Trait and taxonomies

1© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Traits and Trait Traits and Trait TaxonomiesTaxonomies

Chapter 3Chapter 3


Trait-Descriptive Trait-Descriptive AdjectivesAdjectives

Words that describe traits, Words that describe traits, attributes of a person that are attributes of a person that are characteristic of a person and characteristic of a person and perhaps enduring over timeperhaps enduring over time


Three fundamental Three fundamental questions guide those who questions guide those who

study traitsstudy traits How should we conceptualize traits?How should we conceptualize traits? How can we identify which traits are How can we identify which traits are

the most important from among the the most important from among the many ways that individuals differ?many ways that individuals differ?

How can we formulate a How can we formulate a comprehensive taxonomy of traits—a comprehensive taxonomy of traits—a system that includes within it all the system that includes within it all the major traits of personality?major traits of personality?


What Is a Trait?: Two Basic What Is a Trait?: Two Basic FormulationsFormulations

Traits as Internal Causal Traits as Internal Causal Properties Properties

vs.vs.

Traits as Purely Descriptive Traits as Purely Descriptive SummariesSummaries



Traits are presumed to be Traits are presumed to be internal in that individuals carry internal in that individuals carry their desires, needs, and wants their desires, needs, and wants from one situation to nextfrom one situation to next

Desires and needs are presumed Desires and needs are presumed to be causal in that they explain to be causal in that they explain behavior of individuals who behavior of individuals who possess thempossess them



Traits can lie dormant in that Traits can lie dormant in that capacities are present even capacities are present even when behaviors are not when behaviors are not expressedexpressed

Scientific usefulness of viewing Scientific usefulness of viewing traits as causes of behavior lies traits as causes of behavior lies in ruling out other causesin ruling out other causes


Traits as Purely Descriptive Traits as Purely Descriptive SummariesSummaries

Traits as descriptive summaries of Traits as descriptive summaries of attributes of a person; no assumption attributes of a person; no assumption about internality, nor is causality about internality, nor is causality assumedassumed

Argue that we must first identify and Argue that we must first identify and describe important individual describe important individual differences and subsequently develop differences and subsequently develop casual theories to explain themcasual theories to explain them


The Act Frequency The Act Frequency Formulation of Traits: An Formulation of Traits: An

Illustration of the Illustration of the Descriptive Summary Descriptive Summary

FoundationFoundation Starts with the notion that traits Starts with the notion that traits

are categories of actsare categories of acts


Act Frequency Research Act Frequency Research ProgramProgram

Act nominations: Designed to identify Act nominations: Designed to identify which acts belong in which trait which acts belong in which trait categoriescategories

Prototypicality judgements: Involves Prototypicality judgements: Involves identifying which acts are most central identifying which acts are most central or prototypical of each trait categoryor prototypical of each trait category

Monitoring act performance: Securing Monitoring act performance: Securing information on actual performance of information on actual performance of individuals in their daily livesindividuals in their daily lives


Critique of Act Frequency Critique of Act Frequency FormulationFormulation

Does not specify how much context Does not specify how much context should be included in the description should be included in the description of the trait-relevant actof the trait-relevant act

Seems applicable to overt actions, Seems applicable to overt actions, but what about failures to act or but what about failures to act or covert acts not directly observable?covert acts not directly observable?


Critique of Act Frequency Critique of Act Frequency FormulationFormulation

May not successfully capture May not successfully capture complex traitscomplex traits

Atheoretical—nothing within Atheoretical—nothing within approach provides guide to which approach provides guide to which traits are important or explanation traits are important or explanation for why individuals differ in for why individuals differ in frequency of act performance over frequency of act performance over timetime


Accomplishments of Act Accomplishments of Act Frequency FormulationFrequency Formulation

Helpful in making explicit the Helpful in making explicit the behavioral phenomena to which most behavioral phenomena to which most trait terms refertrait terms refer

Helpful in identifying behavioral Helpful in identifying behavioral regularitiesregularities

