous and influential of all the Islamic philosopher-scientists. scientists.

He earned royal favor for treating the Kings of Bukhara and He earned royal favor for treating the Kings of Bukhara and Hamadan for ailments other physicians could neither Hamadan for ailments other physicians could neither diagnose nor cure. His grave is still maintained in Hamadan, diagnose nor cure. His grave is still maintained in Hamadan, where he died in 1037. Though trained as a physician, Ibn where he died in 1037. Though trained as a physician, Ibn Sina made important contributions to philosophy, Sina made important contributions to philosophy, mathematics, chemistry, and astronomy. mathematics, chemistry, and astronomy.

His philosophical encyclopedia, His philosophical encyclopedia, Kitab al-ShifaKitab al-Shifa ("Book of ("Book of Healing") brought Aristotelian and Platonian philosophy Healing") brought Aristotelian and Platonian philosophy together with Islamic theology in dividing the field of together with Islamic theology in dividing the field of knowledge into theoretical knowledge (physics, knowledge into theoretical knowledge (physics, mathematics, and metaphysics) and practical knowledge mathematics, and metaphysics) and practical knowledge (ethics, economics, and politics). (ethics, economics, and politics).

Al BiruniAl Biruni Abu Raihan Muhammad al-Biruni, a Persian scholar and Abu Raihan Muhammad al-Biruni, a Persian scholar and

scientist, was a contemporary of the great physician Ibn scientist, was a contemporary of the great physician Ibn Sina, with whom he is known to have corresponded. With Sina, with whom he is known to have corresponded. With a gift for languages, including Turkish, Persian, Sanskrit, a gift for languages, including Turkish, Persian, Sanskrit, Hebrew, and Arabic, Al-Biruni caught the attention of the Hebrew, and Arabic, Al-Biruni caught the attention of the Ghaznavid ruler, Mahmud, whose territory included Ghaznavid ruler, Mahmud, whose territory included northern India. northern India.

Mahmud often brought Al-Biruni with him on campaigns to Mahmud often brought Al-Biruni with him on campaigns to India, where Al-Biruni spent his time studying the India, where Al-Biruni spent his time studying the language, history, and science of that region. language, history, and science of that region.

One of his most famous books, One of his most famous books, Kitab al-HindKitab al-Hind ("Book of ("Book of India") resulted from these travels. It was such a complete India") resulted from these travels. It was such a complete study of India that further works on Indian history written study of India that further works on Indian history written under Akbar 600 years later used it as a base. under Akbar 600 years later used it as a base.

Al BiruniAl Biruni In addition to his work on culture and history, Al-Biruni was also an In addition to his work on culture and history, Al-Biruni was also an

accomplished scientist. accomplished scientist.

In the field of astronomy, he pioneered the notion that the speed of light In the field of astronomy, he pioneered the notion that the speed of light was much greater than the speed of sound, observed solar and lunar was much greater than the speed of sound, observed solar and lunar eclipses, and accepted the theory that the earth rotated on an axis long eclipses, and accepted the theory that the earth rotated on an axis long before anyone else. before anyone else.

In geography, he calculated the correct latitude and longitude of many In geography, he calculated the correct latitude and longitude of many places, and disputed the European Ptolemaic view that Africa stretched places, and disputed the European Ptolemaic view that Africa stretched infinitely to the south; Al-Biruni insisted it was surrounded by water. infinitely to the south; Al-Biruni insisted it was surrounded by water.

In his work on India, Al-Biruni also advanced the controversial view - later In his work on India, Al-Biruni also advanced the controversial view - later proved correct - that the Indus valley was once a sea basin. proved correct - that the Indus valley was once a sea basin.

He developed a theory for calculating the He developed a theory for calculating the qiblaqibla - the direction of Mecca - the direction of Mecca from any place - which was necessary for Muslims to know in order to face from any place - which was necessary for Muslims to know in order to face Mecca when praying. Mecca when praying.

