Maritime Advancement Award - Australian Navy 2010-1012

The Keppels

Marine refugia in the Keppel region of the Great Barrier ReefThe Maritime Advancement Award 2008-2010Dr Alison Jones and Dr Ray BerkelmansCentre for Environmental Management, Central Queensland University, RockhamptonThe Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville

The Keppels

The reefs of the Keppel islands are in top condition.

High coral cover and species diversity (155 species of corals) pristine reefs with up to 98% coral cover at some sites and an average 60% - rest of the GBR is 35%

McClanahan 2002: Human influences on water temperatures, seawater chemistry (toxic substances, nutrients and aragonite saturation), the spread of diseases, removal of species and food web alterations are presently changing reef ecology. A significant ecological reorganization is underway and changes include a reduction in calcifying and zooxanthellae-hosting organisms, their obligate symbionts, and species at higher trophic levels, with an increase in generalist species of low trophic level that are adapted to variable environments. Late-successional fleshy brown algae of low net productivity or non-commercial invertebrates such as sea urchins, starfish and coral-eating snails will dominate many reefs. These changes will be associated with a loss of both net benthic and fisheries production and inorganic carbonate deposition; this will reduce reef complexity, species richness, reef growth and increase shoreline erosion. To avert these changes management is needed at both global and local levels. Both levels need to reduce greenhouse gases and other waste emissions and renew efforts to improve resource management including restrictions on the use of resources and globalization of resource trade, run-off and waste production, and balancing potential reef production and resource consumption.

how can we insure coral reefs against climatic disturbance either man made or natural survival over millions of years due to refuges

Coral reefs are particularly sensitive to environmental change 8000 years old

Have already lost ~20% - protect our coastline but some reef will undoubtedly exist in spite of climate change as theyve existed and survived for millions of years harbour biodiversity Loss of species can affect a reefs capacity to regenerate

2

Decline in live coral cover in the Florida Keys(Miller, 2009)% coral cover

3cm

Florida

Florida has lost 50-80% of its coral cover some sites only two species exist now - Acropora cervicornis and A. palmata3

Caribbean

Loss of live coral cover on Caribbean reefs (Gardner et al., 2003)

Coastal developmentCoral bleaching

Causes of reef degradation

The Great Barrier Reef

Sweatman H, et al. (2008) Status Report 8. AIMS, Long Term Monitoring of the Great Barrier Reef

~20%(1993-2006)

Sweatman loss of live coral cover on the GBR ~20% over the past 17 years6

FloodsCyclones Crown of Thorns starfish

Natural threats to the Great Barrier Reef

Trend is for declining coral cover Miller 1999, de Vantier 2006, Bellwood 2004, AIMS LTMP, Sweatman 2008, Schaffelke, 2008 #1802, Wilkinson, Status of coral reefs of the World 2008, IPCC 2007

Human influences are reversible if we act now no records of bleaching pre 19797

Human influencespollutionoverfishinganchors

coral collecting

Trend is for declining coral cover Miller 1999, de Vantier 2006, Bellwood 2004, AIMS LTMP, Sweatman 2008, Schaffelke, 2008 #1802, Wilkinson, Status of coral reefs of the World 2008, IPCC 2007

Human influences are reversible if we act now no records of bleaching pre 19798

Ocean acidificationCoral bleaching

How do we keep them like this?

The reefs of the Keppel islands are in top condition.

High coral cover and species diversity (155 species of corals) pristine reefs with up to 98% coral cover at some sites and an average 60% - rest of the GBR is 35%

McClanahan 2002: Human influences on water temperatures, seawater chemistry (toxic substances, nutrients and aragonite saturation), the spread of diseases, removal of species and food web alterations are presently changing reef ecology. A significant ecological reorganization is underway and changes include a reduction in calcifying and zooxanthellae-hosting organisms, their obligate symbionts, and species at higher trophic levels, with an increase in generalist species of low trophic level that are adapted to variable environments. Late-successional fleshy brown algae of low net productivity or non-commercial invertebrates such as sea urchins, starfish and coral-eating snails will dominate many reefs. These changes will be associated with a loss of both net benthic and fisheries production and inorganic carbonate deposition; this will reduce reef complexity, species richness, reef growth and increase shoreline erosion. To avert these changes management is needed at both global and local levels. Both levels need to reduce greenhouse gases and other waste emissions and renew efforts to improve resource management including restrictions on the use of resources and globalization of resource trade, run-off and waste production, and balancing potential reef production and resource consumption.

