Chapter9

The Enlightenment

Chapter 9 : Scientific Revolution •

During the 1500s and 1600s many European thinkers began relying on their own reasoning rather than on traditional beliefs. They developed the scientific method, establishing facts through observation and experimentation. This development, and the development of new instruments, resulted in an explosion of knowledge known as the scientific revolution. The universe was now thought to work according to definite laws, which encouraged people to believe that they could discover the natural laws governing human behavior. Understanding those laws could improve society. The philosopher John Locke concluded that government's authority rested on popular consent and that the people had a right to overthrow an unjust government. The 1700s were known as the Age of Enlightenment, when it was believed that the light of reason would free all people from the darkness of ignorance and superstition.

Chapter 9: The Enlightenment

Section 1: New Scientific Ideas

Section 2: Impact of Science

Section 3: Triumph of Reason

Section 4: Birth of the American Republic

• Scientific Revolution--Time period in Europe from 1500-1700 in which many advances in technology and science were made

• Scientific Method--The process used to answer a question by proposing a hypothesis, conducting an experiment, and concluding results

• Deism--A belief in God only based on factual evidence and the nature of reason

Some random terms

Progress and ReasonScientific progress convinced Europeans of the power of human reason.

If people used reason to find laws that governed the physical world, why not use reason to discover natural laws, or laws that governed human nature?

Thus, the Scientific Revolution led to another revolution in thinking, which came to be known as the Enlightenment.

Through the use of reason, people and governments could solve social, political, and economic problems.

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Nicholas Copernicus• Pol. Mikotaj Kopérnik, 1473–1543, Polish astronomer.

After studying astronomy at the Univ. of Kraków, he spent a number of years in Italy studying various subjects, including medicine and canon law. He lectured c.1500 in Rome on mathematics and astronomy; in 1512 he settled in Frauenburg, East Prussia, where he had been nominated canon of the cathedral. There he performed his canonical duties, practiced medicine, was a legal officer, and wrote a pioneering treatise on currency reform. But the work that immortalized him is De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, in which he set forth his beliefs concerning the universe, known as the Copernican system. • The Copernican system, the first modern European theory of planetary motion

that was heliocentric, i.e., that placed the sun motionless at the center of the solar system with all the planets, including the earth, revolving around it.

• That treatise, which was dedicated to Pope Paul III, was probably completed by 1530 but was not published until 1543, when Copernicus was on his deathbed. Modern astronomy was built upon the foundation of the Copernican system.

Tycho Brahe• Tycho Brahe, born Tyge Ottesen Brahe (de

Knudstrup) (14 December 1546 – 24 October 1601), was a Danish nobleman known for his accurate and comprehensive astronomical and planetary observations. Coming from Scania, then part of Denmark, now part of modern-day Sweden, Tycho was well known in his lifetime as an astronomer and alchemist.

• As an astronomer, Tycho worked to combine what he saw as the geometrical benefits of the Copernican system with the philosophical benefits of the Ptolemaic system into his own model of the universe, the Tychonic system.

• Tycho is credited with the most accurate astronomical observations of his time, and the data was used by his assistant Kepler to derive the laws of planetary motion. No one before Tycho had attempted to make so many planetary observations.

• While a student, Tycho lost part of his nose in a duel with a fellow Danish nobleman. This occurred in the Christmas season of 1566, after a fair amount of drinking, while Tycho, just turned 20 years old, was studying at the University of Rostock in Germany. Attending a dance at a professor's house, he quarreled over a heated game of paisley ale. A subsequent duel (in the dark) resulted in Tycho losing the bridge of his nose. From this event Tycho became interested in medicine and alchemy.

• For the rest of his life, he was said to have worn a realistic replacement made of silver and gold, using a paste to keep it attached. Some people believed that it was made of copper.

• He also had a tame moose (elk) that got drunk, fell down the stairs, and died.

• Tycho's observations of stellar and planetary positions were noteworthy both for their accuracy and quantity, but he would not adopt the heliocentric model of the universe.

