Chapter 2

Bob StretchSouthwestern College

Robbins & Judge

Organizational Behavior13th Edition

Foundations of Individual Behavior

2-1© 2009 Prentice-Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Chapter Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

– Contrast the two types of ability.– Define intellectual ability and demonstrate its relevance to

OB.– Identify the key biographical characteristics and describe

how they are relevant to OB.– Define learning and outline the principles of the three major

theories of learning.– Define shaping, and show how it can be used in OB.– Show how culture affects our understanding of intellectual

abilities, biographical characteristics, and learning.


Ability

An individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job. Made up of two sets of factors:– Intellectual Abilities

• The abilities needed to perform mental activities.• General Mental Ability (GMA) is a measure of overall

intelligence. • Wonderlic Personnel Test: a quick measure of intelligence for

recruitment screening.• No correlation between intelligence and job satisfaction.

– Physical Abilities• The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity, strength,

and similar characteristics.


Dimensions of Intellectual Ability

E X H I B I T 2–1


Nine Basic Physical Abilities Strength Factors

– Dynamic strength– Trunk strength– Static strength– Explosive strength

Flexibility Factors– Extent flexibility– Dynamic flexibility

Other Factors– Body coordination– Balance– Stamina

E X H I B I T 2–2


Biographical Characteristics

Objective and easily obtained personal characteristics.Age– Older workers bring experience, judgment, a strong work

ethic, and commitment to quality.Gender– Few differences between men and women that affect job

performance.Race (the biological heritage used to identify oneself)– Contentious issue: differences exist, but could be more

culture-based than race-based.


Other Biographical Characteristics Tenure

– People with job tenure (seniority at a job) are more productive, absent less frequently, have lower turnover, and are more satisfied.

Religion– Islam is especially problematic in the workplace in this post-

9/11 world. Sexual Orientation

– Federal law does not protect against discrimination (but state or local laws may).

– Domestic partner benefits are important considerations. Gender Identity

– Relatively new issue – transgendered employees.2-7© 2009 Prentice-Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Learning

Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experienceLearning components:


Theories of Learning Classical Conditioning

– A type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response.

Operant Conditioning– A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior

leads to a reward or prevents a punishment. Social-Learning Theory

– People can learn through observation and direct experience.


Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Dog Drool Key Concepts:

– Unconditioned stimulus• A naturally occurring phenomenon.

– Unconditioned response• The naturally occurring response to a natural stimulus.

– Conditioned stimulus• An artificial stimulus introduced into the situation.

– Conditioned response• The response to the artificial stimulus.

This is a passive form of learning. It is reflexive and not voluntary – not the best theory for OB learning.


Operant Conditioning B. F. Skinner’s concept of Behaviorism: behavior

follows stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner. Key Concepts:

– Conditioned behavior: voluntary behavior that is learned, not reflexive.

– Reinforcement: the consequences of behavior which can increase or decrease the likelihood of behavior repetition.

– Pleasing consequences increase likelihood of repetition.– Rewards are most effective immediately after performance.– Unrewarded/punished behavior is unlikely to be repeated.


Social-Learning Theory Based on the idea that people can also learn indirectly:

by observation, reading, or just hearing about someone else’s – a model’s – experiences.

Key Concepts:– Attentional processes

• Must recognize and pay attention to critical features to learn.– Retention processes

• Model’s actions must be remembered to be learned.– Motor reproduction processes

• Watching the model’s behavior must be converted to doing.– Reinforcement processes

• Positive incentives motivate learners.


Shaping: A Managerial ToolSystematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to the desired response.

Four Methods of Shaping Behavior:– Positive reinforcement

• Providing a reward for a desired behavior (learning)– Negative reinforcement

• Removing an unpleasant consequence when the desired behavior occurs (learning)

– Punishment• Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an undesirable

behavior (“unlearning”)– Extinction

• Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to cause its cessation (“unlearning”)


Schedules of Reinforcement: A Critical Issue Two Major Types:

– Continuous Reinforcement• A desired behavior is reinforced each time it is demonstrated

– Intermittent Reinforcement• A desired behavior is reinforced often enough to make the

behavior worth repeating but not every time it is demonstrated• Multiple frequencies


Types of Intermittent Reinforcement Ratio

– Depends on the number of responses made.

Interval– Depends on the time between

reinforcements. Fixed

– Rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals or after a set number of responses.

Variable – Rewards that are unpredictable or that

vary relative to the behavior. 2-15© 2009 Prentice-Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Schedules of Reinforcement

E X H I B I T 2–3

Fixed-ratio


Behavior Modification (OB Mod)

The application of reinforcement concepts to individuals in the work settingFollows the Five-Step Problem-Solving Model


Problems with OB Mod and Reinforcement OB Mod ignores thoughts and feelings. OB Mod may not explain complex behaviors that

involve thinking and feeling. Stimuli may not be consciously given as a means of

shaping behavior.

Modern managers and OB theorists are using cognitive approaches to shaping behavior.


Global Implications Intellectual Abilities

– Structures and measures of intelligence generalize across cultures.

Biographical Characteristics– Not much evidence on the global relevance of the

relationships described in this chapter.– Countries do vary dramatically on their biographical

composition. Learning

– Again, not much evidence currently exists – we cannot generalize at this point.


Summary and Managerial Implications Three Individual Variables:

– Ability• Directly influences employees level of performance.• Managers need to focus on ability in selection, promotion, and

transfer.• Fine-tune job to fit incumbent’s abilities.

– Biographical Characteristics• Should not be used in management decisions: possible source

of bias.– Learning

• Observable change in behavior = learning.• Reinforcement works better than punishment.



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Chapter 2