1. G R A P H I C O R G A N I S E R S M I C H A E L S H A R P E K O C H I U N I V E R S I T Y O F T E C H N O L O G Y s h a r p e m i k e 1 9 7 0 @ g m a i l . c o m for L2 READING

2. Problem Graphic organisers Contextual background Methodology Results and Discussion Conclusion P R E S E N T A T I O N O U T L I N E

3. B A C K G R O U N D Reading L2 reading tasks invariably based on expository texts Worldwide: Considered most important aspect of EFL literacy for college students* Reading work prioritised in many students EFL study schedules. In Japan: Many college EFL programs focus on reading

4. B A C K G R O U N D L2 Reading in Japan Common assumption College freshmen have the skills needed to negotiate EFL reading tasks** Established fact At high school students work primarily on building L2 literacy* *Browne, 1996. **Browne, 1996

5. B A C K G R O U N D Inadequate English reading skills So in many situations teachers/students rely on supplementary translations. 1. Lack of lexical and grammatical knowledge* due to *Kitao and Kitao (1995), Laufer and Yano (2001), and Okumura and Miyamoto (2010) 2. Inability to understand English text organisation** ** Okumura and Miyamoto (2010) Evidence suggests that many Japanese college students struggle with reading tasks L2 Reading in Japan

6. B A C K G R O U N D Information dense Frequently based on unfamiliar topics Structurally complex Conceptual relationships are implicit To comprehend English expository texts readers therefore need a whole range of literal and inferential reading skills* *Armbruster, 1984; Meyer and Freedle, 1984; Williams, et al,1984); Armbruster,1984; Meyer et al, 2002; Reutzel and Cooter, due to The nature of English expository texts L2 Reading in Japan Evidence suggests that many Japanese college students struggle with reading tasks

7. B A C K G R O U N D Methodological paradigms at Japanese high schools High school EFL curricula Mostly prep. for senta shikken and nyugakku shikken Test students grammatical knowledge through multiple-choice questions. Test reading ability through questions based on NS level i reading passages* Typical EFL learning activities Grammar-translation (yakudoku) Grammar analysis At most high schools students are required to read difficult English texts while translating word-for-word, reordering the translated words to fit Japanese word order**. Hino, 1988; Gorsuch, 1998; Mantero and Iwai, 2005; Porcaro, 2005*; Takase, 2007**; Underwood, 2012. due to Evidence suggests that many Japanese college students struggle with reading tasks L2 Reading in Japan

8. Consequences for students B A C K G R O U N D Lack motivation to read* Students leave school with little interest either in reading or in English in general (John, 2013:6). *Kimura et al, 2001; John, 2013, Norris-Holt, 2002; Okumura and Miyamoto, 2010. Can translate in the literal sense* .but cannot understand inherent message** *Kitao and Kitao, 1995; **Mantero and Iwai, 2005. Believe that reading is simply obtaining meaning from print.* *Mantero and Iwai, 2005 L2 Reading in Japan

9. B A C K G R O U N D Summary High-school EFL reading classes fail to teach L2 reading skills and strategies nor engage students interest. Undergraduates struggle with expository text reading tasks Need for research into approaches that: Improve performance in reading tests. Improve reading confidence Improve motivation to read Browne, 1996; Iino, 2002; Laufer and Yano; 2001; Robb and Susser, 1989; Torikai, 2003). Much input but abilities among Japanese undergraduates are poor* L2 Reading in Japan

10. Graphic organisers: definitions B A C K G R O U N D (Also known as knowledge maps, concept maps, story maps, cognitive organisers, advance organisers, or concept diagrams) (Jiang and Grabe, 2007:34). (Robinson and Kiewra, 1995:455). (Jones, Pierce & Hunter, 1988:20). National Centre for Accessible Instructional Materials Visual representation of information in the text GOs use a spatial format to convey concept relations Graphic representations (that) are visual illustrations of verbal statements. A graphic organiser is a visual and graphic display that depicts the relationships between facts, terms, and or ideas within a learning task.