Helpful in exploring the meaning of Helpful in exploring the meaning of some traits that are difficult to study, some traits that are difficult to study, such as impulsivity and creativitysuch as impulsivity and creativity


Identification of the Most Identification of the Most Important Traits: Three Important Traits: Three

ApproachesApproaches

Lexical ApproachLexical Approach Statistical ApproachStatistical Approach Theoretical ApproachTheoretical Approach


Lexical ApproachLexical Approach

Starts with lexical hypothesis: All Starts with lexical hypothesis: All important individual differences important individual differences have become encoded within the have become encoded within the natural language over timenatural language over time

Trait terms are important for Trait terms are important for people in communicating with people in communicating with othersothers



Two criteria for identifying Two criteria for identifying important traitsimportant traitsSynonym frequencySynonym frequencyCross-cultural universalityCross-cultural universality



Problems and limitationsProblems and limitations Many traits are ambiguous, Many traits are ambiguous,

metaphorical, obscure, or difficultmetaphorical, obscure, or difficult Personality is conveyed through Personality is conveyed through

different parts of speech (not just different parts of speech (not just adjectives), including nouns and adjectives), including nouns and adverbsadverbs



Lexical approach is a good Lexical approach is a good starting point for identifying starting point for identifying important an individual important an individual difference, but should not be the difference, but should not be the exclusive approach usedexclusive approach used


Statistical ApproachStatistical Approach

Starts with a large, diverse pool of Starts with a large, diverse pool of personality itemspersonality items

Most researchers using lexical Most researchers using lexical approach turn to statistical approach approach turn to statistical approach to distill ratings of trait adjectives to distill ratings of trait adjectives into basic categories of traitsinto basic categories of traits

Goal of statistical approach is to Goal of statistical approach is to identify major dimensions of identify major dimensions of personalitypersonality



Factor analysisFactor analysis Identifies groups of items that Identifies groups of items that

covary or go together, but tend not covary or go together, but tend not to covary with other groups of itemsto covary with other groups of items

Provides means for determining Provides means for determining which personality variables share which personality variables share some property or belong within the some property or belong within the same groupsame group



Factor analysisFactor analysis Useful in reducing the large array of Useful in reducing the large array of

diverse traits into smaller, more diverse traits into smaller, more useful set of underlying factorsuseful set of underlying factors

Factor loading: Index of how much Factor loading: Index of how much of a variation in an item is of a variation in an item is “explained” by a factor“explained” by a factor



Factor analysisFactor analysis

Cautionary note: You only get out of Cautionary note: You only get out of factor analysis what you put in; thus, factor analysis what you put in; thus, researchers must pay attention to researchers must pay attention to the initial selection itemsthe initial selection items


Theoretical ApproachTheoretical Approach

Starts with a theory, which then Starts with a theory, which then determines which variables are determines which variables are importantimportant

Example: Sociosexual orientation Example: Sociosexual orientation (Simpson & Gangestad, 1991)(Simpson & Gangestad, 1991)

Strengths coincide with strengths of Strengths coincide with strengths of a theory, and weaknesses coincide a theory, and weaknesses coincide with the weaknesses of a theorywith the weaknesses of a theory


Evaluating the Approaches Evaluating the Approaches for Identifying Important for Identifying Important

TraitsTraits In practice, many personality researchers In practice, many personality researchers

use a combination of three approachesuse a combination of three approaches Norman (1963) and Goldberg (1990) Norman (1963) and Goldberg (1990)

started with the lexical strategy to started with the lexical strategy to identify the first set of variables for identify the first set of variables for inclusioninclusion

Then used factor analysis to reduce the Then used factor analysis to reduce the set to a more manageable number (five)set to a more manageable number (five)


Evaluating the Approaches Evaluating the Approaches for Identifying Important for Identifying Important