how can we insure coral reefs against climatic disturbance either man made or natural survival over millions of years due to refuges

Coral reefs are particularly sensitive to environmental change 8000 years old

Have already lost ~20% - protect our coastline but some reef will undoubtedly exist in spite of climate change as theyve existed and survived for millions of years harbour biodiversity Loss of species can affect a reefs capacity to regenerate

10

How have reefs survived in the past?

Age (Million years)

Climate driven extinction of coral species (Kiessling, 2007)

Modern corals known since the Triassic ~ 200 million years ago

Since then corals underwent further 5 extinctions between Jurassic and Triassic (Kiessling 2007) - reef dwellers had a significantly higherextinction risk than level-bottom dwellers, taxa with an inshore preference were more strongly affected than offshore taxa, taxapreferring carbonate substrates were more strongly hit than taxa preferring siliciclastic substrates and taxa preferentially inhabitinglow latitudes had higher extinction rates than taxa more common at intermediate and high latitudes

caused by climate change induced by volcanism (Hesselbo et al., 2002; Plfy, 2003; Marzoli et al., 2004)

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Now lets get this right, Only two of each species please..

Lets make sure we have our ark full13

Zooxanthellae(plant)Coral polyp (animal)A successful partnership (symbiosis)+

Symbiosis discovered in 1929 by researcher C. M. Yonge success of the symbiosis tiny creatures but reef can be seen from moon14

zooxanthellae

carbonphotosynthesisnitrogenWaste products

C2DC1C2C2C2C2C2coral

C2DC1C2C2C2C2C2coralcalcificationCalcium + Carbonate

15Zooxanthellae are autorophic microalgaes belonging to various taxa in the Phylum Dinoflagellata. Zooxanthellae live symbiotically within the coral polyp tissues and assist the coral in nutrient production through its photosynthetic activities. These activities provide the coral with fixed carbon compounds for energy, enhance calcification ,and mediate elemental nutrient flux. The host coral polyp in return provides its zooxanthellae with a protected environment to live within, and a steady supply of carbon dioxide for its photosynthetic processes. The symbiotic relationship allows the slow growing corals to compete with the faster growing multicellular algaes because the tight coupling of resources and the fact that the corals can feed by day through photosynthesis and by night through predation.

GBR can be seen from the moon16

Disruption of the symbiosis

Phase shifts

Phase shifts can occur following bleaching from hard coral to macro-algal state loss of the structural integrity of the reef

Can occur quicklyVery hard to reverseHow can we ensure that reefs either dont undergo phase shifts or if they do, they can regenerate?

McClanahan 2002: Human influences such as fishing, increased organic matter and nutrients, sediments, warm water, and transportation of xenobiotics and diseases are common causes of a large number of recently reported ecological shifts. It is often the interaction of persistent and multiple synergistic disturbances that causes permanent ecological transitions, rather than the succession of individual short-term disturbances. For example, fishing can remove top-level predators, resulting in the ecological release of prey such as sea urchins and coral-eating invertebrates. When sea urchins are not common because of unsuitable habitat, recruitment limitations, and diseases, and when overfishing removes herbivorous fish, frondose brown algae can dominate. 18

Hard corals form the structure of reefs

How can we prevent this?

