Presenter : Dr. Osman Ali

Scheme of presentation

Part 1 Introduction Part 2 theories of motivation Part 3 biological motivation Part 4 social motivation Part 5 motives to know and to be effective Part 6 motivational conflict Part 7 measurement of motivation Part 8 conclusion

What is motivation?

 

Motivation refers to the driving and pulling forces which results in persistent behavior directed towards particular goal.

 

Significance of Motivation

1. Some one who understands your motives will understand.

a) Why do you do the things you do.

b) Can also make predictions about behavior – the range of

things a person will do.

2. Many theories of personality are really theories about people’s

motives.

3 . Unconscious Motivation is major concept of psychoanalytical theory of personality.

4. Ulterior motives is part of Transactional analysis.

 

What is motive?

Motive is Energetic force that which moves a person to act. (the activating force for motivation).

Similar older terms for motive are – needs, drives

Features of motive

a) we never observe them directly.

b) They are inferences from behavior.

c) We may or may not be aware of them.

What are types of Motivation?

Biological – Hunger, thirst, Sex, other (Sleep, oxygen, temperature regulation)

Psychosocial – Abasement, Achievement, Affiliation, Aggression, Autonomy, Counteraction, Defense, Deference(power), Dominance, Exhibition, Harm avoidance, In avoidance, Nurturance, Order, Play, Rejection, Sentience,

Security, Esteem, , Self Expression, Self assertion.

Motives to know and to be effective- stimulus and exploration needs, effectance, self actualization.

.  .

Intrinsic V/s extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic motivation Goals are internal feelings of effectiveness, competence and self

determination works hard for fun of it , creatively and for satisfaction.

Eg: Self actualization motivation, Effectance motivation.

 

Extrinsic motivation Directed towards goals external to the person, such as money or

grades in school. Excessive reliance on it stifle intrinsic motivation and impair

performance.

Biological V/s Psychosocial Motivation V/s motivation to explore and effective

 

Biological Motivation

The are fundamental for our survival. They are basically unlearned in nature. The arousal state is initiated (Departure from

homeostasis ) by hormones – Insulin, Glucagon, Testosterone, Estrogen. Sensory stimuli (Incentives) – smell of food, image of

opposite sex, pain.

Social Motivation

The are learned in Social groups (Social learning) Eg: Family, Peers, Teachers. Hence their strength differ greatly from individual to another.

They persist, never fully satisfied over the years – determine

much of what a person does

. Important component of personality – the enduring and

characteristic differences among people.

Knowledge of social motive dominant in a society may help us understand its history and predicts its future

Motive to know and to be effective

They are innate part of the human species heritage, seem to exist to one degree or another in everyone.

They are most powerful and most persistent of all.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION Drive theory (Push Theory)  1. Drive theories say that behavior is pushed towards goals

by arousal internal states (Drive) with in the person or animal.

2. Sources of driving state can be

Inborn / instinctive – proposed by Freud, Ethologists – Tinberg, Lorenz, Leyhausan. Eg: Biological Motivation

Learned – hence they differ from one individual to another. Eg: Addictions, Social Motivation (achievement, power, aggression)

3. Motivational cycle of drive theories- Strength of drive depends upon strength of stimuli

Incentive theory (Pull Theory) 

1. Incentive theory stress the ability of the goal to Pull behavior towards them.

2. Incentive is the goal object which motivate behavior. It can be

a) Positive – when one expects pleasure from the

attainment.

b) Negative – when on expects pleasure from avoidance.

 

The Opponent – Process Theory (Theory of emotion) 

1.The opponent process theory says that we are motivated to seek goals which give us good emotional feelings and avoids goals results in displeasure.

2.Basic to this theory is the observation that many emotionally motivating states are followed by opposing or opposite states.

3.Graphical representation of emotional states during first few stimulations and after many stimulations.

Eg: Heroin addiction (Drug Tolerance), Parachute Jumper (Thrill seeking behavior

Optimal Level (Best level) theory (Just Right Theory)  

Optimal level theory says that behavior is directed towards maintaining an optimal level of arousal or state of homeostasis in internal physiological process.

Eg: Work Load

Hunger motivation

Stimuli – For activation - Blood sugar level, Hormone leptin, external sensory stimuli – smell, appearance, taste.

For satisfaction -Blood sugar level, Hormone CCK, nutrient receptors in stomach.

Centers in Brain - For activation – LH

For satisfaction – VMH.

Thirst motivation

 Stimuli –

For activation - double depletion hypothesis

a) Hypovolemia.

b) Loss of water from hypothalamic receptors.

