THE PICTURE FROM ANOTHER ANGLE 29

national State that she is and has been ? The desire expressed bythe League to have separate national States of Musalmans is not

even 6 years old, and, as we shall see, cuts across the history of

more than as many hundred years. The ob'ject therefore should be

not the creation of national States but the strengthening of the

unnational State in India, removing from it all those aspects andfeatures which detract from its unnational character.

I cannot do better than conclude this discussion with a quota-tion from Lord Acton (who has been quoted by the protagonists of

the two nations theory) with which Macartney ends his book -1-' If

we take the establishment of liberty for the realisation of duties to

be the end of civil society, we must conclude that those states are

substantially the most perfect which. . .include various distinct

nationalities without oppressing them. Those in which no mixtureof races has occurred are imperfect ;

and those in which its efforts

have disappeared are decrepit. A state which is incompetent to

satisfy different races condemns itself ; a state which labours to

neutralise, to absorb, or to expel them, destroys its own vitality ; a

state which does not include them is destitute of the chief basis of

self-government/

5. THE PICTURE FROM ANOTHER ANGLE

We have seen much in the foregoing pages that tends to showthat Hindus and Muslims are separate and the twain shall never

meet. But there is another angle from which the picture can be

viewed. Let us turn to it for a while.'

Very many human activities, aspirations, and emotions have

contributed, either naturally or artificially to build up the great

synthesis that we term a"nation

"; language, religion, art, law,

even food, gesture, table-manners, clothing, and sport all playtheir part/ says Julian Huxley.

1

Again,' The special form of group

sentiment that we call"nationality ", when submitted to analysis,

thus proves to be based on something much broader but less defin-

able than physical kinship. The occupation of a country withindefinite geographical boundaries, climatic conditions inducing adefinite mode of life, traditions that gradually come to be sharedin common, social institutions and organisations, common religious

practices, even common trades or occupations these are among tlie

innumerable factors which have contributed in greater of less

degree to the formation of national sentiment. Of very great im-

portance is common language, strengthened by belief in a fictitious"blood tie ". But among all the sentiments that nurture feelings

of group unity, greater even than the imaginary tie of physical or9. Macartney, op. cit., p. 501. 1. Julian Huxley: "Race in Europe", p. 3.

30 INDIA DIVIDED

even of historic relationship, is the reaction against outside inter-

ference. That, more than anything else, has fostered the develop-ment of group-consciousness. Pressure from without is probablythe largest single factor in the process of national evolution/2

Let us take some of the more important of these elements andsee how they have influenced the Hindus and Muslims of India.

i. ReligionLet me begin with Religion. It is true that the Hindus and

Musalmans of India follow different religions and that their social

life derives from these religions. It is also true that some of the

religious rites and customs differ very materially and to all out-

ward appearance are irreconcilable. But in some of the most funda-mental things the differences among them are no greater than theyare amoifg followers of faiths g'oing under one comprehensivename and who are admittedly living peacefully and amicably as

members of one nation. The austere simplicity of the inside of aMuslim mosque with only prayer mats and water pots contrastswith the decorated images and paraphernalia of worship of tfce in-

side of a Hindu temple no more than the inside of a Protestant or

Presbyterian Church with nothing but seat for the worshippersand a pulpit for the preacher contrasts with the magnificent deco-ration and image and painting and candle and what not of theRoman Catholic Church. Even among Musalmans the orthodoxSunni looks upon the pomp and paraphernalia of the Moharramcelebrations the Tazias and Taboots, the Separs and the Alams,the Paiks and Bahishti of the Shiyas with something akin to thehorror with which he looks upon the procession of the image of

Durga of the Hindus. And yet no one has claimed that the Protes-tants and Catholics of England do not constitute a nation or thatthe Sunnis and Shiyas are two different nations. Among theHindus also there are sects that are as critical of temples and imagesand of many of the rites and ceremonies of others also called Hindus.

Apart from outward signs and symbols, rites and ceremonies,forms and exercises of religion and worship, people have knownphilosophers of both faiths who have dived deep into the mysteriesof life and death and life after death, and who have proclaimed thesame faith in the Oneness of God, the immortality of the Soul, theephemeral character of all material things, and the eternal value ofthings spiritual. The Vetfantic philosophy of the Hindus and theSufisw of the Muslims, whether or not they have derived inspira-tion from each other or from a common source in the ultimateexperience of the human soul in its quest after the eternal verity,have tended to converge towards a single point. A person learnedin both the lores like Dr Bhagwan Das can easily cull together

2. Huxley, op. cit, p. 15.

THE PICTURE FROM ANOTHER ANGLE-RELIGION SI

parallel passages from the standard works of both religions.' The third foreign source of Muslim mysticism was Indian. It

has been pointed out in an earlier chapter that India and the Persian

Gulf had a close commercial intercourse ;with trade, undoubtedly

ideas were exchanged. It stands to reason that if things of material

use like Indian steel and swords, and Indian gold and precious

stones, and if things of artistic value like the painted arch and the

bulbous dome, reached Persia and Iraq, Indian philosophical ideas

should have travelled there too. Many Indians held posts in the

financial department at Basra under the early Umayyads *,the

Caliph Muawiya is reported to have planted a colony of them in

Syria, especially at Antioch and Hajjaj, and to have established

them in Kashgar. The black-eyed and olive complexioned Hinduswere brushing their shoulders against those of the Muslims in the

cities of the Caliphate. The eastern dominions of the empire, that

is, Khorasan, Afghanistan, Sistan and Baluchistan were Buddhistor Hindu before they were converted/ Balkh had a large monastery(Vihara] whose superintendent was known as the Bararnak. Hisdescendants became the Barmakide Vizirs of the Abbaside Caliphs.