Johannes Kepler

• Johannes Kepler --December 27, 1571 – November 15, 1630) was a German mathematician, astronomer and astrologer, and key figure in the 17th century scientific revolution. He is best known for his eponymous laws of planetary motion, codified by later astronomers based on his works Astronomia nova, Harmonices Mundi, and Epitome of Copernican Astrononomy. They also provided one of the foundations for Isaac Newton's theory of universal gravitation.

• He was an apprentice to Tycho Brahe for several years, but left because Tycho would not share well.

Galileo Galilei• Galileo Galilei of Pisa was a Tuscan astronomer,

philosopher, and physicist who is closely associated with the scientific revolution. His achievements include improving the telescope, a variety of astronomical observations, the first law of motion, and supporting Copernicanism effectively. He has been referred to as the "father of modern astronomy" as the "father of modern physics," and as "father of science." His experimental work is widely considered complementary to the writings of Francis Bacon in establishing the modern scientific method. Galileo's career coincided with that of Johannes Kepler. The work of Galileo is considered to be a significant break from that of Aristotle. In addition, his conflict with the Roman Catholic Church is taken as a major early example of the conflict of authority and freedom of thought, particularly with science, in Western society.

• In 1992, 359 years after the Galileo trial, Pope John Paul II issued an apology, lifting the edict of Inquisition against Galileo.

• Galileo was a practicing Catholic,• yet his writings on Copernican • heliocentrism disturbed some • in the Catholic Church who • believed in a geocentric model • of the solar system. They argued that

heliocentrism was in direct contradiction of the Bible, at least as interpreted by the church fathers, and the highly revered ancient writings of Aristotle and Plato (especially among the Dominican order, facilitators of the Inquisition).

• In 1633, the Inquisition held the final hearing on Galileo’s supposed heresies –heliocentric universe--, he was then 69 years old and pleaded for mercy, pointing to his "regrettable state of physical unwellness“. Threatening him with torture, imprisonment, and death on the stake, the trial forced Galileo to "abjure, curse and detest" his work and to promise to denounce others who held his prior viewpoint. Galileo did everything the church requested him to do, which was to publish a recantation of his theories. He was convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment, but kept under house arrest.

SirFrancis Bacon

• Francis Bacon was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, lawyer, jurist, and author. He served both as Attorney General and Lord Chancellor of England. Although his political career ended in disgrace, he remained extremely influential through his works, especially as philosophical advocate and practitioner of the scientific revolution. Indeed, his dedication may have brought him into a rare historical group of scientists who were killed by their own experiments.

• His works established and popularized an inductive methodology for scientific inquiry, often called the Baconian method or simply, the scientific method. His demand for a planned procedure of investigating all things natural marked a new turn in the rhetorical and theoretical framework for science, much of which still surrounds conceptions of proper methodology today.

• He wrote magnificent (and short!) essays like “Of Studies” and debated things like how many angels could stand on the head of a pin while in coffeehouses with his pals.

“Of Studies” by Francis Bacon

• “STUDIES serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability. Their chief use for delight, is in privateness and retiring; for ornament, is in discourse; and for ability, is in the judgment, and disposition of business…

• “Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested; that is, some books are to be read only in parts; others to be read, but not curiously; and some few to be read wholly, and with diligence and attention. “

Sir Isaac Newton• Sir Isaac Newton (4 January 1643 – 31 March 1727] was an

English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher alchemist, and theologian who is perceived and considered by a substantial number of scholars and the general public as one of the most influential men in history. His 1687 publication of the Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (usually called the Principia)is considered to be among the most influential books in the history of science, laying the groundwork for most of classical mechanics. In this work, Newton described universal gravitation and the three laws of motion which dominated the scientific view of the physical universe for the next three centuries. Newton showed that the motions of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies are governed by the same set of natural laws by demonstrating the consistency between Kepler's laws of planetary motion and his theory of gravitation, thus removing the last doubts about heliocentrism and advancing the scientific revolution.

