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Edexcell ppt Biology 3.13 - 3.33 Used in lessons to scaffold class teaching and as a revision resource for students
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INHERITANCE(Syllabus points 3.13 – 3.33)
REPRODUCTION (review) 3.1 understand the differences between sexual and asexual reproduction
There are two types of reproduction; • Sexual: reproduction in which two gametes (sex
cells) fuse to create a new offspring that is genetically different to the parents. Two parents are involved.
• Asexual: reproduction without fusion of
gametes. It involves one parent only and produces offspring that are genetically identical to the parent (clones).
Fertilization (review)3.2 understand that fertilisation involves the fusion of a male and female gamete to produce a zygote that
undergoes cell division and develops into an embryo
Definitions• Fertilization:
• Zygote:
• Embryo:
A male and a female gamete fuse to form a zygotea cell that is the result of fertilization. It will divide by mitosis to form an embryo An organism in its early stages of development, especially before it has reached a distinctively recognizable form.
Fertilization, Zygote, Embryo(Review)3.2 understand that fertilisation involves the fusion of a male and female gamete to produce a zygote that undergoes cell division and develops
into an embryo
Genes are on Chromosomes 3.13 understand that the nucleus of a cell contains chromosomes on which genes are located
The nucleus of every cell contains DNA.
The DNA is organized in genes and the genes are located on Chromosomes.
The best way to think about it is like a library…. pressvideo
LIBRARY
Books
Chapters
Words
Letters
Nucleus
Chromosome (23 pairs)
Gene (makes one protein)
Group of 3 letters
DNA letters (A, C, T, G)
3.13 understand that the nucleus of a cell contains chromosomes on which genes are located
3.13 understand that the nucleus of a cell contains chromosomes on which genes are located
Genes Make a SPECIFIC Protein3.14 understand that a gene is a section of a molecule of DNA and that a gene codes for a specific protein
1) Genes are written in DNA code. 2) The code can be translated into amino acids. 3) Amino Acids are linked together to make proteins.
ONE Gene codes for ONE specific protein
A three-base sequence codes for each amino acid.
amino acidbase sequence
Genes Make a SPECIFIC Protein3.14 understand that a gene is a section of a molecule of DNA and that a gene codes for a specific protein
DNA stays in the nucleus but proteins are built in the cell’s cytoplasm.
Genes don’t actually make proteins – they just contain the instructions on how to make them.
Genes Make a SPECIFIC Protein3.14 understand that a gene is a section of a molecule of DNA and that a gene codes for a specific protein
So Your Genes code for Your Proteins 3.14 understand that a gene is a section of a molecule of DNA and that a gene codes for a specific protein
WHAT IS DNA? 3.15 describe a DNA molecule as two strands coiled to form a double helix, the strands being linked by a series of paired bases: adenine (A) with
thymine (T), and cytosine (C) with guanine (G)
DNA is a very long molecule. It is shaped like a twisted ladder.
Two long strands make the backbones and are connected by rungs or links.
BASE PAIRS3.15 describe a DNA molecule as two strands coiled to form a double helix, the strands being linked by a series of paired bases: adenine (A) with
thymine (T), and cytosine (C) with guanine (G)
The Strands are connected by BASE PAIRS• Adenine (A)• Thymine (T) • Cytosine (C) • Guanine (G)
The bases only match:A-TC-G
Genes come in Variations3.16 understand that genes exist in alternative forms called alleles which give rise to differences in inherited characteristics
Sometimes more than one version of a gene occurs. The different versions are called alleles (i.e. we all have the gene for iris pigment (protein), but there are different colours of iris pigment, same
gene but different alleles)
Alleles give rise to Variation3.16 understand that genes exist in alternative forms called alleles which give rise to differences in inherited characteristics
overview
Alleles give rise to Variation (2)3.16 understand that genes exist in alternative forms called alleles which give rise to differences in inherited characteristics
Alleles give rise to a range of different inherited characteristics in a population.These can include in humans:Eye ColourSkin ColourHitch Hikers ThumbRolling of the tongueEarlobe shapeBlood TypeMany many others………..
DEFINITIONS OF INHERITANCE TERMS3.17 understand the meaning of the terms: dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, genotype and co-dominance
Dominant: A gene allele that ‘expresses’ over another allele in homozygous and heterozyogus pairs. Shown in phenotype.
Recessive:A gene allele that only ‘expresses’ when it is matched with another recessive allele and never when matched with a dominant allele. Homozygous Recessive. Shown in phenotype
b
b b
B
Heterozygous: having dissimilar alleles at corresponding chromosomal Loci.