But do marine reserves protect corals?Marine reserves

Typically, marine reserves are established on a range of socio-economic and other variables no take areas for fish stocks (Russ et al 2009) designed to protect for recreational and commercial fishing not corals

Many are in areas that are deemed warmer vulnerable to bleaching

HISTORY OF THE MARINE ZONINGIn the mid 1990s concerns were raised that the levels of protection provided by the zoning at the time were inadequate to protect the range of biodiversity that existed in the Marine Park. This was recognised as important to ensure that the Great Barrier Reef remained a healthy, productive and resilient ecosystem that would continue to support a range of industries.Between 1999 and 2004, the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority undertook a systematic planning and consultative program to develop new zoning for the Marine Park. The primary aim of the program was to better protect the range of biodiversity in the Great Barrier Reef, by increasing the extent of no-take areas (or highly protected areas, locally known as Green Zones), ensuring they included 'representative' examples of all different habitat types - hence the name, the Representative Areas Progam or RAP. Whilst increasing the protection of biodiversity, a further aim was to maximise the benefits and minimise the negative impacts of the rezoning on the existing users of the Marine Park. Both these aims were achieved by a comprehensive program of scientific input, community involvement and innovation

Climate change was not considered in establishment of green zones on the GBR

This ArcGIS map incorporates data which is: Commonwealth of Australia (Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority) 2009.21

The Maritime Advancement AwardDevelop a better model of reef management Based on coral resilience not on fish stocksIdentify and characterise coral refugia Protect these based on a triage model

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The Triage Principle:

The assignation of priority on the basis of where resources are most likely to achieve successMerriam Webster DictionaryReefs that wont survive no matter whatReefs that will survive in spite of intervention

Reefs that have a better chance of survival if we intervene

Classify reefs into 1. Interventions that will fail to have a significant impact whether you do them or not.2. Reefs that will survive anyway whether you protect them or not.3. Reefs that will have a significant impact if you complete them in a timely mannerAs the resources of marine managers are limited, triage is a key principle of reef management.

conservation in these landscapes must use appropriate management units and be prepared to face problematic ecological triage decisions based on ecological theory and available resources and; (3) innovation in conservation and extension practice that recognises natural systems and their genetic, taxonomic and ecosystem diversity as the primary stakeholders is imperative for true and meaningful ecological sustainability in landscape management.

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What are refugia and how do they work?

McClanahan 2002:, global climate change threatens to undermine such actions because of increased bleaching and mortality caused by warm-water anomalies, weakened coral skeletons caused by reduced aragonite availability in reef waters, and increased incidence of diseases in coral reef species. Consequently, many coral reefs, including those that are heavily managed, have experienced net losses in accumulated inorganic carbon in recent decades and appear likely to continue this trend in coming decades. Reefs urgently need to be managed with a view to strengthening their resilience to the increased frequency and intensity of these pressures. Ecological targets must include the restoration or maintenance of species diversity, keystone species, spatial heterogeneity, refugia, and connectivity. Achieving these goals will require unprecedented cooperative synergy between human organizations at all political levels, from intergovernmental to local.

Maxmen A (2008) Refuge for the resilient. Science News 173:238 - Lovely yet high-maintenance, vulnerable reefs may not survive global warming, despite labor-intensive conservation efforts. More focus should be on creating and protecting marine refuges in areas that won't collapse when oceans warm, a new study suggests.

"We need to create more parks in low-vulnerability areas where corals are more likely to survive," says marine biologist Tim McClanahan of the Wildlife Conservation Society. "If you allow heavy fishing in those areas, you are degrading what might have been a refuge from climate problems,"

Reporting in the April 10 Ecological Modelling, McClanahan and colleagues mapped areas where warming water in the Indian Ocean has most stressed corals.

More than half of marine parks protected under international guidelines in the Indian Ocean are located in regions the team deemed vulnerable to warm-water death. They are vulnerable to a variety of factors, including surface current, temperature, wind and exposure to ultraviolet radiation. And only two of 61 protected marine parks--one east of Madagascar and the other off the southern African coast--are in resilient areas. Unfortunately, McClanahan says, park management off Madagascar is weak.

Climate change has already caused coral death around the globe. Warm waters bleach the corals when the heat-stressed, colorful inner symbionts dash off, leaving the corals to starve. Yet studies have shown that some corals bleach easier than others, and that some regions warm faster, for longer periods.

Biodiversity and socioeconomics are considered when no-fish zones are chosen, comments Andrew Baker of the University of Miami in Florida. Nonetheless, policymakers must start to also consider global warming, he says. "We need to prioritize efforts to protect those reefs that are more likely to survive the worst effects of climate change."

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Coral spawning

SedimentSE windsFitzroy riverKeppelsCapricorn Bunker groupWhy the Keppels?