' Then the Arab^ familiarized themselves from early times withIndian literature and sciences. They translated Buddhist works in

the second century of the Hijra : for instance, Kitabal-Bud andBilawhar wa Budasif, treatises on astronomy and medicine called

Sindhind (Siddhanta) and Shushrud (Susruta) and Srak (Charaka) ;

story books like Kalilah Damnah (Panchatantra) and Kitab Sindabad;ethical books of Shanaq (Chanakya) and Bidpa (Hitopadesa) ; andtreatises on logic and military science.

'

They were exceedingly keen on informing themselves of the

customs, manners, sciences and religions of the people with whomthey came into contact. Al-Kindi wrote a book on Indian religions,Sulaiman and Masudi collected information in their travels which

they, used in their writings. Al-Nadim, Al-Ashari, Al-Biruni Shah-rastani and many others devoted chapters in their books to describeand discuss Indian religions and philosophic systems.

' The legend of Buddha entered into Muslim literature as the

type of the saintly man, and Muslim hagiologists assimilated the

stories of Ibn Adham to the Buddhist legend. Indian ascetics tra-

velling in pairs and staying not more than two nights at one placewere directly known to the Muslim adepts, who took from thegntheir four-fold vows of cleanliness, purity, truth and povertyand the use of the rosary. What wonder then tfiat the conceptionof Nirvana, the discipline of the eight-fold path, the practice of jogand the acquaintance of miraculous powers were appropriated in

Islam under the names of Tana, Tariqa or Saluk, Moraqabah andKaramat or Mujiza.'

3

3. Dr Bhagwan Das quoted in TarachandV "Influence of Islam on Indian Culture

1

',

pp. 67-70.

32 INDIA DIVIDED

'But the man who produced the greatest stiMn the Islamic

world by the boldness of his doctrines was Husain-bin-Mansoor Al-

Hallaj He travelled about in many lands, among them India,

and thrice visited Mecca. At last his activities became so obnoxious

that he was arrested in A.D. 922.'* Kabir, Dadu, Nanak and other

Indian saints used the language of Muslim Sufism.

Mansoor's theories were later worked up in the systems of

Ibn-al-Arabi and Abdul Karim Jili and in the poetry of Ibn-al-Farid

and Abri Said Ibn Abulkhair and their influence spread to far off

countries including India.'

Jili was acquainted with Hindu religion, for among the ten

principal seats he noted the Brahima (Brahman). About them he

says that they worship God in His absolute aspect, without refe-

rence to prophet or apostle. The scriptures of the Brahmina accord-

ing to him were revealed to them not by God but by Abraham(Brahma); they contained five books, the fifth on account of its

profundity was unknown to most of the Brahmans but those whoread it invariably becamg Muslims. Apparently Jili's fifth book is

the Vedanta whose monistic philosophy in the eyes of Jili m?de it

indistinguishable from Islam/5 ' The Muslim mystic who sets out

upon the path of union (wasl) of absorption (fana) always needs a

spiritual guide, "for if a man has no teacher his Imam is Satan."

The guide or the preceptor (Pir or Shaikh) is the priest roundwhich the whole machinery of Sufi monachism moves. ...The dis-

ciple is advised to keep his Murshid constantly in mind, to become

eventually absorbed in him through constant meditation and con-

templation of him, to see him in all men and in a*l things, and to

annihilate his self in the Murshid. From this state of self-absorp-tion in the Murshid the master leads him on through several stagesat last to absorption in the Deity. Muhammad taught surrender to

God (Islam), Sufism surrender to the teacher who is the represen-tative of God upon earth.'

Haji Waris AH Shah was a Sufi saint in nothern India. Histomb is at Dewa Shaiif in Barabanki district (U.P.). His disciplesadd '

Warisi'

to their names and are said to be most numerous.He has summarized the Sufi teachings in a few Persian verseswhich may be quoted here as illustrative :

Mun hameen go-em ke pir-e-man khudast,Pesh-e munkir een sakhun guftan khatast ;

Ek swalay meen kimum ai marduman,Pas jawab *oora dehund ai mominanHezum under nar choon shud sokhtaRishta under jame shud choon dokhtaPas wara hezam bagoem ya ke narRishta ra jama bagoem ya ka tar

4. Tarachand, op. cit, pp. 69-70, 5. ibid., pp. 77-8. 6. ibid, p. 81.

THE PICTURE FROM ANOTHER ANGLE-RELIGION 38

Choon key pir-e-mun fana fillah shud

Ruft bashriyat hama Allah shud

Pas be paye oo kunum hardam sajood,

Waqf kardam dar rahush jan o wajood ;

Ashqi az jutnle alam bartar ast

Zan ke een millat Khudai akbar ast.

