1a) Physical properties of metals :- Metals are solids. (except mercury) Metals are hard. (except Lithium, Potassium, Sodium) Metals have metallic lustre. (shine) Metals are malleable. (can be beaten into thin sheets) Metals are ductile. (can be drawn into wires) Metals have high melting points. (Gallium and Ceasium

have low melting points. They melt in the palm of the hand)

Metals have high boiling points. Metals are good conductors of heat. ( Best conductors

are silver and copper. Poor conductors are Lead and Mercury)

Metals are good conductors of electricity. ( Best conductors are Silver and Copper)

Metals are sonorus. (produce sound when beaten)

b) Physical properties of non metals :- Non metals may be solids, liquids or gases. (Solids –

Carbon, Sulphur, Phosphorus etc. Liquid – Bromine, Gases – Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen etc.)

Non metals are soft. (except diamond which is the hardest natural substance)

Non metals do not have lustre.( except iodine cryatals) Non metals are not malleable. Non metals are not ductile. Non metals which are solids and liquids have low melting

points. Non metals which are solids and liquids have low boiling

points. Non metals are bad conductors of heat. Non metals are bad conductors of electricity. (except

graphite) Non metals are not sonorus.

i) Reaction with oxygen :- Metals react with oxygen to form metal oxides. When copper is heated it combines with oxygen to form copper oxide. 2Cu + O2 2CuO When aluminium is heated it combines with oxygen to form aluminium oxide. 4Al + 3O2 2Al2O3

Some metal oxides are basic oxides because they react with water to form bases. 4Na + O2 2Na2O Na2O + H2O 2NaOH K + O2 K2O K2O + H2O 2KOH Some metal oxides show acidic and basic properties. They are called amphoteric oxides. Eg :- Aluminium oxide, Zinc oxide etc. Al2O3 + 6HCl 2AlCl3 + 3H2O (basic) Al2O3 + NaOH NaAlO2 + H2O (acidic) (Sodium aluminate)

The reactivity of different metals with oxygen is different :- Metals like potassium and sodium react vigorously with

oxygen and catch fire if kept in open. Hence they are stored in kerosene to prevent burning.

If magnesium is heated, it burns with a bright flame. If iron is heated it glows brightly. If copper is heated it does not burn but forms a black

coating of copper oxide. Silver and gold does not react with oxygen even at high

temperature. Some metals like magnesium, aluminium, zinc, lead etc.

forms an oxide layer over it which prevents further oxidation. They are called self protecting metals.

Metals react with water to form metal oxides or metal hydroxides and hydrogen. 2Na + 2H2O 2NaOH + H2

2K + H2O 2KOH + H2

Ca + H2O Ca(OH)2 + H2

2Al + 3H2O Al2O3 + H2

3Fe + 4H2O Fe2O3 + 4H2

The reactivity of different metals with water is different :- - Sodium and potassium react violently with cold water to form sodium hydroxide and hydrogen and catches fire.- Calcium reacts less violently with water to form calcium hydroxide and water and does not catch fire.- Magnesium reacts only with hot water to form magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen.- Metals like aluminium, iron and zinc react only with steam to form the metal oxides and hydrogen. - Metals like lead, copper, silver and gold do not react with water.

Metals react with dilute acids to form salts and hydrogen.

Mg + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2

2Al + 6 HCl 2AlCl3 + 3H2

Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2

Fe + 2HCl FeCl2 + H2

The reactivity varies from metal to metal. For the above metals the decreasing order of reactivity is Mg > Al > Zn > Fe.

Copper, silver and gold do not react with dilute HCl.

Hydrogen gas is not evolved when metals react with nitric acid (HNO3) because it is a strong oxidising agent and it oxidises the H2 produced to water and is itself reduced to oxides of nitrogen.

3Cu + 8HNO3 3Cu(NO3)2 + 4H2O + 2NO2

A more reactive metal displaces a less reactive metal from its salt solution. (Displacement reaction)

Magnesium displaces copper from copper sulphate solution.

Mg + CuSO4 MgSO4 + Cu

Zinc displaces copper from copper sulphate solution.

Zn + CuSO4 ZnSO4 + Cu

Iron displaces copper from copper sulphate solution

Fe + CuSO4 FeSO4 + Cu

after 15 – 20 minutes

The arranging of metals in the decreasing order of their reactivity is called reactivity series of metals. K - Potassium Most reactive Na - Sodium Ca - Calcium Mg - Magnesium Al - Aluminium Zn - Zinc Reactivity decreases Fe - Iron Pb - Lead H - Hydrogen Cu - Copper Hg - Mercury Ag - Silver Au - Gold Least reactive

Metals :- lose electrons and become positive ions. So they are called electropositive elements.Eg :- The atomic number of sodium is 11, its electronic configuration is 2,8,1, it has 1 valence electron. It loses 1 electron and forms a sodium ion Na +

Na Na + + 1 e-

AN = 11 EC = 2,8,1 2,8

Mg Mg 2+ + 2 e-

AN = 12 EC = 2,8,2 2,8

Non metals :- gain electrons and become negative ions. So they are called electro negative elements.