In physics, he accurately determined the densities of 18 precious stones In physics, he accurately determined the densities of 18 precious stones and metals; in botany, he observed that flowers have 3, 4, 5, 6, or 8 and metals; in botany, he observed that flowers have 3, 4, 5, 6, or 8 petals, but never 7 or 9; and he was the first to establish trigonometry as petals, but never 7 or 9; and he was the first to establish trigonometry as a distinct branch of mathematics. Because of his work in such diverse a distinct branch of mathematics. Because of his work in such diverse fields, Al-Biruni is considered to be one of the greatest scientists of all fields, Al-Biruni is considered to be one of the greatest scientists of all time. time.

Umar Ibn A KhaiyamUmar Ibn A Khaiyam

Born Ghiyath al-Din Abul Fatah Umar Ibn Born Ghiyath al-Din Abul Fatah Umar Ibn Ibrahim al-Khayyam in 1044 in Nishapur, a Ibrahim al-Khayyam in 1044 in Nishapur, a Persian city, Omar Khayyam was a well-Persian city, Omar Khayyam was a well-known mathematician, astronomer, known mathematician, astronomer, philosopher, and poet. philosopher, and poet.

He spent most of his life in Persian He spent most of his life in Persian intellectual centers such as Samarkand intellectual centers such as Samarkand and Bukhara, and enjoyed the favour of and Bukhara, and enjoyed the favour of the Seljuk sultans who ruled the region. the Seljuk sultans who ruled the region.

Umar Ibn Al-KhayyamUmar Ibn Al-Khayyam Khayyam's best-known scientific contributions were in algebra and Khayyam's best-known scientific contributions were in algebra and

astronomy. His classification of algebraic equations was fundamental astronomy. His classification of algebraic equations was fundamental to the advancement of algebra as a science, for example, just as his to the advancement of algebra as a science, for example, just as his work on the theory of parallel lines was important in geometry. work on the theory of parallel lines was important in geometry.

In astronomy, Khayyam's greatest legacy is a remarkably accurate In astronomy, Khayyam's greatest legacy is a remarkably accurate solar calendar, which he developed when the Seljuk sultan, Malik-solar calendar, which he developed when the Seljuk sultan, Malik-Shah Jalal al-Din, required a new schedule for revenue collection. Shah Jalal al-Din, required a new schedule for revenue collection. Khayyam's calendar, called Khayyam's calendar, called Al-Tarikh-al-JalaliAl-Tarikh-al-Jalali after the sultan, was after the sultan, was even more accurate than the Gregorian calendar presently used in even more accurate than the Gregorian calendar presently used in most of the world: the Jalali calendar had an error of one day in 3770 most of the world: the Jalali calendar had an error of one day in 3770 years, while the Gregorian had an error of one day in 3330 years. years, while the Gregorian had an error of one day in 3330 years.

Khayyam measured the length of one year as 365.24219858156 Khayyam measured the length of one year as 365.24219858156 days, which is remarkably accurate. It has since been discovered that days, which is remarkably accurate. It has since been discovered that the number changes in the 6th decimal place over a person's the number changes in the 6th decimal place over a person's lifetime. lifetime.

For comparison of Khayyam's accuracy, the length of one year at the For comparison of Khayyam's accuracy, the length of one year at the end of the 19th century was 365.242196 days, and today it is end of the 19th century was 365.242196 days, and today it is 365.242190. Although the calendar project was cancelled upon 365.242190. Although the calendar project was cancelled upon Malik-Shah's death in 1092, the Jalali calendar has survived and is Malik-Shah's death in 1092, the Jalali calendar has survived and is still used in parts of Iran and Afghanistan toda still used in parts of Iran and Afghanistan toda

Al GhazaliAl Ghazali Abu Hamid al-Ghazali was born in 1058 in the Abu Hamid al-Ghazali was born in 1058 in the

Persian province of Khurasan. He was educated in Persian province of Khurasan. He was educated in Islamic theology at renowned institutions in Islamic theology at renowned institutions in Nishapur and Baghdad, and became a professor Nishapur and Baghdad, and became a professor in religion and philosophy at Nizamiyah University in religion and philosophy at Nizamiyah University in Baghdad - one of the Islamic world's most in Baghdad - one of the Islamic world's most prominent institutions at that time. prominent institutions at that time.