TraitsTraits This strategy solves two problems This strategy solves two problems

central to the science of central to the science of personality:personality: Problem of identifying key domains of Problem of identifying key domains of

individual differencesindividual differences Problem of describing order or Problem of describing order or

structure that exists among individual structure that exists among individual differences identifieddifferences identified


Taxonomies of Taxonomies of PersonalityPersonality

Eysenck’s Hierarchical Model of Eysenck’s Hierarchical Model of Personality Personality

Cattell’s Taxonomy: The 16 Cattell’s Taxonomy: The 16 Personality Factor SystemPersonality Factor System

Circumplex Taxonomies of Circumplex Taxonomies of Personality: The Wiggins Personality: The Wiggins Circumplex (1979)Circumplex (1979)

Five-Factor Model Five-Factor Model


Eysenck’s Hierarchical Eysenck’s Hierarchical Model of PersonalityModel of Personality

Model of personality based on traits Model of personality based on traits that Eysenck believed were highly that Eysenck believed were highly heritable and had heritable and had psychophysiological foundationpsychophysiological foundation

Three traits met criteria: Three traits met criteria: Extraversion-Introversion (E), Extraversion-Introversion (E), Neuroticism-Emotional Stability (N), Neuroticism-Emotional Stability (N), Psychoticism (P)Psychoticism (P)



ExtraversionExtraversion: High scorers like : High scorers like partiers, have many friends, require partiers, have many friends, require people around to talk to, like playing people around to talk to, like playing practical jokes on others, display practical jokes on others, display carefree, easy manner, and have a carefree, easy manner, and have a high activity levelhigh activity level



NeuroticismNeuroticism: High scorers are : High scorers are worriers, anxious, depressed, have worriers, anxious, depressed, have trouble sleeping, experience array of trouble sleeping, experience array of psychosomatic symptoms, and over-psychosomatic symptoms, and over-reactivity of negative emotionsreactivity of negative emotions



PsychoticismPsychoticism: High scorers are : High scorers are solitary, lack empathy, often cruel solitary, lack empathy, often cruel and inhumane, insensitivity to pain and inhumane, insensitivity to pain and suffering of others, aggressive, and suffering of others, aggressive, penchant for strange and unusual, penchant for strange and unusual, impulsive, and has antisocial impulsive, and has antisocial tendenciestendencies



Hierarchical Structure of Hierarchical Structure of Eysenck’s SystemEysenck’s System

Super traits (P, E, N) at the topSuper traits (P, E, N) at the top Narrower traits at the second levelNarrower traits at the second level Subsumed by each narrower trait Subsumed by each narrower trait

is the third level—habitual actsis the third level—habitual acts



Hierarchical Structure of Hierarchical Structure of Eysenck’s SystemEysenck’s System

At the lowest level of the four-At the lowest level of the four-tiered hierarchy are specific actstiered hierarchy are specific acts

Hierarchy has the advantage of Hierarchy has the advantage of locating each specific, personality-locating each specific, personality-relevant act within increasingly relevant act within increasingly precise nested systemprecise nested system



Biological Underpinnings—Key Biological Underpinnings—Key Criteria for “Basic” Dimensions Criteria for “Basic” Dimensions

of Personalityof Personality Heritability: P, E, and N have Heritability: P, E, and N have

moderate heritabilities, but so do moderate heritabilities, but so do many other personality traitsmany other personality traits

Identifiable physiological substrateIdentifiable physiological substrate



Biological Underpinnings—Biological Underpinnings—LimitationsLimitations

Many other personality traits show Many other personality traits show moderate heritabilitymoderate heritability

Eysenck may have missed Eysenck may have missed important traitsimportant traits



Cattell’s goal was to identify and Cattell’s goal was to identify and measure the basic units of measure the basic units of personalitypersonality

Believed that the true factors of Believed that the true factors of personality should be found across personality should be found across different types of data, such as different types of data, such as self-reports and laboratory testsself-reports and laboratory tests



Identified 16 factorsIdentified 16 factors Major criticismsMajor criticisms

Some personality researchers have Some personality researchers have failed to replicate the 16 factorsfailed to replicate the 16 factors