Translated as follows :

I say Pir is my God. To say this before a munkir (non-believer)

is a mistake. O man, I ask one question. O believers, answer it.

When fuel gets burnt in fire, when thread gets woven into cloth,

then should I call it fuel or fire, then should I call the thread cloth

or thread ? So when my Pir got absorbed in God, the human being

disappeared all became God. I therefore bow to his feet everymoment and have dedicated my life and being to his path Love is

superior to all the worlel inasmuch as it is the millat (bhakti) of

God the Great.

Hindu scripture abounds in references to the necessity of a

Guru or preceptor who is to guide the disciple through the difficult

and rigorous discipline he has to go through, and without such

Guru progress is practically impossible. In fact 'the Guru is

Brahma, the Guru is Vishnu, the Guru is Maheshwar, the Guru is

Para-Brahma Himself and to that Guru I bow '

is a commonevery-day prayer. It is the duty and ambition of every Hindu to

have a Guru and to be initiated by him.'

In the Pantha (way, sect) of Kabir, the Guru holds the sameposition as in any other Sufi order. If it is true of the Sufis that"among them the worship of God is the same as the worship of

man "it is equally applicable here, for says Kabir

'

Consider the Guru as Govinda (God).'

Nay more'

If Hari becomes angry still there is some chance, but if the

Guru is angry then there is no chance whatever/And as among Sufi orders so in Kabir-Pantha,

' The real meditation (dhyana, dhiker) is of the Guru's form,the real worship is of the Guru's feet. The redl boat is the Guru'sword, which in essence and feeling is true

' and '

in the three worldsand nine regions none is greater than the Guru/ 7

'

Like all Sufis Nanak taught that in the soul's journey, towardsGod it was necessary to be guided by a Guru. In his system the

preceptor occupies the same position as in that of Kabir/8 *

The names of Kabir and Nanak will thus spring to the mind of

every Hindu of northern India as those of persons who were deeplyinfluenced by Islam and Hindu Vedanta alike. The Sakhis ofKabirdas and his devotional songs are repeated by innumerable

7. Tarachand, op. cit, p. 158. 8. ibid., p. 176.

34 INDIA DIVIDED

Hindus and sung at the time of prayers morning and evening in

countless Hindu homes.' Thus did Kabir turn the attention of India to a religion of

the universal path ;a road was laid out on which both could tread

together. No Hindu or Muslim could take exception to such a

religion. This was the constructive part of Kabir's mission. But it

had a destructive side also. It was impossible to build a new road

without clearing awr

ay the jungle which obstructed the ancient

foot-paths. Kabir therefore attacked with fearless indignation and

in trenchant language the whole apparatus of externalia whichobscured the truth or separated the Indian communities from one

another. He spared neither the Hindu nor the Musalman.' He asked the Hindus to give up what every reformer since the

days of Buddha had insisted upon ceremonial, sacrifice, lust for

magical powers, lip worship, repetition of formulae, pilgrimages,

fasts, worship of idols, gods and goddesses, Brahmin supremacy,caste differences, prejudices concerning* touchability and food. . . .

He asks the MusalmUns Jto give up their exclusiveness, their blind

trust in one Prophet and his book, their externalism in th$ per-formance of rites pilgrimage to Mecca, fasts, and regulated

prayers, their worship of saints (aulia aryd pirs) *and prophets

(paighambar).'He asks both Hindus and Muslims to have reverence for all

living creatures and to abstain from bloodshed. He asks them bothto give up pride whether of birth or of position, to give up extremesof asceticism and worldliness and to consider life as a dedication.

. . .He repeats again and again that Hindus and Muslims are one,

they worship the same God, they are children of the same Father,and they are made of the same blood/ 9

Every one knows that the entire teaching of Guru Nanak is

nothing but a synthesis of the fundamental principles of both the

religions.' The mission of Nanak was the unification of the Hindu

and the Musalman. He realised that in order to heal the woundsof society it was essencial to end the conflict of religions.'

10 ' Nanakshows little mercy to himself and he is naturally not very tenderwhen he deals with others.

9With a mind definite, clearcut and

keenly alive to the sharp distinctions between good and evil, hecondemns with Semitic vehemence the superstitions and forma-lism of Hinduism and Islam/ 11 Kabir was a Muslim and Nanaka

c

Hindul3y birth and yet they are both the products of that fusionwhich was going on despite the continuance of all outward separa-tion and isolationism.