“If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of

Giants.”• In mathematics, Newton shares the

credit for the development of the differential and integral calculus. He also demonstrated the generalized binomial theorem, developed the so-called "Newton's method" for approximating the zeroes of a function, and contributed to the study of power series.

• Newton remains influential to scientists, as demonstrated by a 2005 survey of scientists and the general public in Britain's Royal Society asking who had the greater effect on the history of science, Newton or Albert Einstein. Newton was deemed to have made the greater overall contribution to science.

• From 1670 to 1672, Newton lectured on optics. During this period he investigated the refraction of light, demonstrating that a prism could decompose white light into a spectrum of colors, and that a lens and a second prism could recompose the multicolored spectrum into white light. From this work he concluded that the lens of any refracting telescope would suffer from the dispersion of light into colors (chromatic aberration), and as a proof of the concept he constructed a telescope using a mirror as the objective to bypass that problem. Actually building the design, the first known functional reflecting telescope, today known as a Newtonian telescope.

Rene Descartes• Rene Descartes was a French philosopher, mathematician,

physicist, and writer who spent most of his adult life in the Dutch Republic. He has been dubbed the "Father of Modern Philosophy", and much of subsequent Western philosophy is a response to his writings, which continue to be studied closely to this day. In particular, his Meditations on First Philosophy continues to be a standard text at most university philosophy departments. Descartes' influence in mathematics is also apparent, the Cartesian coordinate system allowing geometric shapes to be expressed in algebraic equations being named for him. He is credited as the father of analytical geometry. Descartes was also one of the key figures in the Scientific Revolution.

• He also invented the notation which uses superscripts to show the powers or exponents, for example the 2 used in x2 to indicate squaring.

• “I think, therefore, I am”=“Cogito ergo sum.”

“Cogito ergo sum.”

William Harvey

• William Harvey was an English physician who was the first to describe correctly and in exact detail the systemic circulation and properties of blood being pumped around the body by the heart.

Robert Hooke

• Robert Hooke, was an English natural philosopher, architect and polymath who played an important role in the scientific revolution, through both experimental and theoretical work.

• Hooke is known principally for his law of elasticity (Hooke's Law) and for his work as "the father of microscopy" — it was Hooke who coined the term "cell" to describe the basic unit of life.

He looked at cork

Robert Boyle• Irish chemist who established

that air has weight and whose experiments/observations of chemical elements and reactions helped to dissociate chemistry from alchemy; discovered Boyle's Law-volume and pressure are inversely proportional to one another at the same temperature. Among his works, The Sceptical Chymist is seen as a cornerstone book in the field of chemistry.

Joseph Priestley

• Joseph Priestley was an 18th-century English theologian, Dissenting clergyman, natural philosopher, educator, and political theorist who published over 150 works. He is usually credited as the English chemist who isolated gases and discovered oxygen, although and Antoine Lavoisier also have a claim to the discovery. He consistently tried to fuse Enlightenment rationalism with Christian theism.

Antoine and Marie Lavoisier

• French chemist and his wife who named elements and discovered the law of the conservation of mass. A pioneer of stoichiometry--the calculation of quantitative (measurable) relationships of the reactants and products in a balanced chemical reaction (chemicals). It can be used to calculate quantities such as the amount of products that can be produced with the given reactants and percent yield.

His wife took notes and drew lovelygraphs/sketches of their experiments

Political Thinkers of the Enlightenment

The separation of powers is the best way to protect liberty.

Each branch of government should serve as a check on the others.

People are basically reasonable and moral.

People have certain natural rights.

A government has a duty to the people it governs. If a government fails, the people have the right to overthrow it.

People are naturally cruel, greedy, and selfish.

People entered into a social contract, in order to live in an organized society.

Only an absolute monarchy can ensure an orderly society.

