Basic Characteristics of Quantitative ResearchElements of Quantitative ResearchQuantitative Design IssuesCausal Relationships and HypothesisAspect of Explanation in Quantitative ResearchWays to Select Topic in Quantitative ResearchQuantitative MeasurementTypes of Sampling MethodAnalysis of Data

Basic Characteristics of Quantitative Research

Test Hypothesis that the researcher begins withConcepts are in the form of distinct variablesMeasures are systematically created before data

collection and are standardizedData are in the form of numbers from precise

measurementTheory is largely causal and deductiveProcedures are standard and replication is

assumedAnalysis proceeds by using statistics, tables or

charts and discussing how, what, they show relates to hypothesis

Elements of Quantitative Research

Reconstructed LogicLogic of how to do research is highly organized and restated in an idealized, formal and systematic form.

Technocratic PerspectiveResearcher is the expert, and the research questions often originate with the sponsors of the research.

Linear PathA research path that follows a fixed and well-defined sequence of steps. Thinking and way of looking at issues is direct, narrow, and straight to the point.

TriangulationObserving from different viewpoints.

1. Triangulation of Measures2. Triangulation of Observers3. Triangulation of Theory4. Triangulation of Method

Objectivity and IntegrityMore “mechanical” techniquePrinciples of ReplicationAdhere to standardized methodological

proceduresMeasure with numbersAnalyze data with statistics

Quantitative Design IssuesVariation and variables

VARIABLES- are factors that can take on more than one value in a given study.

Types of Variables:1. Independent Variable- is a variable presumed

to effect/influence other variables.2. Dependent/Outcome Variable- is a variable

presumed to be effected by one or more independent variable.

3. Intervening/Mediating Variable-is the intervening variable that controls/affects the dependent variable.

Example:An Evaluation on the use of Filipino as Medium

of Instruction in the Social Science: Impact to Students’ Performance

Independent- medium of instruction (Filipino)Dependent- students’ performance

Mediating- effectiveness of the teacherIQ of student

Student’s interest and preparation

Causal Relationships and Hypothesis

Quantitative researchers test hypothesis and establish relations of events by strong reliance to statistical procedures.

Five Characteristics of Causal Hypothesis:1. It has at least two variables2. It express a causal/cause-effect relationship between the variables3. It can be expressed as a prediction or an expected future outcome4. It is logically linked to a research question and theory.5. It is falsifiable

HYPOTHESIS- refers to a prediction of results made before the study commences.

Types of Hypothesis:1. Null (Ho)- is a denial of the presence of relationship among variables. It is always stated in the negative form because it is easier to disprove.

Ex. There is no significant difference on the effectiveness of directive and non-directive teachers as perceived by respondents.

2. Alternative (Ha)- is the opposite of the null hypothesis and it is always stated in the positive form to affirm the existence of an observed phenomenon.

Ex. There is a significant difference on the effectiveness of directive and non-directive teachers as perceived by respondents.

Characteristics of Hypothesis:1.It should be reasonable2.It should be consistent with known

facts/theories3.It should be stated in such a way that it can

be tested and found to be probably true/false.4. It should be stated in simplest possible term5.It should be clearly in the from of declarative

sentence

Aspect of Explanation in Quantitative Research

Level of Analysis- The level of social reality to which theoretical explanation refer. The level of social reality varies on a continuum from micro level (small group/individual processses) to macro level (civilizations/structural aspects of society).

Unit of Analysis- The type of unit a researcher uses when measuring.

1. Individual2. Group3. Organization4. Social Institution5. Social Category6. Society

Ways to Select Topic in Quantitative Research

Personal experienceCuriosityState of knowledge in the fieldSolving a problemSocial premiumsPersonal valuesEvery life

Techniques for Narrowing a Topic into a Research Question:

1. Examine the literature2. Talk over ideas with others3. Apply specific context4. Define the aim of the desired outcome of the study

Quantitative Measurement

Conceptualization- process of thinking through meaning of construct.

Operationalization- process of linking a conceptual definition to a specific set of measurement techniques/procedures.

Data Collection- process of obtaining data through specific/combination of techniques/procedure.

Data Analysis- apply the statistical principles and procedures to extract essential information from the data collected.

Five Suggestions in Coming Up with a Measure:

1.Remember the conceptual definition2.Keep an open mind3.Borrow from others4.Anticipate difficulties5.Do not forget your unit analysis

VALIDITY- refers to the appropriateness, meaningfulness, correctness, and usefulness of any inferences a researcher draws based on data obtained through the use of an instrument.

Types of Validity:1.Content Validity- degree of

representativeness of the content/domain of definition in a measure.

2.Criterion Validity- uses some standard/criterion to indicate a construct accurately.

3.Construct Validity- the extent to which the measure defines the construct.

RELIABILITY- refers to the consistency of scores/answers provided by an instrument.

How to Increase Reliability:1.Clearly conceptualize construct2.Use precise level of measurement3.Use multiple indicators4.Use pilots

Types of Reliability:

1. Stability Reliability (Test-retest method)-involves administering the same instrument twice to the same group of individuals after certain time interval elapsed.

2. Equivalence Reliability (Reliability using multiple indicators)- involves administering two different, but equivalent, forms of instrument to the same group of individuals at the same time.

3. Representative Reliability (Internal-consistency method/Reliability across groups)

- involves comparing responses to different sets of items that are part of an instrument.

Types of Sampling MethodProbability Sampling

Description- estimate of group characteristics

Inference-testing of empirical hypothesis

Non-Probability Sampling Exploration and theory developmentDeveloping and testing survey research

instrumentSelection of a small number of first stage

units

Analysis of Data

Dealing with Data1. Coding-systematically reorganizing raw data into a format that is easily readable2. Entering Data3. Cleaning Data-checking accuracy of coding and encoding data

Statistical Analysis

1. Universal Statistics- one variable is analyzedFrequency DistributionMeasures of Central TendencyMeasures of Variations

2. Bivariate Statistics- two variables are analyzed

Simple CorrelationT-test AnalysisOne-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)Chi-Square

3. Multivariate Statistics- three/more variables are analyzed

Factorial ANOVAFactor AnalysisMultiple RegressionStructural Equation Modeling Path

Analysis

Reference:Amante, Diosdado A. et.al. Essentials of Research Methodology. pp. 48-56