11. Graphic Organisers:Examples

12. B A C K G R O U N D Research also supports GO use in these subject areas* *(Bulgren, Schumaker, & Deshler, 1988; Darch, Carnine, & Kammenui, 1986; Herl, O'Neil, Chung, & Schacter, 1999; Willerman & Mac Harg, 1991) Graphic Organisers - Teaching Applications Language ArtsReading Social studiesScience Math Most studies have been on reading Graphic organisers - research

13. B A C K G R O U N D Graphic organisers - research L1 contexts 500 + empirical studies L2 contexts ~20 empirical studies Gap in our knowledge about GO based L2 reading instruction needs filling. Jiang and Grabe (2007); Howard and Ellis (2011) GOs adopted as one of seven recommended (US) National Reading Council reading strategies

14. Theoretical basis for GOs Ellis (2004) states that the main theoretical basis for these claims, lies in turn, in the more general theories of learning proposed by Ausubel, by Pavio, and by Sweller. Claims for GOs B A C K G R O U N D Cognitive Theory of Meaningful Verbal Learning (David Ausubel, 1963). Overview: Learning and retention of unfamiliar materials occurs when newly acquired information is assimilated into the extant cognitive structure that makes up an individual's knowledge base. (Ausubel, cited in Novak and Caas, 2006). For meaningful learning, as opposed to rote learning, to occur. input must be presented in a way that allows it to be easily linked with existing schema. Information that fits into existing schema is much more easily comprehended and stored within the hierarchy. The advance organiser that Ausubel developed based on these theories activate prior knowledge and relate new material to existing information, so that the information is more familiar and meaningful.(ibid) This advance organiser is considered to be the conceptual model for graphic organisers. Dual Coding Theory (Allan Paivio). Overview: Readers encode information according to two separate but interrelated information processing systems via which they process both non-verbal imagery and language. Each of these systems is independently controlled, but they are closely interconnected, thereby allowing for dual coding of information. Imagery is processed and stored as imagems whereas linguistic information is processed and stored as logogens. Readers hold both logogens and imagems in short-term memory in parallel forms. Thus, memory for text information and the retrieval of that information are facilitated by verbal-non-verbal dual coding (Paivio, 2001:112-113). Graphic organisers present information in a way that makes it possible to codify the information both verbally and visually, so the information is more memorable. Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller,1988) Overview: Short term memory has a limited capacity in terms of the number of elements that can be held at any one moment. For schema acquisition to occur, instructional approaches that reduce working memory load are most effective in order to facilitate the changes in long-term memory associated with schema acquisition. Graphic organisers are an effective means for reducing working memory load. Jones, Pierce, and Hunter: 1988:21 Tang, 1991:37 Can show the key parts of a whole and their relations, thereby allowing a holistic understanding that words along cannot convey Help students select important ideas as well as detect missing information and unexplained relations. Communicate shape of knowledge and make visible the knowledge structure they represent, so providing a schema which can be accessed again and again, thus facilitating comprehension. Process of creating or completing graphic representations of the topics and main ideas in a text i.e. reconstructing messages in the text, helps to show how these topics or ideas are interrelated and that this resulting in improved comprehension and recall.

15. Research rationales Summary evidence from dozens of studies has supported recommendations in the L1 reading literature to use GOs as part of reading instruction. Currently, graphic organisers are widely used in L1 reading instructional curricula designed for learner readers, and are frequently included in L1 reading textbooks. (Jiang and Grabe, 2007). The recommendations to use GOs as part of reading instruction are commonly found in the first language (L1) reading literature they are generally less common in second language (L2) contexts. On the basis of the strong claims for GO effectiveness made in the literature, they conclude that, an important goal would be to generalize the results of GO use to the L2 student population (Jiang and Grabe, 2007:34). (Grabe and Stoller). B A C K G R O U N D

16. Is there any relationship between using graphic organisers in the reading classroom and students actual comprehension of expository text? Is there any relationship between using graphic organisers in the reading classroom and students perceived comprehension of expository text? Can anything be inferred from: Learners attitudes to classroom mapping activities. Observations of learner behaviours during classroom activities. M E T H O D O L O G Y Research questions

17. M E T H O D O L O G Y Research design Mixed method design, quantitative/qualitative data collection and analysis techniques. Experimental component Aims. a) To determine if the treatment resulted in a quantitative increase in reading comprehension b) To determine if using graphic organisers during reading resulted in any short-term perceived increase in reading comprehension. Qualitative components Aims. To record students attitudes regarding: Overall effectiveness of mapping activities for enhancing their EFL reading skills Reading motivation, Reading confidence, Knowledge of text organization and text structures Aims To record significant events/trends/patterns of behavior. Levels of participation/motivation in regard to the assigned tasks between the two groups. Levels of interaction among subjects while completing assigned tasks. Time taken to complete and ability to complete assigned tasks. To reinforce validity of the quantitative data and explain meaning of comparisons made. Materials Classroom observation protocol. Materials 9-item Likert-type mapping questionnaire Pre-program-post-program non-equivalent group design (N-O-X-O) Materials a) 18-item pre/post test b) 9-item self-rated comprehension questionnaire Post-treatment survey Systematic classroom observation program.