BARON de MONTESQUIEU

JOHN LOCKE

THOMAS HOBBES

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Voltaire• François-Marie Arouet (November 21, 1694 –

May 30, 1778), better known by the pen name Voltaire, was a French Enlightenment writer, essayist, and philosopher known for his wit and his defense of civil liberties, including both freedom of religion and free trade.

• Voltaire was a prolific satirical writer and produced works in almost every literary form including plays, poetry, novels, essays, historical and scientific works, more than 20,000 letters and more than 2,000 books and pamphlets.

• Candide is characterized by its sarcastic tone and its erratic, fantastical, and fast-moving plot. A picaresque novel that parodies many adventure and romance clichés, the struggles of which are caricatured in a tone that is mordantly matter-of-fact. Still, the events discussed are often based on historical happenings, such as the Seven Years' War.

• “All is for the best in the best of all possible worlds".

Voltaire is known to have used at least 178 separate pen names during his lifetime of writing.

New Economic Thinking

Thinkers called physiocrats focused on economic reforms. Like the philosophes, physiocrats looked for natural laws to define a rational economic system.

Physiocrats rejected mercantilism in favor of a policy called laissez faire. Laissez faire means allowing businesses to run with little or no government interference.

In The Wealth of Nations, Adam Smith argued that the free market should be allowed to regulate business activity. Smith supported laissez faire, but also believed that a government had a duty to protect society, administer justice, and provide public works.

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Enlightenment Ideas Spread

• What roles did censorship and salons play in the spread of new ideas?

• How did philosophes influence enlightened despots?

• How did the Enlightenment affect arts and literature?

• Why were the lives of the majority unaffected?

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The Roles of Censorship and Salons

Government and church officials tried to protect the old order. To defend against the attacks of the Enlightenment, they used censorship, the restricting of access to ideas and information. They banned and burned books and imprisoned writers.

Salons were informal social gatherings where writers, artists, philosophes, and others exchanged ideas.

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Denis Diderot

• Diderot was a polymath very familiar with the scientific trends of his day.• Diderot thought man was generally susceptible to modification by

environmental influences. He ascribed most of the evil he saw around him to the baleful influence of European (especially French) society.

• He hangs out with Madame de Pompadour in her Salons.

• Diderot is best remembered as the general editor of the Encyclopédie (Encyclopedia) and as one of its main contributors. The project absorbed most of his energies from 1750 to 1772.

• Conceived initially as a translation of the Chambers Cyclopaedia, the Encyclopedia developed into an overview of world knowledge and was intended to illustrate its inherent harmony and order. In Diderot's hands the work became an organ of radical and anti-reactionary propaganda; hence publication was from time to time impeded by the French authorities—government & Church

The Philosophes and Society

Argued that a woman should be able to decide what is in her own interest and should not be completely dependent on her husband.

Called for equal education for girls and boys.

Believed that people were basically good.

Argued that government controls should be minimal and should only be imposed by a freely elected government.

Felt the good of the community should be placed above individual interests.

Defended the principle of freedom of speech.

Used wit to expose abuses and corruption.

Opposed the slave trade and religious prejudice.

MARY WOLLSTONECRAFTROUSSEAUVOLTAIRE

Thinkers called philosophes believed that the use of reason could lead to reforms of government, law, and society.

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Literature and the Arts

LITERATURELiterature developed new forms and a wide new audience.Middle class readers enjoyed stories about their own times. Great numbers of novels were written.

MUSICNew kinds of musical entertainment evolved, such as ballets and operas.

Music followed ordered, structured forms.

Johann Sebastian Bach, George Frederick Handel, and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart were brilliant and influential composers of this time.

COURTLY ART Artists and designers developed the Rococo style, which was personal, elegant, and charming.

In the 1600s and 1700s, the arts evolved to meet changing tastes.

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Enlightened Despots

Most radical of enlightened despots. Granted toleration to Protestants and Jews. Ended censorship and tried to control the Catholic Church.Sold church property to build hospitals. Abolished serfdom.

Was interested in Enlightenment ideas but intended to give up no power. Made some limited reforms in law and government.