It was not only in the realm of philosophic an'd religiousthought that this rapprochement proceeded. In actual practice anynumber of instances may be found of Muslim Kings endowing

9. Tarachand, op. cit, pp. 163-5, 10. ibid,, p. 16. 11. ibid., p. 172.

THE PICTURE FROM ANOTHER ANGLE-RELIGION 35

temples and '

maths '

and granting Jagirs to pious Hindus andPandits learned in the Hindu lore. It would be a useful service if

some scholar could bring together in a compact form a list of the

numerous endowments and grants made by Muslim Kings to Hindutemples and religious shrines such as has been done of those dese-

crated and destroyed by them.*

If there had been no cultural co-operation as a rule, why weresanads granted by Muslim rulers to Hindu seats of worship andlearning and vice versa? Students of the history of South Indiamust have come across innumerable instances of such grants, madeto Brahmins by Adil Shahi, Kutub Shahi and Asaf Shahi dynasties.Likewise such endowments were made to Muslim places of wor-ship by Maratha Rulers even after the political strife with Delhi

Emperors.'12

I may mention two instances in Bihar. The nucleusof the large Zamindari of the Mahant of Bodh Gaya whose yearlyincome runs into lakhs was a grant by Mohammad Shah of Delhi,who by a firman granted the village of Mustipur Taradih to MahantLai Gir who was the fourth in succession from the founder. Simi-

larly the great Zamindari perhaps the greatest Zamindari in Indiaof Darbhanga owes its origin to a grant by the Mughal Emperor

Akbar to the ancestor of the present Brahmin Maharajadhiraj forhis learning and piety.

' To encourage education among his Hindusubjects he [Sher Shah] granted them wakfs and allowed them afree hand in their management. For this liberal policy he was liked

by his subjects of all castes and creeds/ 18

A few other instances supplied to me by Doctor Syed Mahmudmay be mentioned here :

Sultan Zainulabdin of Kashmir used often to visit Amarnathand Sharda D^vi'c temple, and had houses built there for the com-fort of pilgrims.

The Pathans of Najibabacl ruled over Harclwar about 1780.The Nawab built big houses for the comfort of Hindu pilgrimswhich are still in existence and in possession of Hindus.

In 1588, Guru Arjun Dev dug a tank at Amritsar and in thesame year proposed to build tne temple there for worship. Theygot the foundation of Harmandir laid by a Musalmanof pietynamed Mian-Peer alias Bala Peer.

From The History of tlie Darbar of Amritsar, by Sirdar Udham Singh

Munshi Sujan Rai of Batala, the famous historian of the time of

Alamgir, mentions in his KhulastulTawarikh, a village Depalival12. Atulananda Chakravarti :

"Call It Politics?" p. 44.

13. Ishwari Prasad : "History of Muslim Rule in India/' D. 339.

$6 INDIA DIVIDED

which is near Kalanur and where the tomb of Shah Shamshuddin

Uaryayi is situated. This tomb is visited by a large number of

people. He writes :

' Both Hindus and Musalmans have a great

faith in Shah Shamshuddin. But a Hindu named Deepali has prov-ed superior to both Hindus and Musalmans in his faith. After Shah

Daryayi's death Deepali was appointed the first trustee and keeperof the tomb with unanimous consent of both Hindus and Musal-

mans although he was not a Musalman by religion....Some years

ago the Musalmans tried to get the Hindu keepers dismissed, so

much so that religious reasons were urged for this. But the Alam-

giri Hukumat did not allow the agitation to succeed. At the time

of writing this book in the third year of Alamgir's rule the Hindusare the keepers of this tomb.

5

Everi^oday in Hyderabad (Deccan) a Brahmin family conti-

nues to be the Mutwalli of the dargah of a famous Buzurg (pious

man). The Nizam has granted a big Jagir to this dargah and the

public also make offerings. Musalmans tried to get the HinduMutwalli dismissed but the Nizam did not allow this.

*

Even today there is a grant on behalf, of the' Nizam to the

temple of Sitaram in the town of Hyderabad and to another templeat Mahor (Adilabad), the annual income from whici comes to 50or 60 thousand. The Jagir granted by the Nizam to the Gurdwaraof Sikhs at Nander has an annual income of 20 thousand.

Some sanacls in Persian for a grant may be quoted. One is

dated 1167 Hijri and was granted by Ahmad Shah Bahadur Ghazi :

' Be it known to the Zamindars and cultivators of Kasba Ach-nera in the district of Akbarabad that seventeen bighas of muafi-land (land free from rent) are granted

"Punyartlr^as a religious

act) to Sheetal Dass Bairagi, for the expenses of bJwg and naived

of Shri Thakurji, so that with the income from the said land, thesaid Bairagi may meet the expenses and perform the rites of Shri

Thakurji.' Be it known to the Choudhri of the Bazar of Achnera thai he

should give twenty bhar (measures) of grain to Shri Thakurji. The-aforesaid Bairagi should not be deprived of it. Dated 3rd Ramzan,1139, Fasli/

c t

Another is from Shahabuddin Khan granting a Jagir for the

expenses of the famous temple of Ganesh at Chinchwad.

QaulnamaIn the name of Moraya Gossain of Chinchwad appertaining to

Pergannah Poona, about whom Khan-e-Hikmat Nishan NaharKhan has informed that he wants Qaul (binding words) of grant.