Eg:- The atomic number of chlorine is 17, its electronic configuration is

2,8,7, it has 7 valence. It gains 1 electron and forms a chloride ion Cl -

Cl + 1 e- Cl -

AN = 17 EC = 2,8,7 2,8,8

O + 2e- O 2-

AN = 8 EC = 2,6 2,8

Na . + Cl Na Cl NaCl

AN = 11 AN = 17

EC = 2,8,1 EC = 2,8,7

The atomic number of Na is 11, its electronic configuration is 2,8,1, it has 1 valence electron, it loses 1 electron to form Na + ion. The atomic number of Cl is 17, its electronic configuration is 2,8,7, it has 7 valence electrons, it gains 1 electron to form Cl - ion. Then the attraction

between the Na + ion and Cl - ion results in the formation of sodium chloride molecule – NaCl.

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+ -

Mg Mg 2+ + 2e -

AN = 12 EC = 2,8,2 2,8

Cl + 1e - Cl - AN = 17 EC = 2,8,7 2,8,8

Mg + Mg MgCl2

The AN of Mg is 12, its EC is 2,8,2, it has 2 valence electrons, it loses 2 electrons to form Mg 2+ . The AN of Cl is 17, its EC is 2,8,7, it has 7

valence electrons, it gains 1 electron to form Cl -. Then the attraction

between Mg 2+ ion and 2 Cl - ions results in the formation of Magnesium chloride molecule – MgCl2 .

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2+

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Cl-

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Cl

Cl

Ionic compounds are compounds formed by the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non metal.

Properties of ionic compounds :- i) They are formed by the transfer of electrons and are made up of

ions.

i) They are crystalline solids.

ii) They have high melting points and boiling points.

iii) They are soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvents (like

petrol, kerosene etc.)

iv) They conduct electricity in molten state or in solution.

Some metals like gold, silver, platinum etc are found in the free state in the earth’s crust because they are least reactive. Most metals are found as oxides, carbonates, sulphides, halides etc.

Minerals :- are elements or compounds which occur naturally inside

the earth’s crust.

Ore :- is a mineral from which metals can be extracted profitably.

Gangue :- is the impurities present in the ore like rock particles,

sand particles, clay particles etc.

b) Extraction of metals from their ores :-

Metals are extracted from their ores in three main steps. They are :-

i) Concentration of the ore (Enrichment of the ore).

ii) Reduction to the metal.

iii) Refining (Purification of the metal).

Concentration of the ore :- is the removal of gangue (impurities) from the ore by different methods.

Metals of Metals of Metals of high reactivity medium reactivity low reactivity

Electrolysis of molten ore Carbonate ore Sulphide ore Sulphide ore

Pure metal Calcination Roasting Roasting

Oxide of metal Metal

Reduction to metal Refining

Refining

Ore

Metals which are low in the activity series can be reduced to the metals by heating in the presence of oxygen (Roasting).

Eg :- Mercury is obtained from its ore Cinnabar (HgS) by heating in the presence of oxygen. When it is heated in the presence of oxygen it is first converted into mercuric oxide (HgO) and on further heating it is reduced to mercury.

2HgS + 3O2 2HgO + 2O2

2HgO 2Hg + O2

Copper is obtained from its sulphide ore (CuS) by heating in the presence of oxygen.

2CuS + 3O2 2Cu2O + 2SO2

2Cu2O + Cu2S 6Cu + SO2

heat

heat

heat

heat

Metals in the middle of the activity series like Zn, Fe, Pb, are found as oxide, sulphide or carbonate ores.

It is easier to obtain metals from their oxides than from their sulphides or carbonates. So non oxide ores are converted into oxide form before reduction. Non oxide ores can be converted into oxide form

by roasting or calcination. Roasting :- is heating of an ore in the presence of oxygen. It is used to convert suphide ores into oxide form.

Eg :- 2 ZnS + 3O2 2 ZnO + 2SO2

Calcination :- is heating of an ore in the absence of oxygen. It is used to convert sulphide ores into oxide form.

Eg :- ZnCO3 ZnO + CO2

The oxide ore is then reduced to the metal by heating with a reducing agent. The most common reducing agent is coke (carbon).

Eg :- ZnO + C Zn + CO

heat

heat

heat

The removal of impurities from the metal to obtain the pure metal is called refining of metals. The most common method for refining of metals is electrolytic refining.

In this method a block of the impure metal is made the anode and a thin sheet of the pure metal is made the cathode. The electrolyte is a salt solution of the metal to be purified.

Eg :- In the electrolytic refining of copper, a block of impure copper is made the anode and a thin sheet of pure copper is made the cathode. The electrolyte is acidified copper sulphate solution. When electric current is passed through the electrolyte, pure copper from the anode is deposited at the cathode and the impurities settle down as anode mud.