18. M E T H O D O L O G Y Groups: 1st year (18 yrs old) undergraduate engineering students at a Japanese public university. Treatment Group (Information Systems Engineering majors (n = 31) Control group Environmental Systems Engineering majors (n = 21) Level: Beginner (~CEFR A1) Schedule: 6-week study/assessment period Materials: A. Six 300-350 word reading texts (used in the treatment and testing phases) B. Mapping templates (used in the treatment and testing phases) Constructed by researcher, on the basis of studies in L1 contexts indicating that teacher-generated frames are more successful than either purely teacher-generated maps or purely student-generated maps. Integrate principles of several different text visualization approaches include Novaks concept mapping principles (Novak and Caas, 2006). Focus readers attention on the selection of main ideas, in order to represent both the overall rhetorical organization and the text structures in the previously described expository texts. On showing how these ideas are connected On displaying the rhetorical framework of the text. Follow Novakian principles of spatial arrangement by having a hierarchical concept array, in which general information is at the head and more specific information below.

19. M A T E R I A L S P O S T T E S T R E A D I N G Kansai International Airport Airports are very important for trade and tourism. In Japan, Kansai International Airport is one of the most important airports. Every year, about 14 million people use the airport for domestic and international flights. In the 1960s, businesses in the Kansai area wanted a better airport for the Kansai area because they were losing business to Tokyo. Osaka already had an international airport at Itami, near central Osaka. However, it was impossible to expand Itami Airport for two reasons. First, there were too many buildings around Itami. Also, many of the people living near the airport did not like the noise and pollution from the aircraft. Therefore, planners decided to build a new airport on a man- made island in the middle of Osaka Bay. The main advantage of building the airport in Osaka Bay was that it could stay open 24 hours a day. Itami Airport has to close at night. The main disadvantage was the high risk of earthquakes and typhoons. In 1987, after 20 years of planning, construction of Kansai International Airport began. First, workers constructed a rectangular seawall using rocks and 48,000 concrete blocks. The seawall was finished in 1989. Next, workers created a man-made island by putting a 33-meter layer of earth over the seafloor inside the seawall. They used 21 million cubic meters of earth from three mountains. However, during construction of the island, it began to slowly sink. As a result, the project was delayed and the project costs increased. When complete, the island was four kilometers long and one kilometer wide. Then, workers constructed a three-kilometer-long bridge between the island and the mainland. Following that, workers constructed the runway and the terminal building. Kansai International Airport finally opened in September 1994. The terminal has several interesting features. First, the total length of terminal is 1.7 kilometres, so it is the longest terminal in the world. Inside the terminal is an automatic people mover system for passengers and aircrew. Second, the terminal is shaped like an aircraft wing, to improve air circulation through the building. Finally, because the island is still sinking, it is necessary for engineers to raise the roof. To raise the roof, engineers put thick metal plates under the roof supports. Flesch-Kincaid 9.3

20. M A T E R I A L S - M A P P I N G T E M P L A T E F O R T E X T

21. Self-Rating Reading Scale Using the scale below rate your ability to comprehend the Kansai International Airport text. Circle one number only. 9 I understand everything. I am able to read the text from beginning to end with no comprehension problems at all. 8 I understand almost everything. A few items of grammar/vocabulary confuse me, but I can usually guess their meaning. 7 I have no real problems reading the text. I understand all the main points and most of the supporting details. There are only a few sentence structures, items of vocabulary or expressions I do not understand. 6 Although I understand most of the main points of the text, some points are confusing. I do not understand all the supporting details. 5 I am able to understand at least half of the main points and some of the supporting details of the text. There are many new words and expressions I do not understand. 4 I often get confused when reading the text. I am unable to identify most of the main points and supporting details. I understand about 30% of the text. 3 I understand very little of the text. I cannot identify the main points or supporting details. The parts I do understand are limited, e.g. title. 2/1 I do not understand the text. M E T H O D O L O G Y - A S S E S S M E N T M A T E R I A L S

22. R E S U L T S - S E L F - R A T E D C O M P R E H E N S I O N O N P O S T T E S T Summary: There was high variability in terms of self-rated reading comprehension across the two groups after the time- limited reading exercise. Control group rated their comprehension of the text higher; non-parametric analysis showed that the difference was significant (p < .05). 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 SelfRatedComprehension Case number Treatment Group Control Group

