Homeostasis,cell physiology -- By Prof.Dr.R.R.Deshpande

Sharir Kriya Paper 1-Part B –Set 1

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Sharir Kriya -- Paper I –Part B –Point 1

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Syllabus Paper 1 Part B Point 1

• 1) Definition & mechanisms of maintenance of

homeostasis

• 2) Cell physiology

• 3) Membrane physiology

•

• 4) Transportation of various substances across

cell membrane



Definition & mechanisms of

maintenance of homeostasis

• Homeostasis means maintenance of

constant internal environment of the

body.

• Homeo means same & stasis means

standing.

• Homeostasis concept was explained by

Walter cannon in 1930.

Homeostasis



Homeostasis

• Internal environment in the body is ECF.

• It includes blood & interstitial fluid.

• If this internal environment changes

beyond the physical limit, human body

suffers from malfunction


Normal Range, Deviation & Sensors

• Physiological functions must be maintained

within a normal range.

• If any function deviates from the range, it must

be brought back to normal.

• Human body has sensors which recognize the

deviation & alert the integrating centre.

• This centre then sends orders to effectors for

either accelerating or inhibiting the activity to

maintain the normal range.


Disease = Deviation from Normal Range

• Many clinical features or disease indicate

how the body functions are deviating from

the normal range.

• Eg. Fever is nothing but increased body

temperature.

• This indicates that homeostasis is

disturbed in the heat production & heat

loss in the mechanism of body

Temperature Regulation By

Fever


Cold Shivering is

Homeostasis



Homeostasis & different body systems

• The pH of ECF is usually 7. 4.

• This is maintained by Respiratory system,

blood, Kidney.

• Decrease in pH is acidosis

• Increase in pH is alkalosis


Who maintains Body Temperature ?

• Normal body temperature = 37. 5 degree

Centigrade

• The skin, respiratory ,Digestive

,Excretory, Nervous systems & skeletal

muscles all together maintain the

temperature


Homeostsis by Digestive & Respiratory System

• Digestive & circulatory system take responsibility

of providing necessary nutrients to the cells.

• Balanced of O2 & CO2 is maintain by

respiratory system.

• In addition to R. S., kidneys & other excretory

organs also help for removing metabolic waste

products ( Patho-Uraemia)

RBC Homeostasis


Calcium level –Low – Then

Homeostasis



Homeostasis By Hormones

• Hormones which are essential for many

metabolic processes have to be

synthesized & released in appropriate

amount.

• Kidneys, skin, salivary glands & G.I. tract

help to maintain water & electrolyte

balance.

Balancing Excess water

Accumulation



Homeostasis By Skeletal muscles

• Transport of nutritive substances,

respiratory gases, metabolic & other waste

products is totally depends on normal

condition of blood cells & plasma.

• For the movement & protection, there

should be homeostasis in the activities of

skeletal muscles


Homeostasis By ANS

• Sensory system helps to detect the state

of the body with relation to its

surroundings.

• Brain integrates the information & order

to motor system to react properly, to

maintain homeostasis.

• ANS controls all vegetative functions

Cycle of Homeostasis



Components of Homeostatic system

• Homeostasis is self regulating mechanism, working in

cyclical manner. This cycle has 4 components.

• 1) Sensors - for detecting deviation from normal range.

• 2) Transmission of this information to a control centre

• .

• 3) Orders from the control centre to the effectors

• 4) Effectors, finally bring back deviation to the normal

phenomenon


Mechanism of maintenance of homeostasis

• Effectors bring back normal physiology by

following 2 mechanisms -

• 1) Inhibiting & reversing the change

• 2) Supporting & accelerating the change

• Above 2 types of changes are achieved by

Feed - back signals

Renin Angiotensin

Mechanism



There are 2 types of feed - back

• I) Negative feedback

• This is to arrest the change or reverse the

direction of change.

• Many homeostatic mechanisms in the body

function through negative feedback.

• Eg. When Thyroxin levels in blood increases in

hyperthyroidism, due to negative feedback there

is inhibition of the secretion of TSH from

Pituitary.