THE PICTURE FROM ANOTHER ANGLE-RELIGION 37

So it is given in writing that he should dwell with his own people

and connexions in this village and strive to make the lands prospe-

rous and productive. May no hardship or injury befall him through

the'will of Allah the Great. The date of Qauliyatnama for this pur-

pose is the I2th of Zeqad 1326 Hijri.

There are two firmans of similar grants in Allahabad. One of

these is in favour of the priests of the famous temple of MaheshwarNath. It was granted by Aurangzeb.

Aurangzeb made grants to Girdhar, son of Jagjiwan of sakin

Mouza Basti (resident of village Basti) in the district of Benares,

Jadu Mishra, resident of Maheshpur Pergannah Haveli, and to

Pandit Balbhadra Mishra, who were all priests.

Aurangzeb made a grant of a monetary allowance of a hundred

rupees to Mishra Kalyandas for the temple of Tutlamaee in Multanwhich is still in existence vide Settlement Report of the District

of Multan by Hukmchand, Extra Assistant Commissioner.

Sultan Mohammad Murad Bakhsh in 1153 Hijri made a grantthat four seers of ghge be given every day from the stores of Ujjainso that the temple of jVIahakal may be illuminated every night.

It may bp stated in a general way that many of the Muslim

kings and rulers were great patrons of learning and encouraged the

study not only of Persian and Arabic but also of Sanskrit and In-

dian literature and sciences. It is not possible even to summarize all

that they did for the promotion of learning in India.' Under the

imperial patronage several Sanskrit books dealing with diverse

subjects were translated into Persian and Arabic. Besides, there

were scores of Muslim chiefs who themselves studied Sanskrit and

patronised it wiihout stint. Many of them translated Sanskritworks into Persian in order to put the treasures of Hindu lore with-in the reach of the Muslim world and encouraged others in this

direction. Often Sanskrit works were included in the courses of

study for Hindu students. In short Sanskrit was encouraged in

every possible way/14 Dr. James H. Cousins, writing about educa-

tion in Muslim India says :

' Muslim "Kings and Princes themselvesbecame students and included^ Hindu culture in their intellectual

interests. Muslim literary education intermingled as freely withHindu literatures as Moghal painting with Rajput painting. *Hin3uclassics were translated into Persian and as a consequence Persianculture influenced Hindu culture/ 15

The Hindus are seen even now assembling in as large numbersas Muslims at the dargah or tomb of a Muslim saint or on the

14. S. M. Jaffar :" Education in Muslim India," p. 15.

15. ibid, p. 15, quoted from "Eastern Times "

dated 7-6-1935.

38 INDIA DIVIDED

occasion of Urs fairs from all over India at a place like AjnierShareef and from within the Province of Bihar at Bihar Shareef,Maner Shareef and Phulwari Shareef. Many Hindus have actual-

ly a sort of relationship with Muslim divines akin to that of gfuruand chela or preceptor and disciple.

The participation by masses of Hindus in the Muslim celebra-

tions of the Muharram is well known all over northern India,

There used to be a time not long ago when perhaps the number of

Hindus joining them exceeded that of the Muslims for the simplereason that the former are more numerous than the latter. It wasnot only in the processions that the Hindus joined. They actuallyobserved Mijharram as Muslims did in their homes as days of

mourning and prayer when no festivities could be indulged in andno auspicious act, such as a marriage or entry into a new housecould be celebrated. Many Hindus had their own tazias and separs,and Hindu boys fully became paiks and bahishtis donning the

green dress and badge (badhis as they are called in Bihar) andcarrying the water washak. Hindu akharas vied with Muslimakharas in displaying 'their feats with sword and scimitar, gadkaand lathi and a host of other instruments. Better still, very often,

perhaps oftcner than not, these akharas w^re not fhe exclusiveakharas of either Hindus or Muslims but joint akharas of both.

There used to be no objection to the very noisy music of the*

Muharram processions even when they passed by mosques, andthere used to be no breaking of heads and worse as so often

happens now-a-days on account of Hindu music before mosques. It

is a curious thing that in most cases the music accompanying Hinduprocessions that is objected to by Muslims in some places is playedmostly by professional Muslim musicians. Similarly the cow whosesacrifice on the Bakrid day by a Muslim is so often the cause of a

flare-up among Hindus (who tolerate her slaugfcttf 'from day to

clay for meat and hide in almost every town of any importancejandparticularly in cantonments) has very often been the property *of aHindu who has sold her to a Muslim for money, well knowing theuse to which she would be put by the purchaser. On the other hand,we have instances of. Muslim rulers from Babar downwards layingstress on the desirability of respecting the Hindu feeling by notslaughtering cows, if not actually prohibiting cow-slaughter alto-gether, and there are innumerable respectable Muslim familiesamong whom beef is never used out of regard for the feelings ofHindi? neighbours.

' On tlie occasion of Id it appears the cow wasnot sacrificed, for we are told :

" On that day [Id] every one whois able will sacrifice a goat in his house, and keep the day as a greatfestival."