Granted nobles a charter of rights.

Criticized the institution of serfdom.

Exerted tight control over subjects, but saw himself as a “servant of the state.”

Tolerated religious differences.

Distributed seeds and tools to peasants.

JOSEPH II of Austria

CATHERINE THE GREAT of Russia

FREDERICK THE GREAT of Prussia

Enlightened despots were absolute rulers who used their power to bring about political and social change.

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Some more random terms

• Pacifism--the doctrine that all violence is unjustifiable like the Quakers, the Amish…

• Classicism--The principles or styles characteristic of the literature and art of ancient Greece and Rome

• Romanticism--a movement in literature and art during the late 18th and early 19th centuries that celebrated nature rather than civilization

• Metaphysics-- the principles of philosophy as applied to explain the methods of any particular science

John Wesley• John Wesley (28 June 1703 – 2 March 1791)

was an Anglican cleric and Christian theologian.

• Wesley is largely credited, along with his brother Charles Wesley, with founding the Methodist movement which began when he took to open-air preaching in a similar manner to George Whitefield.

• In contrast to George Whitefield's Calvinism . Methodism was a highly successful evangelical movement in the United Kingdom, which encouraged people to experience Christ personally.

• It also was against slavery.• He wrote some really neat hymns, too.

• Immanuel Kant was an 18th-century German philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg, Russia). Kant was the last influential philosopher of modern Europe in the classic sequence of the theory of knowledge during the Enlightenment beginning with thinkers John Locke, David Hume, etc.

• Kant is best known for his transcendental idealist philosophy that time and space are not materially real but merely the ideal a priori condition of our internal intuition. Also, he made an important astronomical discovery, namely the discovery of the retardation of the rotation of the Earth, for which he won the Berlin Academy Prize in 1754. Even more importantly, from this Kant concluded that time is not a thing in itself determined from experience, objects, motion, and change, but rather an unavoidable framework of the human mind that preconditions possible experience.

• Kant created a new widespread perspective in philosophy which influenced philosophy through to the 21st Century. He published important works on epistemology, as well as works relevant to religion, law, and history. One of his most prominent works is the Critique of Pure Reason, an investigation into the limitations and structure of reason itself. It encompasses an attack on traditional metaphysics and epistemology, and highlights Kant's own contribution to these areas. The other main works of his maturity are the Critique of Practical Reason, which concentrates on ethics, and the Critique of Judgment, which investigates aesthetics and teleology.

Kant’s philosophy:

• “Enlightenment is man’s emergence from his self-incurred immaturity.”

• He argues that the immaturity is self-inflicted not from a lack of understanding, but from the lack of courage to use one’s reason, intellect, and wisdom without the guidance of another.

• Our fear of thinking for ourselves. • He exclaims that the motto of enlightenment is

“Sapere aude”! – Dare to be wise!

The Lives of Peasants

Peasant life varied across Europe. Peasant culture, based on centuries-old traditions, changed slowly.

In Western Europe, serfdom had largely disappeared.

Peasants worked their own plots of land, were tenants of large landowners, or worked as day laborers.

In central and Eastern Europe, serfdom remained firmly rooted. Peasants owed labor services to their lords and could be bought and sold with the land.

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Why Did Britain Rise to Global Power in the 1700s?

Location placed England in a position to control trade during the Renaissance.

In the 1700s, Britain was usually on the winning side in European conflicts.

England had developed a powerful navy, which could protect its growing empire and trade.

England offered a more favorable climate to business and commerce than did its European rivals.

The union of England and Scotland brought economic advantages to both lands.

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United Kingdom of Great Britain

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Growth of Constitutional Government

In the century following the Glorious Revolution, three new political institutions arose in Britain: 1. Political parties emerged in England in the late 1600s. The first political parties, the Tories and the Whigs, represented small exclusive groups of wealthy men.

2. The cabinet system was a group of advisers to the prime minister. They were called the cabinet because they met in a small room.

3. The Prime Minister was the leader of the majority party in Parliament and in time the chief official of the British government.