Negative Feed Back - Thyroid



II) Positive feedback

• This is less common than negative feedback.

Some important examples of positive feedback

are -

• Milk ejection reflex

• Parturition reflex

• Blood clotting reflex - formation of prothrombin

activator - conversion of prothrombin in to

thrombin - conversion of fibrinogen in to fibrin.

Positive Feed back – Milk Ejection

Reflex


Positive Feed Back –

Parturition



Essentials of cell physiology

• Organization of cell

• Cell is the smallest structural &

functional unit of living body.


Tissue – Organ - System

• Tissue - Group of cells having similar functions.

• Organ - is formed by 2 or more primary types of

tissues having similar function

• System - Group of organs which work together

to carry out specific functions of body.


Structure of cell

• 1) Cell membrane (plasma membrane) -

separates ECF & ICF

• 2) Cytoplasm

• 3) Nucleus


Cell membrane

• Made up of proteins 55%, lipids 40%

(phospholipids & cholesterol),

carbohydrates 5%

• Structure of Cell membrane

• Recently fluid mosaic model is accepted

• In this model the proteins are found to

float in the lipid layer


Cell membrane

• The central lipid layer is a Bilayered structure.

• This is formed by thin film of lipids.

• Major lipids are phospholipids & cholesterol.

• 2 layers of phospholipids are arranged, so that

hydrophobic tail portions meet in the centre of the

membrane.

• Hydrophilic head portions of outer layer face to ECF &

those of inner layer face ICF.


Cell membrane

• Lipid layer - Allow only fat soluble

substances like O2, CO2. But water

soluble substances like glucose, urea,

electrolyte can not pass

•

• Protein layers of the cell membrane

• Protein molecules are classified as follows

• 1. Integral proteins 2. Peripheral proteins


Functions of proteins in the cell membrane

• 1. Integral protein for structural integrity

of cell membrane.

• 2. Channel protein for diffusion of water

soluble substances like glucose.

• 3. Carrier or transport protein - help in

active & passive transport.


Functions of proteins in the cell membrane

• 4 Receptor proteins -work as the

receptors site for hormone &

neurotransmitter

• 5. Carrier proteins which act as pumps

which helps in ionic transportation.

• 6. Enzyme protein controlled the

metabolic reaction in cell membrane


Glycocalyx

• Carbohydrates of the cell membrane -

attach the protein & form Glycoprotein

• Carbohydrate molecules form very thin &

loose covering over the entire surface of

the cell membrane. (called as Glycocalyx)

• This Glycocalyx of 2 neighboring cell

helps in fixation of cells.


Functions of cell membrane

• 1) Protective

• 2) Selective permeability

• 3) Absoption

• 4) Excreation

•

• 5)Exchange of gasses Maintenance of

size & shape of cell

Cell Membrane



2) Cytoplasm

• Jelly like material formed by 80% of water

which contains many organells

Cell Organelle



Organells in cytoplasm

• 1) Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

• Network of tubular & microsomal vasicular

structure which are interconnected with

one another.

• 2 Types of ER

• A) Rough ER

• B) Smooth ER

Endoplasmic Reticulum



A) Rough ER

• Due to attachment of granular ribosome

to its outer surface.

• Functions –

• a. Synthesis of of proteins eg. insulin

from beta cells of islets of langerhans

• b. Degradation of worn out cytoplasmic

organells like mitochondria


B) Smooth ER / Tubular ER

• Functions

• a) Synthesis of non protein substances

like cholesterol & steroid.

• b) Part in the metabolic process of cells

because it contain many enzymes.

• c) Storage & metabolism of calcium.

• d) Catabolism & detoxification of some

drugs & carcinogens in the liver.


2) Golgi apparatus

• Present in all cells except RBC. consist of 5 - 8

membranous sacks (cisternae )

• Function

• a) Glycoproteins & lipids are modified &

processed.

• b) Packing - Processed materials are packed in

form of secretory granules, secretory vesicle. So

another name for Golgi apparatus is post office

of the cell.