>1G

ML Ishwari Prasad :

" A Short History of Muslim Rule in India," p. 738, quoting Pelsaert"""' j**t

THE PICTURE FROM ANOTHER ANGLE-RELIGION 39

It is worth while reproducing the secret will of Zahiruddin

Mohammed Badshah Ghazi (Babar) to Prince Nasiruddin Muham-mad Humayun :

' Oh Son ! the Kingdom of India is full of different religions.

Praised be God that He bestowed upon thee its sovereignty. It is

incumbent on thee to wipe all religious prejudices off the tablet of

thy heart, administer justice according to the ways of every reli-

gion. Avoid especially the sacrifice of the cow by which thou canst

capture the hearts of the people of India and subjects of this country

may be bound up with royal obligations.* Do not ruin the temples and shrines of any community which

is obeying the laws of Government. Administer justice in such a

manner that the King* be pleased with the subjects and the subjectswith the King. The cause of Islam can be promoted more by the

sword of obligation than by the sword of tyranny.'

Overlook the dissensions of the Shiyas and the Sunnis, else

the weakness of Islam is manifest.* And let the subjects of different beliefs* harmonise in confor-

mity with the four elements (of which the human body is harmo-

niou*sly composed) o that the body of the Kingdom may be free

from different dissensions. The memoirs of Timur, the master of

conjunctions, (the fortunate,) should always be before thine eyes so

that thou mayest become experienced in the affairs of administra-tion. First J&maicliulawal 935 A.H/17

Some instances of tolerance by Muslims may also be mentionedhere, given to me by Dr Syed Mahmud :

The famous Portuguese historian Fari Souza writes in his

Dakkhan-Ki-Halat:' Hindus and Musalmans served one another and

Muslim kings used to appoint Hindus to high posts and confer onthem high ramtG.

1 '

In other words, there was no discrimination

against Hindus, and they used to perform their religious rites andcereYnonies without hindrance. The Musalmans used to show greatconsideration for the religious feelings of the Hindus.

Sir Alfred Lyall writes in Asiatic Studies, p. 289 :

' But so far

were they [Muslim rulers] from converting India, that among theJVlohammadans themselves, their own faith never acquired an entireexclusive monopoly of the higfy officers of administration/

Aurangzeb recommended to Shah Jahan and his ministers

many able Hindus for appointment. For example, when there w*asa vacancy in the post of Diwani of Ellichpur, he strongly recom-mended a Rajput officer named Ramkaran but for some reasonsShah Jahan did not accept the recommendation. Aurangzeb wrotea second time that a better man could not be found. (Ruqaat-

17. Translation of the will of Babar, a copy of which used to be in possession of the late DrBalkrishna, Principal, Rajarcm College, Kolhapur; published in "The Searchlight," dated30-5-1926.

40 INDIA DIVIDED

Alamgiri, Vol. i, p. 114.) Many instances of such recommendations

may be found in Ruqaat-Alamgiri, and Adab-e*Alamgiri.- It is generally believed that Aurangzeb forcibly converted

Hindus to Islam. But a curious incident may be described here

which shows his attitude. Shah Jahan had imprisoned the RajaIndraman of Wandhera for his repeated acts of disobedience of

orders. When Aurangzeb was appointed Subedar of the Deccan he

strongly recommended his release to Shah Jahan. But Shah Jahanwas so displeased with Indraman that he turned down Aurangzeb'srecommendation and wrote to him that Indraman had repeatedlycaused him displeasure, but he might be set free if he became a

Musalman. Aurangzeb strongly protested against this and wroteto Shah Jahan that this condition could not be acted upon and wasimpolitic and short-sighted, and that if he was to be released, heshould be ^released on conditions offered by himself. Aurangzeb'sletter to Shafaullah Khan, the Prime Minister, on this subject is to

be found in the Adab-e-Alamgiri.

* II. Sdcial Life

The influence exerted by the Hindu on Muslim social life

and custom and vice versa was no less remarkable. ' This can beillustrated easily by reference to the rites ancrceremonies connectedwith the three most important and significant incidents in humanlife, viz. birth, marriage, and death. I shall mention h&re some com-mon or similar rites and customs observed by middle class Hindusand Musalmans in Bihar.

It is a common custom that at the time of the birth of a child,

particularly if it happens to be a male child, songs are sung whichare known locally as sohar. Women from neighbouring housesassemble and join the singing and other festivitieV^t the door ofthe room of confinement fire is kept burning and a piece of iron anda thorny plant of the cactus class known as muthiasij and certainother articles are kept to keep out evil spirits. On the sixth dayafter the birth the mother and baby are washed and this ceremonyis known as chhathi or sixth day ceremony and the mother, takingthe baby in her arms, looks at the sky and counts the stars. Thereare other ceremonies on the twentieth and fiftieth day known asbistouri and chlieella respectively. During the period of confinementup to thq sixth day in particular the mother is considered to beimpure and is not permitted to touch food to be taken by others.Both ^the idea of spirits haunting houses and of untouchability offood are foreign to orthodox Islam and so also is the idea of bathon fixed days after the birth of a child but they are prevalent andacted upon in practice in Muslim households.