Why focus on the Keppels? unique but vulnerable inshore fringing reef system situated at the mouth of the Fitrzoy catchment prevailing south easterly winds

Might be the last reefs left as it is cooler in the southern GBR and as reefs warm at lower latitudes.

Fitzroy river Estuary The Fitzroy River supplies about 1.774 x 106 tonnes sediment /annum, which is elevated above the natural sediment load of the river by agriculture and deforestation in the catchment (Hilliard et al., 1997).

Its catchment area is 142,645 km2 and its maximum discharge occurs in summer, between November and April.

Lee Long et al. (1993) reported6.14 km2 of seagrass beds in the Great Keppel Island area offshore from the port entrance.26

Landsat image from Geoscience Australia

1991SedimentSE winds

Satellite image showing the sediment plume from the Fitzroy catchment in the 1991 flood some sediment and freshwater reaching the Keppels27

200637% loss of live coral cover

Past bleaching in the Keppels 2006 almost 100% bleached corals no bleaching in coral record before 1979 (Veron)28

2009Almost 100% recovery suggests that refugia exist in the Keppels

Dramatic recovery to almost 100% coral cover at some reefs since 2006

The hard corals form the architectural structure of the reefs the success of the reef-building corals which have survived since the Triassic (over 200 ) is premised on the symbiosis between the unicellular autotrophic dinoflagellate of the genus Symbiodinium the zooxanthellae provide nutrient to the coral polyp and enhance calicifcation of the calcium carbonate skeleton29

The studyChoose 6 characteristics of good coral refugiaMap 18 sites in the Keppels using the 6 characteristicsProduce a Google Earth Pro map of the sitesChoose refugia based on the 6 characteristics

18 sites

Six characteristics1. Coral species number(biological diversity)2. Percentage coral cover (previous damage)3. Light (conditions for growth)4. Temperature (bleaching resilience)5. Zooxanthellae genotype(bleaching resilience)6. Habitat variety(biological diversity)

Conservation value characteristics that are important in assessing cons value - determined by

ecosystem conditions,

consumer abundance,

biological diversity,

connectivity between areas and

local environmental conditions (McClanahan et al., 2002, 2007b; Marshall and Schuttenberg, 2006; Obura, 2005).32

Coral species diversityLoss of species can affect a reefs capacity to regenerate

Species count at each site important because biodiversity cant seed reef regeneration pics of coral species - 33

Wide angle photoClose-up photo

Methodology wide shot of colony structure and morphology and then the close-up of the corallite detail. id to species level

But have to have some knowledge which Family or Genus34

Coral species number= species richness

Relates to biodiversity35

38 sp

OuterPumpkinHumpyBaldPassageMiallMiddleMonkey

high species count

Characteristics of refugiaCoral species numberPercent coral coverLight (kd)TemperatureZooxanthellae genotypesHabitat variety

Conservation value characteristics that are important in assessing cons value - 38

Coral coverHigh cover suggests bleaching resilience and good growth conditions4-6 x 50m photographic transects

25 photos per transect (100-150 photos per site)

Towed GPS logged coordinates every 10 s

Imported images into Coral Point Count photo analysis software

Assessments of the amount of hard coral and macro-algae cover at each site

Amount of hard coral structural species form the habitat for other marine organisms hermatypic corals ones with zooxanthellae examples macro algae can be a sign of past damage or poor water quality Low in soft corals sign of stressed environment and poor calcification

Shows minimal bleaching damage from past good resilienceShows good environment for coral growth good refugeHigh coral cover of diverse array of species during annual mass spawning lots of baby corals to seed recruitment elsewhere39

CPCeTM v3.1 (http://www.nova.edu/ocean/cpce/index.html)

Coral Point count with extensions40

> 50%

25 photos per transect41

OuterPumpkinHumpyPassageMiddleMonkey

high coral cover

high species count



Light (IRRADIANCE)Light enhances coral calcification

coral

absorptionreflectionScattering (refraction)Water surface

sensor

wiper

Picture of light loggers deployment for x weeks at sites cumulative daily light between 10-3pm - equation45