Golgi Apparatus


Golgi Apparatus - 2



Golgi apparatus

• To give labeling to processed & packed

materials (label such as phophate group)

• Distribution to there proper destination

according to the chemical content.

• So “Golgi apparatus is also called as

‘Shipping department of the cell’


3) Lysosomes – formed by Golgi apparatus

• a) Degradation activity for lysosomal

enzymes

• eg. proteases hydrolyse the protein into

amino acid.

• Lipases hydrolyse the lipids in to fatty acid

& glycerides.

• So Lysosomes are called as “Garbage

system of the cell”.

Lysosomes


Function of Lysosome



Lysosomes

• b) Degradation of worn out organells like

mitochondria.

• c) Removal of excess secretory products in the

cells.

• d) Secretory lysosomes eg. lysosomes from

cytotoxic T lymphocyte secrete perforin which

destroy viral infected cell & tumor cells.

• Secretory lysosomes of melanocytes secrete

melanin.


4) Peroxisomes / microbodies

• These are member limited vesicles like the

Lysosomes.

• Functions

• 1. They form main site for O2 utilization

in the cell.

• 2. Degrade purin to puric acid.

• 3. Participate in the formation of myelin.

Peroxisomes



5) Centrosome & centrioles

• Centrosome consist of 2 cylindrical

structures called as centriole.

• Centrioles are responsible for the

movement of chromosome during cell

division.


6) Secretory vesicle

• As per requirement these vesicles are

ruptured & secretory substances release

in to the cytoplasm.


7) Mitochondrion

• These are rod or oval shaped structure with diameter of

0.5 - 1μ.

• Functions

• Production of energy, so called as power house or

power plant of the cell.

• Synthesis of ATP - - - Whenever energy needed for

cellular activity, the ATP molecules are broken down.

• Storage of calcium & detoxification of ammonia in liver.

• Apoptosis.

Mitochondria



Organelles without limiting membrane

• Ribosomes - Granular & small dot like

structures with diameter of 15 nm.

• Functions - Ribosomes are called protein

factories, because they are involved in

the synthesis of proteins.


Cytoskeleton

• It determines the shape of cell, & gives

support to cell.

• it consist of 3 major protein components

like microtubule, intermediate filaments &

microfilaments.


Nucleus

• This is the largest cellular organell. It’s

diameter is 10μ - 22μ. It is present in all cells

except RBCs. Nucleus is covered by nuclear

membrane.

• Contents of Nucleus are nucleoplasm,

chromatin, & nucleolus.

• Nuclear membrane is doubled layer & porous,

which allows the nucleoplasma to communicate

with the cytoplasm

Nucleus



Nucleoplasm

• Highly viscous fluid

• Surrounds chromatin & nucleolus.


Chromatin

• This is a thread like material made up of

large molecules of DNA.

• DNA is a double helix which wraps

around central core or 8 histone molecules

to form, the fundamental packing unit of

chromatin called as Nucleosome.

• Just before the cell division, the

chromatin condenses to form

chromosomes


Chromosomes

• This is the rod shaped nuclear structure,

which carries a complete blue print of all

the hereditary characteristics.

• Each DNA contains many genes.

Chromosome -- 1


Chromosome



Chromosomes

• All the dividing cells, except reproductive

cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes.

• The cells with 23 pairs of chromosomes

are called diploid cells.

• Reproductive cells or gametes contain

only 23 single chromosomes. These cells

are called Haploid cells.

Haploid & Diploid cells



Nucleolus

• This is a small, round granular structure of

the nucleus.

• Each nucleus contains one or more

nucleoli.

• The nucleolus contains RNA & some

proteins


Functions of nucleus

• Control all cell activities (Metabolism, protein

synthesis, growth, reproduction)

• Synthesis of RNA

• Sending genetic instruction to the cytoplasm, for

protein synthesis, through mRNA.

• Control of cell division through genes.

• Storage of hereditary information in genes


DNA

• This is a double stranded complex

nucleic acid.

• Each chain of DNA molecule consists of

many nucleotides.

