Theories of Altruism

Learning Outcome

HR.2.B – Contrast two theories

explaining Altruism

Warm-Up: The Joker’s Social Experiment

Why do the people on the boats make the

decisions that they do? What motivated

them?

Is this an example of Altruism? Why or why

not?

Can evolution explain these choices?

Altruism

When one person helps another person for no reward, and even at some cost to oneself.

Evolutionary Biology Explanation:

Behavior that benefits other organisms but has some cost. (Cost & Benefit measured in reproductive fitness)

Kin Selection Theory

Cognitive Psychology Explanation:

Altruism is witnessed in higher-order mammals and appears to have some conscious cognitive component, rather than just instinctual nature.

Empathy-Altruism Theory

Explanations of Altruism

Evolutionary Explanation

Altruism can be beneficial to the group, not

just to help the individual survive.

Psychological Explanation

Altruism is witnessed in higher-order

mammals and appears to have some

conscious cognitive component, rather than

just instinctual nature. Empathy…

Evolutionary Explanation

Kin Selection Theory (Hamilton, 1963)

Individuals are more likely to sacrifice

themselves for relatives than non-relatives.

I only saved

you because

I am your

father!

Kin Selection Theory

Hamilton based much of his theory on

observations of insects and animals…

R x B > C

Genetic Relativeness x Benefit > Costs

SciShow on Altruism

Building on the Kin Selection Theory

Selfish Gene Theory (Dawkins, 1989)

What looks like self-sacrifice could, in reality,

promote survival of your genes.

If your brother survives, your genes do as well.

Egoism: The theory that one’s self is, or should be,

the motivation and the goal of one’s own actions.

Roles in a Beehive

Naeger et al (2013)

Aim: To determine the role of altruism in a

Queenless bee colony.

Method: Observed behaviors in a bee hive

suffering from colony collapse.

Findings:

Worker bees begin to lay eggs (selfish) but also

continue to work cooperatively to supply and

defend their colony (altruistic).

Conclusion: Bees demonstrate larger amounts of

altruism than Kin Selection would suggest.

Simmons et al (1977)

Aim: To investigate whether close relatives were more likely to be kidney donors.

Results/Conclusions:

86% of parents agreed to be donors but only 47% of siblings agreed.

It was found that when siblings were donors, the recipient and the donor were significantly closer in age and more likely to be of the same sex than were non-donors. Generally, the recipients felt very close to the potential donors, but not always.

Evaluation: The theory predicted that parents and siblings should have been equally as likely to volunteer.

Evolutionary Explanationsfor Prosocial Behavior

Direct Reciprocity – “I’ll scratch your back,

then you scratch mine.”

Spatial Collection - “Lend me some sugar, I

am your neighbor!”

Kin Selection – R x B > Costs

Indirect Reciprocity – “I’ll scratch your back,

and someone else will scratch mine.”

Group Selection – “There is no I in Group.”

Kin Selection Theory

Strengths

Supported by Empirical

Studies (Real-World

Examples of animals and

humans)

Mathematical

simulations (Hamilton’s

equation) support the theory.

LimitationsDoes not explain why

people help people who are not related to themselves.

Blood alone does not create kinship ties. Community does so as well.

Does not address why cooperation continues when it offers little advantage.

The Situation

James is paired up with a stranger in a

learning experiment on the value of electric

shocks. James is assigned the role of the

control (no shocks) and his partner is

assigned the treatment (electric shocks).

After watching his partner receive shocks,

he is asks if he wants to switch roles and

James agrees.

How can this be explained?

The Empathy-Altruism Theory: Batson et al. (1981)

By feeling empathy for another person, it is

possible for true altruistic behavior to occur.

When we see a bad situation we face…

Personal Distress (anxiety and fear)

Empathetic Concern (sympathy and

compassion)

Perspective Taking

True altruism requires perspective taking.

This requires three traits.

1. The observer must have had similar

experiences.

2. The observer must be attached to the

victim.

3. The person is instructed to imagine what it is

like to be in the victim’s shoes.

Batson et al (1981)

Aim: To investigate individuals’ willingness to help if they had an escape.

Method:

Using college students, researchers had participants read a short description of Elaine.

One story led to high empathy and the other low empathy.

They then watched Elaine participate in a memory test in which she received electric shocks. Some participants were offered the choices of either taking her place or filling out a questionnaire. The other half were offered the choices of either taking her place or watching the remainder of the trials.

Batson et al. (1981) Findings:

High Empathy: Most participants agreed to help Elaine.

The difficulty of escape had little impact.

Low Empathy: Participants were less likely to help.

Easy escape: Less Helping

Difficult Escape: More Helping

Conclusion:

Feeling empathy for a person drastically increases the likelihood of altruistic behavior.

Negative State relief motivates altruistic behavior.

Critical Thinking?

Empathy-Altruism Theory

Strengths

Experimental Studies

defend the theory.

The theory can predict how

likely someone is to help

another.

Limitations

Ecological Validity?

Is altruism the goal, or is

stopping negative feelings?

Empathy does not always

predict altruism.

Contrasting the TheoriesKin Selection Theory

The focus is on genes that operate beyond human consciousness. Largely based on observations of insects.

Altruism is seen as a behavior that has a cost to the individual.

The theory is based on egoism.

The theory can explain why humans are more likely to help our kin. The theory does not explain why we help non relatives.

Testing the theory is very difficult because it is based on evolutionary processes.

Empathy-Altruism Theory

The focus is on the human emotion empathy as the primary motivation for helping.

Altruism is seen as a behavior that benefits the individual.

The theory is based on altruism existing.

The theory can explain why people tend to behave altruistically in situations where they feel empathy. The theory does not explain why people feel empathy but do not help.

It is relatively easy to test the theory under lab conditions but difficult to bring it into the real world.

Cross-Cultural Studies of Prosocial Behavior

Warm-Up

Create a list, based on your own

predictions, ranking the four cultures which

we saw in Babies on their likelihood to help.

Be prepared to explain your thinking.

Learning Outcome

HR.2.C - Using one or more research studies,

explain cross-cultural differences in prosocial

behavior.

Whiting (1975) Aim: To investigate the impact of child-rearing differences and their

impact on prosocial behaviors.

Method:

Examined children aged 3-11 in Kenya, the Philipines, Japan, India, and the United States.

Findings:

Kenya most prosocial

Mexico and the Phillipines more prosocial

Japan and India less prosocial

United States least prosocial

Conclusions:

The responsibility to participate in household chores and in the care of younger children was very important in determining prosocial behavior.

Children who competed in school and performed few household chores were less likely to help.

Other Studies to Know

Levine et al. (2003)

Korte & Ayvalioglu (1981)

Others?