Many argue that a smaller number of Many argue that a smaller number of factors captures important ways in factors captures important ways in which individuals differwhich individuals differ


The Wiggins CircumplexThe Wiggins Circumplex

Wiggins (1979) developed Wiggins (1979) developed measurement scales to assess traitsmeasurement scales to assess traits

Started with the lexical assumptionStarted with the lexical assumption Argued that trait terms specify Argued that trait terms specify

different kinds of ways in which different kinds of ways in which individuals differ: individuals differ: Interpersonal, Interpersonal, temperament, character, material, temperament, character, material, attitude, mental, and physicalattitude, mental, and physical



Wiggins was concerned with Wiggins was concerned with interpersonal traits and carefully interpersonal traits and carefully separated these outseparated these out

Defined “interpersonal” as interactions Defined “interpersonal” as interactions between people involving exchangesbetween people involving exchanges

Two resources that define social Two resources that define social exchange are love and statusexchange are love and status

Dimensions of status and love define Dimensions of status and love define axes of Wiggins circumplexaxes of Wiggins circumplex



Wiggins circumplex has three key Wiggins circumplex has three key advantagesadvantages Provides an explicit definition of what Provides an explicit definition of what

constitutes “interpersonal” behaviorconstitutes “interpersonal” behavior Specifies relationships between each Specifies relationships between each

trait and every other trait in the model trait and every other trait in the model (adjacency, bipolarity, orthogonality)(adjacency, bipolarity, orthogonality)

Alerts investigators to “gaps” in work Alerts investigators to “gaps” in work on interpersonal behavior on interpersonal behavior



Key limitationKey limitation: Interpersonal map is : Interpersonal map is limited to two dimensions—other limited to two dimensions—other traits may have important traits may have important interpersonal consequencesinterpersonal consequences


Five-Factor ModelFive-Factor Model

Five broad factors: Surgency or Five broad factors: Surgency or Extraversion, Agreeableness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability, Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability, and Openness/Intellectand Openness/Intellect

Originally based on the combination of Originally based on the combination of lexical and statistical approacheslexical and statistical approaches

Big Five taxonomy has achieved a greater Big Five taxonomy has achieved a greater degree of consensus than any other trait degree of consensus than any other trait taxonomy in the history of personality taxonomy in the history of personality trait psychologytrait psychology



Empirical Evidence for Five-Empirical Evidence for Five-Factor ModelFactor Model

Replicable in studies using English Replicable in studies using English language trait words as itemslanguage trait words as items

Found by more than a dozen Found by more than a dozen researchers using different researchers using different samplessamples

Replicated in different languagesReplicated in different languages



Empirical Evidence for Five-Empirical Evidence for Five-Factor ModelFactor Model

Replicated in every decade for the Replicated in every decade for the past half century, suggesting five- past half century, suggesting five- factor solution replicable over timefactor solution replicable over time

Replicated using different item Replicated using different item formatsformats



The troublesome fifth factor: Some The troublesome fifth factor: Some disagreement remains about the disagreement remains about the content and replicability of fifth content and replicability of fifth factorfactor

Empirical correlates of the five Empirical correlates of the five factorsfactors

Personality-descriptive nounsPersonality-descriptive nouns



Is the five-factor model Is the five-factor model comprehensive? Possible omissions comprehensive? Possible omissions include positive evaluation, negative include positive evaluation, negative evaluation, masculinity/femininity, evaluation, masculinity/femininity, religiosity or spirituality, religiosity or spirituality, attractiveness, sexualityattractiveness, sexuality


Summary and EvaluationSummary and Evaluation

There are different approaches to There are different approaches to identifying the important traitsidentifying the important traits

Personality psychologists sometimes Personality psychologists sometimes blend the approaches blend the approaches

Formulating an overarching Formulating an overarching taxonomy of personality traits is taxonomy of personality traits is fundamentalfundamental

Education

Trait and taxonomies