23. M E T H O D O L O G Y - P O S T T E S T ( E N G L I S H / A B R I D G E D ) Post-reading multiple choice This test has three parts. Part A (Questions 1 - 7). The answer is directly stated in the text. Part B (Qs 8 - 15). The answer is not directly stated in the text, but implied. This means you have to deduce the answer from context clues. Part C (Qs 16 - 18). The answer can be deduced using critical thinking. Circle the answer that you think best matches the information in the text. You have 20 minutes to complete the test. Part A 1. The text states that the length of the bridge that connects the island to the mainland is.... a) 3 kilometres long b) 4 kilometres long c) No information 2. The text states that the material used to construct the man-made island was.... a) concrete b) earth c) Both a) and b) Part B (Remember, this information is NOT stated directly in the text. However, there are clues in the text from which you can infer the answers) 8. The text implies that businesses in the Kansai region were losing business to Tokyo because... a) There was no international airport in the Kansai Region. b) Businesses in Kansai do not have good management. c) The international airport in Kansai could not be developed any further. 9. The text implies that engineers could not expand Itami Airport because of.... a) Lack of space. b) Lack of money. c) Lack of space and local opposition. Part C (Remember, this information is NOT in the text. You need to infer the answers) 16. There is a people mover system from one end of the terminal building to the other because... a) It makes moving around the building safer for passengers. b) It makes moving around the building more enjoyable for passengers. c) It makes moving around the building more convenient for passengers. 17. The island is sinking because.... a) The materials used to construct the island do not float. b) The weight of the island is causing seabed subsidence. c) The sea levels are rising.

24. R E S U L T S - P R E / P O S T C O M P R E H E N S I O N T E S T Summary: There was high variability in scores for both groups in the 18-item pre- and post reading comprehension tests; in non-parametric analysis baseline and post-test scores for the control group were significantly higher (p < .05). 0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00 90.00 100.00 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Percentagescoreontest Case number Treatment Group (pre) Control Group (pre) Treatment Group (post) Control Group (post)

25. -12% 0% 12% 24% 36% 48% 60% 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Relativepercentagegains Case number Treatment group Control group R E S U L T S - R E L A T I V E P E R C E N T A G E G A I N S D U R I N G S T U D Y P E R I O D Summary: Both groups improved over the course of the study period; however the relative gains were significantly higher in the mapping group in non-parametric analysis (p < .05).

26. M E T H O D O L O G Y - M A P P I N G Q U E S T I O N N A I R E Please read the following statements about the information mapping activities that our class has done over the past two months. For each statement tick one box only. A. Maps and texts a) I could understand the information maps that were provided by the teacher. Strongly agree Strongly disagree b) I could understand the texts that were provided by the teacher. Strongly agree Strongly disagree B. Reading skills a) Using information maps improved my knowledge of text organization. Strongly agree Strongly disagree b) Using information maps improved my knowledge of sentence structures. Strongly agree Strongly disagree c) Overall, using information maps improved my English reading skills. Strongly agree Strongly disagree C. Reading confidence and motivation a) Using information maps encouraged me to interact more closely with the texts. Strongly agree Strongly disagree b) Using information maps improved my reading confidence. Strongly agree Strongly disagree c) Using information maps encouraged my interest in reading English. Strongly agree Strongly disagree d) Overall, information mapping was a useful activity for me. Strongly agree Strongly disagree

27. Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree Median Q1. I could understand the information maps that were provided by the teacher 2.9% 68.6% 22.9% 5.7% 0 4 Q2. I could understand the texts that were provided by the teacher. 5.7% 60% 25.7% 2.7% 0 4 Q3. Using information maps improved my knowledge of text organization 11.4% 48.6% 34.3% 2.7% 0 4 Q.4 Using information maps improved my knowledge of sentence structures 5.7% 40% 48.6% 5.7% 0 3 Q.5 Overall, using information maps improved my English reading skills 8.6% 51.5% 28.7% 5.7% 0 4 Q.6 Using information maps encouraged me to interact more closely with the texts 8.6% 34.3% 40% 17.2% 0 3 Q.7 Using information maps improved my reading confidence 5.7% 31.4% 48.6% 11.4% 0 3 Q.8 Using information maps encouraged my interest in reading English 5.7% 40% 48.6% 2.7% 0 3 Q.9 Overall, information mapping was a useful activity for me 5.7% 71.5% 17.2% 2.7% 0 4 R E S U L T S - M A P P I N G Q U E S T I O N N A I R E ( E N G L I S H )

28. R E S U L T S - S U M M A R Y Student observations GO based activites Improved overall reading skills Increased understanding of text organisation ? Increased understanding of L2 sentence structures, ? Increased L2 reading confidence ? Increased motivation for L2 reading. Mapping questionnaireClassroom observation program Teacher observations: GO-based activities. Encouraged greater engagement and interaction with texts compared to activities assigned to control group.

29. C O N C L U S I O N Higher actual comprehension gains in treatment group Generally positive response to GO activities Higher levels of engagement in reading tasks among treatment group Overall, perhaps the clearest conclusion is that students respond positively to new methodologies, which they have not encountered before in language learning. Present study supports general claims for GO use for teaching L2 reading