DEFINITIONS OF INHERITANCE TERMS3.17 understand the meaning of the terms: dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, genotype and co-dominance
Homozygous: having identical alleles at corresponding chromosome Loci (Gene Location).
b bB Bb B
DEFINITIONS OF INHERITANCE TERMS3.17 understand the meaning of the terms: dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, genotype and co-dominance
Homozygous & Heterozygous
DEFINITIONS OF INHERITANCE TERMS3.17 understand the meaning of the terms: dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, genotype and co-dominance
Phenotype: the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment
DEFINITIONS OF INHERITANCE TERMS3.17 understand the meaning of the terms: dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, genotype and co-dominance
Genotype: The genetic makeup of a cell, an organism, or an individual with reference to a specific characteristic.
Geneotype
Environemnt
Phenotype
Genotype and Phenotype
DEFINITIONS OF INHERITANCE TERMS3.17 understand the meaning of the terms: dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, genotype and co-dominance
3.17 understand the meaning of the terms: dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, genotype and co-dominance
Codominance: A single gene has more than one dominant allele and both genes are expressed.
DEFINITIONS OF INHERITANCE TERMS3.17 understand the meaning of the terms: dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, genotype and co-dominance
The meaning of the prefix "co-" is "together". Cooperate = work together. Coexist = exist together. Cohabitat = habitat together.
*I remember codominance in the form of an example like so:
red x white ---> red & white spotted
When writing alleles remember:All alleles are CAPITAL letters
CODOMINANCE
Genetic Diagrams - Generations 3.18 describe patterns of monohybrid inheritance using a genetic diagram
GenerationsThere are the parents, then their offspring, and their offspring, etc. etc.
Each generation has a name.
The first plants or animals bred together are called the Parental generation, or P1 generation.
Their offspring are called the First Filial generation, or F1 generation.
Their offspring are called the Second Filial generation, or F2 generation.
And so on. And so on.
SOME SIMPLE EXAMPLES OF WHAT YOU CAN USE A PUNNETT SQUARE FOR
Genetic Diagrams – Punnett Squares 3.18 describe patterns of monohybrid inheritance using a genetic diagram
SEED COLOUR FLOWER COLOUR GENDER
press
Genetic Diagrams – Punnett Squares 3.18 describe patterns of monohybrid inheritance using a genetic diagram
P1
P1
P1
Genotype of F2
press
How to diagram patterns in monohybrid inheritance:
1) Phenotype of Parents P12) Genotype of Parents3) Gametes Produced4) Genotype of F1 (you may need a Punnett square)5) Phenotype of F16) Gametes from F1 produced7) Genotype of F2 (you may need a Punnett square)8) Phenotype of F29) What are the ratios of F2 Phenotype and Genotypes
Genetic Diagrams – Punnett Squares 3.18 describe patterns of monohybrid inheritance using a genetic diagram
Genetic Diagrams – Crossing3.18 describe patterns of monohybrid inheritance using a genetic diagram
To cross two tall plants1. The allele for tallness is H and is dominant to that for smallness, h.
2. If the two plants are heterozygous, they will have a genotype, which contains the alleles Hh.
3. Gametes of individuals contain half of the chromosomes. So only one of the alleles will be present in each gamete cell.
So there will be 3 tall plants for every 1 small plant. Or to put it another way, there is a 75% chance that each F1 (offspring) plant will be tall.
press
Geneticists use the testcross to determine unknown Genotypes
A testcross can reveal an unknown genotype1. Mate an individual of unknown genotype and a
homozygous-recessive individual2. In a test cross you breed an organism showing the
dominant features with one showing the recessive feature
3. Each of the two possible genotypes (homozygous or heterozygous) gives a different phenotypic ratio in the F1 generation
TESTCROSS3.18 describe patterns of monohybrid inheritance using a genetic diagram
TESTCROSS3.18 describe patterns of monohybrid inheritance using a genetic diagram
Pedigree Charts3.19 understand how to interpret family pedigrees
A pedigree is a chart of the genetic history of family over several generations.
Constructing a Pedigree
• Male
• Female
Connecting Pedigree Symbols
• Fraternal twins
• Identical twins
• Married Couple
• Siblings• Not Affected • Affected• Deceased
Example (Dominant or Recessive) 3.19 understand how to interpret family pedigrees
UnaffectedAffected
Is the Affected allele Dominant or Recessive?