Center in brain – supra optic nucleus

Sexual motivation

Factors influencing

Hormones :

Role of hormones in motivating sexual behavior is less in human compared to lower animals, where as external stimuli and learning are especially important on higher animals.

  External stimuli

Much sexual behavior is turned on by stimuli which act as incentives Eg : Looks (Style, dress), voice, touch, odor.

Learning

Especially peoples early learning experience has influence on sexual behavior and account for much of variability from person to person.

 

Male and female differences in sexual Motivation

Female - Estrogen levels increases in mid of menstrual cycle and decreases following menstruation and after menopause.

Consistent relationship between level of hormones and sexual drive

has not been proved.

External stimuli, habits and attitudes seem to be more important than

hormones in activating the sexual behavior.

Male -

Male needs a certain level of testosterone in order to maintain their sexual interest and to engage in sexual behavior.

But increase of testosterone levels above the necessary threshold level do not turn on male sexual drive.

The triggers in male with adequate androgen levels seems to be external stimuli , especially signals from the female that she is interested in sex.

Hunger V/s Thirst

1. Thirst motive is stronger than food motive.

2. Though hunger and thirst motives are basically unlearned (inborn), Psychosocial factors too play a role.

Eg: Boredom, food habits, cultural demands.

3.These are regulated by feed back mechanisms.

Sexual V/s other biological motives

Sex motivation differs from other biological motives.

a) Not necessary to maintain life of an individual although it is necessary for survival of species.

b) Not aroused by lack of substance. It is more under the influence of learning and ext stimuli. c) Regulated much by social pressure and religious beliefs. d) Provides intense pleasure as well as can give us agony and

involve in many difficult situations.  

Achievement motivation

1. Achievement is task oriented behavior that allows the individuals performance to be evaluated according to some internally or externally imposed criterion.

2.Achievement may or may not involve the individual in competing with others

3 . Sources of achievement motivation are

a) Modeling – Parents, Peers and other important people.

b) Expectation – of Parents etc.

4. Characteristic features of n ach people.

a) They work on risky / challenging task which promises success.

b) They work on task where their performance can be compared with others.

5. Significance of Achievement – n ach is related to society’s economic and business growth

6. Factors Influencing n ach

a) Fear of failure as motive said to inhibit expression of achievement behavior.

b) Fear of success – it is proposed for high n ach women who do not like to work on moderately risky tasks. Thus there is gender difference in the expression of need for achievement

c) Competition motivation – improves performance for people with low achievement motivation, but actually impairs performance for those in whom achievement motivation is strong.

Power motivation

1. Social power is the ability or capacity of a person produce consciously or unconsciously intended effect’s the behavior or emotions of another person.

2. The goals of power motivation are to influence, control, cajole, persuade, lead, charm others to enhance one’s own reputation in the eyes of other people.

3. Characteristic features of need for power people

a) Impulsive and aggressive action

b) Participation in competitive sports.

c) Joining of Organizations.

d) The collections of possessions.

e) Associate with who are not particularly popular.

f) Choice of occupation which have high impact on others (teaching, diplomacy, business, clergy)

g) the building or disciplining of body. (esp seen in women)

h) Drinking and sexual domination of women

Machiavellianism

(Niccolo Machiavelli, 1469-1527,The prince )

A special form of power motivation is characteristic of

people who express their power motivation by exploiting

others in a deceptive and unscrupulous fashion.

Aggression motive Aggression is a General term applying to behavior aimed at

hurting other people.

 

What are the forms of aggressions? Physical or Verbal Active or Passive Direct or Indirect

 

What are the types of aggression?  Instrumental aggression – The individual uses aggression as a way of satisfying

some other motive.

  Hostile aggression – Is behavior which has its goal the harming of other living

being who is motivated to avoid such harm.

Causes and regulation of aggressive behavior. Aggression while it has biological basis is primarily

under the control of social factors, environmental factors, and learning factors.

 

Environmental and Social factors of aggression:

  Frustration – aggression hypothesis – all aggressive behavior is

caused by frustration. For it to result in aggression – there must be intense expectation on goal and it must be perceived as being the result of arbitrary action.

Verbal Insult / Negative evaluation from other – The most common every day source of aggression. This may result in vicious cycle of aggression when insult is perceived as harmful intent..

 

Compliance with an authority who orders us to aggress against others.

Unpleasant or aversive environmental conditions (high temperature, intense noise, crowding etc) seen especially in people who have already been angered in someway.