The appearance of these institutions was part of the evolution of Britain’s constitutional government, that is a government whose power is defined and limited by law.

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King George III

George III came to power anxious to reassert royal power. He wanted to end Whig domination, choose his own ministers, dissolve the cabinet system, and make Parliament follow his will.

Toward these ends, he:• Gave parliamentary seats to his friends and supporters.• Tried to force English colonists in North America to pay the costs of their own defense.

In 1775, George’s policies in North America triggered the American Revolution, which ended in a loss for Britain.

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Revolutionary War

Terms

French and Indian War Abigail Adams Lord Northpropaganda John Adams General LaFayette Proclamation of 1763 Durham boats General CornwallisSugar Act/Stamp Act Samuel Adams LexingtonNavigation Acts Phillis Wheatley ConcordEmbargo/nonimportation John Hancock Germantown Townshend Duties Ben Franklin Saratoga Quartering Act Paul Revere Yorktown Boycott George Washington Marblehead, MAEffigy Thomas Jefferson Bunker Hill/Breed’s HillBoston Massacre Patrick Henry BostonSons of Liberty Crispus Attucks Monmouth Committees of Correspondence Thomas Paine PhiladelphiaTax/duty Peter Salem Treaty of ParisTea Act John Locke Valley ForgeIntolerable Acts Nathan Hale TrentonBoston Tea Party Natural rights“Gentleman” Johnny Burgoyne Emmanuel LeutzePopular sovereignty George Rogers ClarkSocial contract Francis Marion/The Swamp Foxpatriots/minutemen/militia Gen. GageTories/Loyalists General HoweRedcoats/Lobsterbacks Ethan AllenGuerilla warfare Benedict Arnold/Major Andre1st Continental Congress George IIIHessians/mercenaries Molly Pitcher2nd Continental Congress Deborah Sampson GannetCommon Sense/The Crisis Admiral de GrasseOlive Branch Elizabeth Freeman/Mum Bett Declaration of Independence Baron von SteubenRevolutionary War Gen. PulaskiAmerican Revolution T. Kosciusko Morgan’s Rifles William Dawes

The 13 Colonies

By the mid 1700s, the colonies were home to diverse religious and ethnic groups. The colonists felt entitled to the rights of English citizens, and their colonial assemblies exercised much control over local affairs.

Although the ways of life between the colonists of New England and those in the south differed, the colonists shared common values, respect for individual enterprise, and an increasing sense of their own identity separate from that of Britain.

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Growing Discontent

After 1763, relations between Britain and the 13 colonies grew strained.

George III wanted the colonists to help pay for the Seven Years’ War and troops still stationed along the frontier.

“No taxation without representation.” The colonists protested that since they had no representation in Parliament, the British had no right to tax them.

British troops fired on a crowd of colonists in the “Boston Massacre.”

Colonists protested by dumping British tea into Boston Harbor in the Boston Tea Party.

Representatives from each colony met in a Continental Congress.War broke out between Britain and the colonists.

The Second Continental Congress declared independence from Britain and issued the Declaration of Independence.

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EnlightenmentHobbes

Locke

Voltaire

Montesquieu

Rousseau

Social contract— Federalism

Government for people – Am. Revolution

Natural rights- life, liberty, property — Declaration of Independence

Tolerance, reason, freedom of religion and speech– Bill of Rights

Separation of Powers --Constitution

Religious Freedom -- Bill of Rights

The American Revolution in

the East

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A New Constitution

• The framers of the Constitution saw government in terms of a social contract. They provided for an elective legislature and an elected president.

• The Constitution created a federal republic, with power divided between the federal government and the states.

• The federal government was separated among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. Each branch was provided with checks and balances on the other branches.

• The Bill of Rights, the first 10 amendments to the Constitution, recognized that people had basic rights that the government must protect.

The new constitution reflected the Enlightenment ideas of Locke, Montesquieu, and Rousseau.

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Separation of Powers

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