RECESSIVE
aa AA
Aa Aa Aa
Aa Aa
aa
aa aa
aa aa
aa
UnaffectedAffected
Is the Affected allele Dominant or Recessive?
DOMINANT
Aa aa
Aa Aa Aa
Aa Aa
AA
AA Aa
aa aa
aa
Example (Dominant or Recessive) 3.19 understand how to interpret family pedigrees
Determine if the pedigree chart shows:• An autosomal disease -The disease Allele is not on Sex Chromosome (X Y)-The disease Allele can be dominant or recessive
• X-linked disease -The disease Allele is found on X Sex Chromosome-( X = Normal Allele, Xr = Disease Recessive Allele)
Interpreting a Pedigree Chart (hard)3.19 understand how to interpret family pedigrees
press
Most of the males in the pedigree are affected. The disorder is X-linked
If it is a 50/50 ratio between men and women. The disorder is autosomal.
press
Interpreting a Pedigree Chart (additional)3.19 understand how to interpret family pedigrees
Sex Linked diseases can include:• Hemophilia (Xr) - Recessive• Colour blindness (Xr) - Recessive The phenotype of a Carrier
is “NOT DISEASED”
Example of Pedigree Charts• Is the affected trait Autosomal or X-linked?
AUTOSOMAL
If it is a 50/50 ratio between men and women. The disorder is autosomal.
Example (Dominant or Recessive) 3.19 understand how to interpret family pedigrees
Summary• Pedigrees are family trees that explain your genetic
history.
• Pedigrees are used to find out the probability of a child having a disorder in a particular family.
• To begin to interpret a pedigree, determine if the disease or condition is autosomal or X-linked and dominant or recessive.
Example (Dominant or Recessive) 3.19 understand how to interpret family pedigrees
Monohybrid Cross Probability3.20 predict probabilities of outcomes from monohybrid crosses
GIVE THE GENOTYPE RATIO:
GIVE THE GENOTYPE RATIO:GIVE THE PHENOTYPE RATIO:
Male or Female 3.21 understand that the sex of a person is controlled by one pair of chromosomes, XX in a female and XY in a male
Male or Female 3.21 understand that the sex of a person is controlled by one pair of chromosomes, XX in a female and XY in a male
XX = FemaleXY = Male
Determine the Sex (diagram it)3.22 describe the determination of the sex of offspring at fertilisation, using a genetic diagram
Diploid Cell Division 3.23 understand that division of a diploid cell by mitosis produces two cells which contain identical sets of chromosomes
What are homologous chromosomes? 3.23 understand that division of a diploid cell by mitosis produces two cells which contain identical sets of chromosomes
Different organisms have different numbers of chromosomes. Humans have 46 chromosomes. This is the diploid number of humans.
Chromosomes can be grouped in pairs called homologous chromosomes. In each pair, one chromosome has been inherited from the mother and the other inherited from the father.
homologous pair
chromosome from mother
chromosome from father
What are homologous chromosomes? 3.23 understand that division of a diploid cell by mitosis produces two cells which contain identical sets of chromosomes
Body cells are: 2n - DiploidSex Cells are: n - Haploid
2n
2n
2n
What is Mitosis good for? 3.24 understand that mitosis occurs during growth, repair, cloning and asexual reproduction
MITOSIS
GROWTHNew cell growth Nerve cells
(tissue)
Muscle cells (tissue)
Repair
Scar tissue
Replace old cells
RBC
Skin
Cloning Dolly the sheep
Asexual Reproduction
Budding
Bacteria & Yeast
Cuttings, Bulbs, Tubers, Runners
Willow
Tulips
Potatoes
Strawberries
Meiosis Makes Gametes 3.25 understand that division of a cell by meiosis produces four cells, each with half the number of chromosomes, and that this results in the
formation of genetically different haploid gametes
Meiosis Makes Gametes 3.25 understand that division of a cell by meiosis produces four cells, each with half the number of chromosomes, and that this results in the formation of
genetically different haploid gametes3.27 know that in human cells the diploid number of chromosomes is 46 and the haploid number is 23
MITOSIS MEIOSIS1) Produces 2 daughter cells2) Daughter cells are diploid (have 23 pairs of chromosomes)
3) Daughter cells are genetically identical to each other.