In 1095, however, after a period of inner turmoil In 1095, however, after a period of inner turmoil about his faith, Al-Ghazali left the university, gave about his faith, Al-Ghazali left the university, gave up his material possessions, and became a up his material possessions, and became a wandering ascetic. wandering ascetic.

He devoted himself to Sufism, the mystical He devoted himself to Sufism, the mystical branch of Islam concerned with direct knowledge branch of Islam concerned with direct knowledge of God, and travelled to Mecca, Syria, and of God, and travelled to Mecca, Syria, and Jerusalem before returning to Nishapur to write. Jerusalem before returning to Nishapur to write.

Al GhazaliAl Ghazali Al-Ghazali's works on the relationship between philosophy Al-Ghazali's works on the relationship between philosophy

and religion contributed to an ongoing discussion in the and religion contributed to an ongoing discussion in the Islamic world on how to reconcile the two fields. In adopting Islamic world on how to reconcile the two fields. In adopting the Aristotelian principals of the humanist ancient Greeks, the Aristotelian principals of the humanist ancient Greeks, Islamic philosophers since the 9th century, such as Al-Islamic philosophers since the 9th century, such as Al-Farabi and Ibn Sina, had come into conflict with theologians Farabi and Ibn Sina, had come into conflict with theologians who claimed that Aristotelian philosophy contradicted who claimed that Aristotelian philosophy contradicted Islamic doctrine. Islamic doctrine.

Al-Ghazali staunchly defended religion against attack by Al-Ghazali staunchly defended religion against attack by philosophers, and in doing so helped bridge the gap philosophers, and in doing so helped bridge the gap between the two streams of thought. Al-Ghazali also sought between the two streams of thought. Al-Ghazali also sought to reign in what he believed were excessive views within to reign in what he believed were excessive views within Sufism, to bring it more in line with orthodox Islam. He Sufism, to bring it more in line with orthodox Islam. He continued to stress the importance of Sufism as the continued to stress the importance of Sufism as the genuine path to absolute truth, but he sought to redefine its genuine path to absolute truth, but he sought to redefine its extreme image as disobedient to the basic teachings of extreme image as disobedient to the basic teachings of Islam Islam

Al GhazaliAl Ghazali Al-Ghazali wrote several famous books on these Al-Ghazali wrote several famous books on these

subjects, one of which inspired the philosopher Ibn subjects, one of which inspired the philosopher Ibn Rushd to respond with a book of his own, after Al-Rushd to respond with a book of his own, after Al-Ghazali's death. In Ghazali's death. In Tuhafat al-FalasifaTuhafat al-Falasifa ("The ("The Incoherence of the Philosophers"), Al-Ghazali laid Incoherence of the Philosophers"), Al-Ghazali laid out several arguments as to why philosophy was out several arguments as to why philosophy was sometimes heretical to Islam. sometimes heretical to Islam.

He particularly objected to arguments made by He particularly objected to arguments made by Greek-influenced philosophers questioning the Greek-influenced philosophers questioning the immortality of the soul, the resurrection of the immortality of the soul, the resurrection of the body, reward and punishment after death, God's body, reward and punishment after death, God's knowledge of all things, and the eternity of the knowledge of all things, and the eternity of the world. world.

Ibn RushdIbn Rushd

Abu'l Waleed Muhammad Ibn Ahmad Ibn Abu'l Waleed Muhammad Ibn Ahmad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Rushd, born in 1126 in Muhammad Ibn Rushd, born in 1126 in Cordoba, then part of Muslim Spain, was Cordoba, then part of Muslim Spain, was one of the greatest thinkers and scientists one of the greatest thinkers and scientists of the 12th century. of the 12th century.