• Each nucleotide is formed by sugar that is

deoxyribose, phosphate, organic bases

i.e. Purins (Adenin & Guanin) &

Pyrimidines (Thymine, Cytosine)


Chromosomes – DNA-- Gene

• DNA forms the component of

chromosomes, which carries the

hereditary information.

• The hereditary information which is

encoded in DNA is called Genome.

• Each DNA molecule is divided in to

discrete units, called as genes.

Chromosome – DNA - Gene



Gene

• This is a portion of DNA molecule which

contains the code for the synthesis of

specific protein.

• Gene is consider as the Basic hereditary

unit of the cell

• Causes of Gene disorders - Genetic

variation & Genetic mutation

DNA & Gene



Classification of genetic disorders

• 1) Single gene disorder (Sickle cell anaemia

& Huntington’s disease)

• 2) Multifactorial genetic disorders (coronary

heart disease, Alzheimer’s disease, Arthritis,

Diabetes)

• 3) Chromosomal disorders (Turner’s

syndrome, dawn syndrome).

• 4) Mitochondrial DNA disorders (Hereditary

optic neuropathy).


RNA

• This is nucleic acid, similar to DNA

• But contains Ribose, instead of

Deoxyribose.

• There are 3 types of RNA.


RNA

• 1) Messenger RNA (mRNA) - carries the

genetic code of the amino acid sequence, for

synthesis of protein, from the DNA to the

cytoplasm.

• 2) Transfer RNA (tRNA) - this is responsible for

decoding the genetic message present in

mRNA.

• 3) Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) - this is responsible

for the assembly of protein from amino acids

in the ribosome.

Types of RNA



Gene expression

• This is the process, by which the

encoded information in the gene is

converted in to document of instruction

• This is used for protein synthesis.

• This process involves 2 steps -


Gene expression

• i) Transcription - this is copying of

genetic code from DNA to RNA.

• ii) Translation - This is process of

protein synthesis in the ribosome of the

cell, under the direction of genetic

instruction, carried by mRNA from DNA.


Growth factors

• These are proteins, which act as cell

signaling molecules like cytokines &

hormones.

• These factors bind with specific surface

receptors of the target cell & activate

proliferation, differentiation & maturation of

these cells


Growth factors

• The known growth factors are

• Platelet derived growth factor (PDGF),

• Colony stimulating factors (CSF),

• Nerve growth factors (NGF),

• Insulin like growth factors (IGF),

• Epidermal growth factors,

• Erythropoietin, Thrombopoeitin, myostatin

which is present in skeletal muscle.


Cell Death

• This occurs by following 2 processes

• i) Apoptosis - this is natural or

programmed death of the cell under

genetic control.

• The purpose of Apoptosis is to remove

unwanted cell without causing any stress

or damage to the neighboring cells.


Cell Death

• ii) Necrosis - this is the uncontrolled &

unprogrammed death of cell due to

unexpected & accidental damage

• Common causes of necrosis are injury,

infection, inflammation, infarction, cancer

• Necrosis is induced by heat, radiation,

trauma, hypoxia, exposure to toxins.


Cell membrane physiology

• Transport of nutrients & waste

products occur through cell membrane.

• For this transport, different channels are

present in the cell membrane.

• They are as follows –

• Depending upon types of Gate, Channels

are classified

Plasma Membrane


Cell Membrane Physiology



Ligand gated channels

• Some channels are guarded by another

protein, which is called as Ligand,

• So Ligand will be sitting outside of the channel &

it will be keeping channel close & this Ligand will

be specific for a particular hormone, drug or

specific neurotransmitter.

• That hormone or neurotransmitter will combine

with Ligand & Ligand will open the channel &

then particular ion will be moving inside.

• eg. Na+ channels at N - M Junction


Voltage gated channels

• Charge will acting like a door & that’s

why such channels are called as Voltage

gated channels.

• Voltage will decide which ions pass

through.

• Negatively charge will attract positively

charge ions.