3) Gametes are different to each other4) Gametes are different to the parent cell (crossing over of genetic material)5) Two stage process6)Happens in Reproductive organs only
4) Daughter cells are genetically identical to the parent cell (no genetic crossing over)5) One stage process
6) Happens everywhere in the body
1) Produces 4 gamete cells 2) Daughter cells are haploid (Only have 23 chromosomes)
Random Fertilization and Variation 3.26 understand that random fertilisation produces genetic variation of offspring
Key Word basic Summary
This topic, more than any other, confuses people. Remember these!
DNA: A genetic codeGene: One instruction in the code telling a cell how to make a specific proteinAllele: A different version of a geneChromosome: Coiled up DNAHaploid number: the number of different chromosomes in a cell (23)Diploid number: the total number of chromosomes in a cell (46)
Cell Division:There are two types of cell division;
- Mitosis – used for growth, repair & asexual reproduction- Meiosis – used to produce gametes for sexual reproduction
Variation
Nature Vs Nurture 3.28 understand that variation within a species can be genetic, environmental, or a combination of both
Mutations (not all x-men get superpowers)
3.29 understand that mutation is a rare, random change in genetic material that can be inherited3.31 understand that many mutations are harmful but some are neutral and a few are beneficial
The mutated gene will produce a slightly different protein to the original non-mutant gene. The new protein might;
A) Work just as well as it did before (neutral mutation) B) Work better than before (beneficial mutation) C) Work worse / not at all (harmful mutation)
Beneficial mutations give a selective advantage to the individual. Individuals with this kind of mutated allele are more likely to survive, reproduce and pass their alleles on. This is the basis of:
Natural Selection
Mutation - a rare, random change in the genetic code of a gene.
Evolution by Natural Selection 3.30 describe the process of evolution by means of natural selection
New species arise through a process known as NATURAL SELECTION
1) Living organisms produce more offspring than are needed to replace them, not all of these off-spring grow up and breed themselves. These offspring have different alleles.
2) Those organisms best suited to their local environment survive best and breed, passing on their genetic (genes/DNA) information to the next generation
3) In this way the different forms will become more and more different until eventually they are a new species
Evolution is the process by which the range of organisms on Earth change
WHAT IS THE SELECTION METHOD 3.30 describe the process of evolution by means of natural selection
1) BE ATTRACTIVE (physical and social traits can make you more successful with the opposite sex)
2) REPRODUCE OFTEN (The more offspring you make the better)3) DON’T WASTE YOUR RESOURCES (Invest only the minimal
amount of resources in offspring to see them through to reproduction)
4) HAVE A ‘DEEP’ GENE POOL (The more variable your offspring the better chance of some of them surviving unexpected catastrophes. A little bit of mutation/lots of alleles is not a bad thing)
5) STAY ALIVE!! (Live long enough to reproduce………....then die.)
HOW TO BE SUCCESSFUL IN PASSING ON YOUR GENES (A HOW TO 5 STEP GUIDE):
Darwin came up with this theory
1) Darwin’s 1st Observation: Not all individuals survive
2) Darwin’s 2nd Observation: There is variation in a species
3) Darwin’s Conclusion: The better adapted individuals survive (the “fittest”) and reproduce, passing their alleles onto the next generation.
Over time this process leads to evolution.
DARWIN SAID IT BEST 3.30 describe the process of evolution by means of natural selection
www.darwinawards.com/
THE SUPERBUGS 3.32 understand that resistance to antibiotics can increase in bacterial populations, and appreciate how such an increase can lead to infections
being difficult to control
1) Bacteria reproduce very frequently so mutations (different alleles) are common.
2) These mutations can mean that they are no longer affected/controlled by a certain antibiotic
3) Surviving generations carry the mutation (allele)making it easier for them to survive.
4) If bacteria evolve over many generations to be resistant to drugs we are treating them with then they are difficult to control
5) Sometimes they can be controlled using a different antibiotic
6) These bacteria in turn become resistant to new antibiotics due to the high rate or reproduction and random mutations
7) Currently some are becoming resistant to all current know antibiotics.
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA or golden staph), vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE) and multi-drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MDR-TB)
✔
The Makings of a Mutant (TA)
3.33 understand that the incidence of mutations can be increased by exposure to ionising radiation (for example gamma rays, X-rays and ultraviolet rays) and some chemical mutagens (for example chemicals in tobacco).(TA)
Mutations are: a) inherited b) happen on their own (although this is rare).The frequency that mutation occurs naturally can be increased by exposure to radiation • gamma rays• X-rays• ultraviolet rays
And
Chemical mutagens • chemicals in tobacco..Not Nicotine!)