Removing the hair with which a baby is born from its head is

THE PICTURE FROM ANOTHER ANGLE-SOCIAL LIFE 41

another rite of some importance both among Hindus and Musal-mans. It is known as mundan among Hindus and as aqiqa amongMusalmans. It may have some religious significance but the simi-

larity of rites is remarkable.

In Islam marriage is a contract in the legal sense of the term.

The bridegroom and the bride agree to live together as husbandand wife and like other contracts the agreement has to be attested

by witnesses and requires consideration to be passed. It is also

dissoluble but like other contracts the dissolution is subject to. pay-ment of damages. The damages are ascertained and are fixed at

the time of the marriage, that is, of the contract itself,.the paymentof which is deferred till the dissolution of the marriage. The moreessential part of the marriage ceremony is a very short business andconsists practically of agreement by the parties concerhed in the

presence of witnesses and takes but a few minutes. This is the nikah

proper and may be separated from the festivities which are knownas shadi. In Hinduism marriage is a sacrament and is accordinglyindissoluble in theory. The vow that is taken is a religions vow andis witnessed not only by human beings but also by the sun and the

moon, fire and the earth, water and stone the symbols of existencethat last till the separate human soul is merged in the Eternal atthe end of a cycle. The ceremony when duly performed takes a

long time. It would thus seem that the two differ fundamentallyfrom each other. But as a>matter of practice, while the fundamen-tal ceremonies are observed by both the Hindus and Muslimsaccording to their religious precepts, the other rites which are notessential have Become assimilated to one another to a considerableextent. The pomp and procession, the feasts and festivities, thesongs sung by women, the presents, the practical jokes and playfulpractices are^rikalike. Islam forbids all pomp ; Hinduism neitherenjoins nor forbids it

; but in both communities today one sees

things happening- on the occasion of marriage which are hardlydistinguishable.

A detailed description may be of some interest.

. The rites and ceremonies and festivities connected with mar-riage which are prevalent among Musalmans in Bihar have beengreatly influenced by similar rites, ceremonies and festivities com-mon among Hindus. As stated above, nikah is the essential cefe-

mony for a Muslim marriage. It is often'made coincident with whatis known as shadi which is the festivity part of it. But it is some-times separated from the shadi, which takes place at a different timeand place. At the time of shadi the bridegroom's party wh'ichvaries in splendour, pomp and paraphernalia with the wealth andsocial status of the bridegroom's family goes to the house of the

42 INDIA DIVIDED

bride and is lodged ordinarily not in: the house of the bride's father

but in another house and often in tents. For some days prior to

the arrival of the party some rites are performed at the houses of

the bridegroom and the bride. One rite is known as rat faga whenthe women keep awake at night and prepare a kind of pudding. Onanother day the ceremony of mandwa is performed when a sort of

tent or canopy is fixed in the courtyard of the inner apartments on

tall bamboos. On a third day the rite of kandoori is performedwhen food is cooked and distributed in the name of dead persons.This. food can be taken only by Syed women. On a fixed day the

party or barat starts and reaches the bride's home. For some daysbefore the rq,arriage, the bride has to observe what is known as

mayun or manja when she has to keep indoors and so no one exceptsome selected women of the family can see her during the period.She is an6inted with ubtan (a preparation of turmeric and someother things) every day, and she comes out only on the day of

marriage.

Among the Hindus the mandwa or mandap is made on an

auspicious day one or two days before the marriage which is rper-formecl in the mandap. There is a particular religious ceremonywhereby dead ancestors arc invited to witness and bless the mar-

riage and to take the new couple within their fold of kinsmen. Thegirl is anointed with turmeric which is considered a vqry importantceremony and the saying goes that this ceremony of anointing withturmeric cannot be performed twice on a girl, that is to say, therecannot be a second marriage of a girl, if one husband dies. She is

kept secluded for a number of days before the marriage when she

may not see anyone and what with the anointment and what withthe abstinence from bath on those days she looks emaciated anddirty ; just a day or two before the marriage she Ijas to take a bathwith ceremony. Feeding Brahmins on every important occasion is

a common thing among all Hindus throughout India. The barator marriage processions of Hindus ancl Muslims are indistingui-shable in their pomp u great parade of elephants, horses and now-a-clays motor cars, and if at night with lights of all kinds, music,etc. Both among Hindus ancl Musalmans, the bridegroom's partyis usually accommodated at another house or in tents, chieflybecause the bride's father is unable cto find accommodation in hisown house for such large crowds as constitute it.

^ Among Hindus in Bihar the procession goes to the house ofthe brjcle where the bridegroom is received by the women of thebride's family who sprinkle a little water and scatter rice over thebridegroom, put the tilak on his forehead, and wave a light in frontof him. The father of the bride also receives him with ceremonyand makes some present. The other guests are received and offereddrinks ancl light refreshments. The whole party then proceeds to

THE PICTURE FROM ANOTHER ANGLE-SOCIAL LIFE 43

its lodgings. This is known as parichawan. Soon after, the bride's

party accompanied by some women with water and eatables ap-

proach the bridegroom's party at the latter's lodgings and invite

them formally to dinner. Presents are made to the bridegroom'selders. This is known as dhurchak.