• eg. Ca++ Channel on nerve membrane

Types of Channels

Ligand Gated Channels Voltage Gated Channels



Functions of cell membrane

• 1) Protection

• 2) Electrical property

• 3) Transports across membrane (Semi

permeable)

• 4) Cell to cell communication

• 5) Movement & phagocytosis


Transports across cell membrane

• Passive transports

• (Down Hill Transport)

• i) Will not take energy

• ii) Will not need a carrier protein

• iii) ATPase enzyme also not require

• 2 important mechanisms –

• 1) Diffusion 2) Osmosis

Passive Transport



1. Diffusion

• It is movement of particles under random

thermal motion

• Further divided into 3 types –

• 1) Simple diffusion

• 2) Facilitated diffusion

• 3) Diffusion thro’ channels

Diffusion



Simple diffusion

• Movements of particles from higher

concentration to lower concentration.

•

• eg. Exchange of O2 & CO2 in Alveolus &

pulmonary capillaries


Factors affecting the simple diffusion

• Directly proportional to following factors

• Concentration Gradient

• Surface area

• Temperature

• Solubility

• Inversely proportional to following factors

• Thickness of membrane

• Size of membrane


Facilitated diffusion

• Same as simple diffusion except it will

need a carrier protein in membrane

• Substance will be sitting on carrier protein

& will be moving from higher concentration

to lower concentration eg. Action of

Insulin.


Diffusion through channels

• Channels are there for ions to move

• Example is -- Potassium will be moving

from inside outward.


Osmosis

• Water is moving from lower osmolarity to

higher osmolarity called Osmosis.

• Movement of water or solvent from area of

Lower concentration of solutes to higher

concentration of solutes .(Examples of

solutes are Sodium,Potassium,Glucose

etc)

• eg. Water absorption through loop of

Henle.

Osmosis



Active transports (Up - Hill transport)

• Need energy

• Need carrier protein

• Need ATPase enzyme

• Substance getting pumped against the

gradient, as it pushed against the

concentration gradient substance

required energy.

Active Transport



Types of active transport

• 1. Uniport - Single substance getting pumped across the

membrane, it is called uniport or primary transport. eg. -

Thyroid gland traps Iodine from our blood.

• 2. Synport (Co - transport) - 2 substances pumped

simultaneously. eg. - Absorption of Glucose & Amino -

acids through the lining epithelium of small

intestine.

• 3. Antiport (Counter transport) - Carrier is pumping one

substance in one direction & other on opposite direction.

eg. - NaK pump.


Substances transported by active transport

• These substances are in ---

• Ionic form like Sodium, Potassium,

Calcium, Hydrogen

• In non-ionic form like Glucose, amino

acids & urea.


Substances transported by active transport

• 1) Primary active transport of sodium &

potassium occur by a common carrier

protein called as sodium-potassium

(Na+–K+) pump.

• This pump transports sodium from inside

to outside the cell & potassium from

outside to inside cell.

• This pump is responsible for RMPs.


Abnormalities of this pump –

• Reduction in number or concentration of

this Na–K pump in myocardium is

associated with cardiac failure.

• Excess Reabsorption of sodium in

renal tubules, is associated with

hypertension


2) Transport of Calcium ions

• Calcium is actively transported from inside

to outside the cell by calcium pump

•

• These pumps are presents in

sarcoplasmic reticulum in the muscle &

mitochondria of all the cells.


3) Transport of Hydrogen ion

• This transportation occur by the carrier protein

called as hydrogen pump. Important pumps

are as follows –

• i) Hydrogen pumps in parietal cells of the

gastric glands are involved in the formation of

HCL

• 4) Hydrogen pumps in epithelial cells of DCT &

CT, in the kidney are involved in the secretion

of hydrogen ions from blood into urine.


Endocytosis & Exocytosis

• Typically seen in phagocytic cells, like

WBCs.

• Engulfing particle inside is endocytosis, &

giving out of the unwanted part is

exocytosis.

Endocytosis & Exocytosis



Ionic concentration difference

ECF & ICF



Ionic concentration difference

• It is one of the property of cell membrane

• Substances more in ECF - Na+, Cl-,

HCO3 - -, Ca+

• Substances more in ICF - K+, mg++, H+,

PO4 -

• pH - ICF relatively acidic as H+ more in

ICF.

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