Known by the Latin name Averroes in the Known by the Latin name Averroes in the West, Ibn Rushd influenced scholarship in West, Ibn Rushd influenced scholarship in both the Islamic world and Europe for both the Islamic world and Europe for centuries, and is best known in the West for centuries, and is best known in the West for his commentaries on Aristotle's philosophy. his commentaries on Aristotle's philosophy.

Ibn RushdIbn Rushd Rushd spent his time among the ruling class of Marrakesh, Rushd spent his time among the ruling class of Marrakesh,

Morocco, as well as in the Spanish cities of Seville and Morocco, as well as in the Spanish cities of Seville and Cordoba. Ibn Rushd studied religion and philosophy.Cordoba. Ibn Rushd studied religion and philosophy.

He was influenced by Greek philosophy, and he wrote He was influenced by Greek philosophy, and he wrote several commentaries on Aristotle's works. He used Greek several commentaries on Aristotle's works. He used Greek arguments for rationalism to question several tenets of arguments for rationalism to question several tenets of Islamic theology, earning the criticism of many Muslim Islamic theology, earning the criticism of many Muslim religious scholars, such as Al-Ghazali. religious scholars, such as Al-Ghazali.

Despite his vehement defense of philosophy, Ibn Rushd was Despite his vehement defense of philosophy, Ibn Rushd was a devoted Muslim who also tried to integrate Plato's a devoted Muslim who also tried to integrate Plato's political views with the modern Islamic state, to bring Greek political views with the modern Islamic state, to bring Greek thought and Islamic traditions into harmony. thought and Islamic traditions into harmony.

Ibn KhaldunIbn Khaldun Abd al-Rahman Ibn Muhammad is considered to Abd al-Rahman Ibn Muhammad is considered to

be the founder of modern sociology and be the founder of modern sociology and philosophy of history. Born in Tunis, where his philosophy of history. Born in Tunis, where his parents later died of the Black Death in 1349, Ibn parents later died of the Black Death in 1349, Ibn Khaldun spent most of his life in North Africa and Khaldun spent most of his life in North Africa and Spain.Spain.

He led a very political life, working for a number He led a very political life, working for a number of royal courts in North Africa, where he was also of royal courts in North Africa, where he was also able to observe the political and social dynamics able to observe the political and social dynamics of court life. These observations would later of court life. These observations would later influence his writings on the history of influence his writings on the history of civilizations. civilizations.

Ibn KhaldunIbn Khaldun Ibn Khaldun's most famous book is the Ibn Khaldun's most famous book is the MuqaddimahMuqaddimah

("Introduction"), which he wrote as the first volume of an intended ("Introduction"), which he wrote as the first volume of an intended multi-volume world history. multi-volume world history.

In the In the MuqaddimahMuqaddimah, Ibn Khaldun set out his philosophy of history, , Ibn Khaldun set out his philosophy of history, and his views on how historical material should be analysed and and his views on how historical material should be analysed and presented. He concluded that civilisations rise and fall, in a cycle, presented. He concluded that civilisations rise and fall, in a cycle, as a result of psychological, economic, environmental, social, as as a result of psychological, economic, environmental, social, as well as political factors. well as political factors.

His attention to more than just the political conditions of a His attention to more than just the political conditions of a civilisation was revolutionary, as he sought to also examine social, civilisation was revolutionary, as he sought to also examine social, religious, and economic factors in explaining world history. He also religious, and economic factors in explaining world history. He also pioneered the emphasis on relating events to each other through pioneered the emphasis on relating events to each other through cause and effect, and drawing parallels between past and present, cause and effect, and drawing parallels between past and present, when writing history. He subjected his study of history to when writing history. He subjected his study of history to objective, scientific analysis, and lamented the clearly biased objective, scientific analysis, and lamented the clearly biased histories written before him. histories written before him.