Irradiance (light)Irradiance (surface)depth (z)coral

sensor

Light important for coral growth turbidity reduces light sediment, particles and chlorophyll46

Light attenuation coefficient - Kd

coralI = Isurface*(e kd *z)kd = Ln [(I/I surface)] / z

Light imp for coral growth turbidity reduces light sediment, particles and chlorophyll

Mathematical relationship describing how surface light decreases exponentially with depth

Solve for kd by taking the natural log of both sides divide by the depth so all values for kd are already normalised to depth47

lightkd 0.40

Nth KeppelHumpyPassageMonkeyEggBarrenBaldWreckPumpkinOuter

high coral cover

high species

high light



TEMPERATUREWarmer temperatures can stress coral and promote algal overgrowth

= Average daily temperature average daily temperature at Humpy (coolest site)Odyssey data loggersTemperature logged every 30 mins at each site over 3 months in summer

Temperature can stress coral causing expulsion of the zoox warmer affected by depth, tidal range, hydrodynamics, wind exposure and reef aspect (direction that it faces is leeward or windward)51

coolerwarmer 1.018

BarrenEggMan & WifeHumpyMiallNth KeppelPassageMiddleShelvingMonkey

high coral cover

high species

high light

cool temp

PumpkinOuter



Zooxanthellae genotypes (symbionts)The presence of thermally tolerant symbiont types D and C1 in the main reef-building corals can make the entire reef more resilient to bleaching

C2DC1

Temperature can stress coral causing expulsion of the zoox type D can give coral more temp resilience 1-2 deg C55

DDC1DDDDDDDDDDDDUNBLEACHEDBLEACHEDC2C2C2C2C2C2C2C2C2C2C2C2C2DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDC2D

C1C1

C2s vs Ds -56

Molecular method of zooxanthellae genotype identification

nrDNA

Leave out57

BarrenEggMan & WifeHumpyMiallNth KeppelPassageMiddleShelvingMonkeyPelicanBig PeninsularWreckBaldOuterPumpkin

symbionts

high coral cover

high species

high light

cool temp

Some of the main reef builders acropora mostly background more important dominant determine the energy budget58

Characteristics of refugiaCoral species #% Coral coverLight (kd)TemperatureZooxanthellae genotypesHabitat variety


Habitat varietyThe presence of both shallow and deep areas encourages biodiversity

Reef flatReef slope

Habitat is depth what sorts of habitats are available for corals to grow? reef flats are likely to be more vulnerable to bleaching stressed range of habitat types - depths60

BarrenEggMan & WifeHumpyMiallNth KeppelPassageMiddleShelvingMonkeyPelicanBig PeninsularWreckBaldOuterPumpkin

Deep and shallow

symbionts

high coral cover

high species

high light

cool temp

Corals from the Family Faviidae

Characteristics of refugiaCoral species #% Coral coverLight (kd)TemperatureZooxanthellae genotypesHabitat variety


SE wind driven current (JCU unpublished data)

Northerly summer winds

1465327891011121314151618

Now lets get this right, Only two of each species please..

Lets make sure we have our ark full66

How are these sites currently protected?67

Where to from here?Reduce extractionPrevent anchor damageEnhance water quality

Fitzroy catchmentKeppel Islands

Sediment

Fitzroy Catchment ~ 142,000 km2 area

Keppels are 15 km from coast - > 2 tonnes per year sediment

85 km from Capricorn Bunker Group

~ 400km to edge of continental shelf

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Woolridge, 2009 Water quality and coral bleaching thresholds: Formalising the linkage for the inshore reefs of the GBR, Australia

SummaryWe have developed a better model of reef management based on coral resilienceWe have identified and characterised four likely coral refugia in the KeppelsWe will suggest these for increased future protection based on a triage model

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Coral refugia: an insurance policy for reefs facing climate change?

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The music accompanying the following footage Ai gama siasi Oshen was written and played by Jason Hershey and Kayoka for the Asia Pacific Triennial (Papua New Guinea/Hawaii) is a dedication to the sponsors, collaborating partners and volunteers too numerous to mention.

GIS data in this presentation was supplied by the Australian Government, the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority and the Fitzroy Basin Association