A little later the bridegroom's party proceeds to the bride's

house when the bride is seated in the mandap and the elder brother

of the bridegroom presents to her clothes and ornaments, andsweets and scents carried in a specially made basket which looks

like a temple with a broad base and a tapering top. This is the onlyoccasion when an elder brother of the bridegroom is supposed or

expected to see or touch the bride. This is known as kanyanirikshan

(seeing the bride). Next is the ceremony of marriage proper. Thebridegroom and bride are brought together in the mandap thebride with clothes and ornaments presented by the bridegroom'sparty, and the bridegroom with the clothes presented by the bride's

party and after worship of God, the parents of the bride make a for-

mal gift of the girl to the bridegroom with -due ceremony. Someof the near relations of the parties are present. In Bihar, on accountof strictness of the wirdah, men of the bridegroom's party exceptthe priest and such other persons as have to officiate and participatein the ceremonies, are not allowed to attend this ceremony, as theladies of the bride's family are present. All who join the party are

supposed to 6e witnesses and the ceremonies include invocations

to^God and the sun, the moon, fire, water, earth and stone, etc. to,witness and bless the union, and a repetition by the bridegroomand bride of certain mantras promising to be true and faithful toeach other. The pair then goes round the fire and the ceremonyis completed with the bridegroom besmearing the forehead of thebride with vermilion. This is known as sindwrdan or gift of vermi-lion. This vcJFfcwiion mark is the sign of the woman's good fortuneand she puts it on so long as her husband is alive.

Among^the Musalmans after the arrival of the bridegroom'sparty there is a ceremony of what is known as bari when people ofthe bridegroom's party proceed from their lodgings to the bride'shouse with clothes, oil, sweets, fruits, etc. accompanied by music.In front is carried what is known as sohagpura which is a kind ofbasket with a broad base and a tapering top containing spices,fruits, sweets, coloured yarn, rice, etc. exactly like that of the Hin-dus.

^

When these presents have been received by the bridVs peoplethey in their turn present clothes etc. known as khilat for the*bride-groom. He wears the clothes so presented. The nikah or essentialmarriage ceremony if it has not taken place already is performedat^this

time. The bridegroom puts sandal-paste on the head of thebride as vermilion in the case of Hindus and the ceremony is knownas nwngbhari. At this time pieces of poetry suitable to the

44 INDIA DIVIDED

occasion are repeated and songs are sung. The Hindus also on the

occasion of the dhurchak and kanyanirikshan have the custom of

repeating verses and discussions among the younger folk and learn-

ed Pandits, in earnest as also in fun. On each and every occasion,

both among Hindus and Musalmans, the women folk sing suitable

songs which are similar in tune and substance.

The marriage party generally departs from the bride's house

after a day's stay. On the second day the bridegroom is taken to

the mandap and some ceremonies in which the women participateare performed. These have no religious significance but are custo-

mary and vary from place to place. Among the Hindus the boy is

anointed with ubtan to which he consents only if a present is madeto him. In the evening the women take him to the bride's r^m and

perform what is known as the kohbar ceremony. Before the party

departs the ceremony of muhdekhi (seeing the face) is held whenthe bridegroom and bride are seated together and the bridegroom'srelations are supposed to see the girl's face and to make presents.And lastly there is the bidai, or farewell ceremony. In between, the

bridegroom's party is fed by the bride's party. Among Musaltpansalso the bridegroom is taken to the mandwa a.md the ceremony of

runumai (face seeing*) is held when the husband and ivife see eachother's face in a mirror. At the time of the departure of the bride-

groom and bride for the former's house presents are^ made to the

bridegroom both among* Hindus and Musalmans, which are mostlyarticles of household utility and may include clothes, beddings,utensils, conveyance like a palki in which the bride is taken. AmongHindus a cow is often presented and those who can afford it presenta horse or an elephant and now-a-days a motor car.

Among Musalmans the bride on arrival is not taken straightto the bridegroom's house but is stopped at some place like a dargahwhere the women of the bridegroom's family come~with water andtwigs of mango and perform some rites. On arrival at the houseof the bridegroom the husband of the bridegroom's sister stops the

conveyance and does not allow it to enter the house before a presentis made to him. Among' the Hindus also the sister's husband is

offered a present for a similar symbolic obstruction, and the boyand the girl are taken round to places of worship like a temple orKaliasthan. .

There is thus a close similarity in the ceremonies and rites ofboih Hindus and Musalmans, and this in spite of the fact thatIslam tdoes not prescribe any of them and some of them may appearto orthodox and puritanical Musalmans to be even opposed to its

tenets.

Hinduism as generally understood does not permit dissolutionof marriage not only in life but even after death and hence therecan be no remarriage for a widow. Islam does nothing of this sort