  Weapon effect (controversial cause) – The presence of

weapon was found to increase the aggression of angered people

Learning factors of aggression:   Social learning theory – by imitating aggressive models eg: Mass

media (Television and films) – moderately enhanced aggression seen especially among boys.

Classical conditioning Certain stimuli situation are paired with each others. ↓ Repetition of stimuli ↓ generalization ↓ Aggressive behavior towards many similar

stimuli.

Instrumental conditioning

Aggressive behavior

  ↓

Reinforcement / reward

  ↓

Habituated

How can human aggression be controlled

Punishment:- Examples of punishers are – chastisement, fines,

loss of social acceptance, embarrassment, imprisonment.

Draw backs of punishment are – punishment is a frustrator, Itself is an aggressive act which provides a model of aggression.

Conditions where punishment may be effective are when it is strong, when the aggressor is relatively sure of receiving it, when perceived as legitimate / appropriate, when instigation relatively weak, pay off not great.

Catharsis – (Venting on emotion). It helps in short term but not in long term. Complete relief occur when we vent it on the same person.

• Non aggressive models

Attribution - The thoughts or cognitions we have about the reason for another’s aggression play a role in helping us control our own aggression.

Incompatible responses – Anger and aggression can be reduced by incompatible responses such as smiling, empathy and mild sexual arousal

Stimulus and Exploration Needs

Each of us have optimal level of arousal.

To reach it, we tend to seek out and prefer stimuli that ate both novel and complex.

Eg: Traveling, Watching Television, movies, sports contests and plays.

Effectance Motivation

• A General motive to act competently and effectively when interacting with environment and becoming master in it.

Eg: Baby learning to stand from sitting

• It is intrinsic motivation

Self Actualization Motivation

What is self actualization

It refers to an individual’s need to develop his or her potentialities in other words, to do what he or she is capable of doing.

Self actualizers are people who make the fullest use of their capabilities

Characteristic features of self actualization motivation

• The Goals which are sought in meeting thus need vary from person to person.

It is thought to be the top need in a hierarchy of need or motives and most of us do not (Maslow, 1954) make it to

the top of the ladder. 

According to Abraham Maslow , 5 sets of hierarchy of needs , Going down wards to highest need are

Physiological needs such as hunger and sex.

Safety needs – such as need for security, stability and order. (Job security, social security). These preoccupy most of us.

Belongingness and love needs – such as need for affection, affiliation and identification Eg: Feeling a part of society or a segment of it via our churches, school or companies.

Esteem needs – such as need for prestige success and self respect.

Need for self actualization.

Feature of Maslow’s theory of hierarchy of needs

Lower needs must be satisfied before meeting higher on the list.

People can be trying to satisfy Several order of needs at a time. (Multi motivation).

because – Many people who move ahead only to find as the situation surrounding them changes, that lower needs must be met again.

Motivational conflict

• Conflicts between and among motives – expression of one

motive interferes with expression of other motive.

It is the most important sources of frustration

E.g : Aggression – social approval

Sexual behavior – Society’s standards of approval

Independence – affiliation

Career aspiration – economic realities.

Approach – approach conflict

The person is attracted towards two incompatible positive goals at the same time

It is usually easy to resolve and generate little emotional behavior.

 

Avoidance – avoidance conflict

The person is caught between two repelling situations.

There are usually barriers in the periphery of the field that prevent the person from leaving the field.

People usually leave the conflict situation by defense

mechanism – regression (recreating in mind a care free world of child hood).

Approach – avoidance conflict

The individual is attracted to a positive goal, but this goal has fear or threat associated with it.

This conflict is most difficult to resolve.

Multiple approach – avoidance conflict is one where two or

more goals attract, at the same time repel. 

MEASUREMENT OF MOTIVATION

Direct Methods 

Information gathered directly from the primary sources

Eg: Personality Questionnaires, motivation scale, check list, naturalistic observation, interview, autobiography and other self descriptive measures.

 

Indirect Methods

  Persons is exposed to fairly ambiguous or

unstructured stimulus situations.

How he projects to these situations gives clues to his motives.

Used when the subject is unaware or determined not to reveal his motive

Eg. All the projective techniques like Rorschach Ink blot test, Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Child, Apperception Test (CAT), the Blacky pictures, Drawing completion test, Sentence completion technique, Word Association technique, Role playing and Socio – Drama, etc.

  In TAT: Standard set of pictures depicting

various people in various situations presented and the person being tested is asked to make up stories describing what is happening in the pictures.

Experimental Methods:

Consists of the measures involving objective observation under controlled conditions.

Eg: Situational tests

References

Morgan and king