Download pdf - THE WRITING PROESS Follow the links for some advice about ... · Follow the links for some advice about various stages in the writing process eing able to write is one of the most

WHY WRITING IS IMPORTANT

Follow the links for some

advice about various

stages in the writing

process

Being able to write is one of the most important communication

skills. While writing is essential for success in education at all

levels, it is also important beyond formal schooling in careers,

for citizenship and for general living.

Writing is an organizational tool that is useful for recording expe-

riences, creating memos and lists, leaving messages and so on.

Every time we write an email or text someone, we are using

written language. However, writing is also an important way to

develop or explore ideas, provide information, express

opinions ,persuade others or construct imaginative texts. These

days the ability to write is also important in constructing

multimodal texts.

THE WRITING PROCESS

Thebarton Senior College

40 Ashley Street

Torrensville

SA 5031

Pre-writing strategies

Assessing audience and purpose

Planning

Drafting

Reviewing/editing

Proofreading

Advice about grammar

Using resources/references

References and bibliographies

stjschools.org

dailywritingtips.com

pctipstricks.com

PRE-WRITING STRATEGIES Pre-writing strategies


Planning

Drafting

Reviewing/editing

Proofreading




Back to The Writing Process

Getting started:

Sometimes just getting started is the difficult part. Here are

some ideas and strategies that might help.

Understanding the task

If you are not clear about what is expected of you in the task,

the first thing you need to do is CLARIFY what is required.

UNDERLINE or HIGHLIGHT key words.

Write down what you think the FOCUS is. For example:

In this task I will… OR The focus for this task is…

Brainstorming

Brainstorming involves putting down all the thoughts and ideas

relating to the topic or task. They don’t need to be ordered

initially but you can cluster or categorise them later.

Using web resources / active search programs:

for example: http://www.eslflow.com

How to improve your writing:

Write something everyday —preferably in

connected prose

Read lots and write about what you read

Share your writing with others

Read your writing aloud and try to fix parts

that don’t work so well

Deliberately set out to write in different

forms and genres

Keep a folio of everything you write and re-

read it every now and then to see how you

are developing.

Free writing

Set yourself five minutes and start writing. You need to

write continuously. At the end of the five minutes re-

read what you have written and use a pen or highlighter

to underline, highlight or circle key ideas, parts that flow

or aspects that really strike home for you. This is particu-

larly useful for narrative, expository or persuasive

writing.

Making lists

This is a variation of brainstorming and free writing

Using a graphic organiser

There are lots of graphic organisers around . These are

really useful for creating pictures of key points and how

they connect. Try Inspiration, Lotus diagrams etc.

Collaboration, research and observation

Talk over possible ideas with others, do some research

or do some observation where appropriate.

Cubing Write notes to the six questions—Who?

What? When? Where? Why? How?—great tool for

narrative and recount writing.

http://www.eslflow.com

ASSESSING AUDIENCE & PURPOSE Pre-writing strategies


Planning

Drafting

Reviewing/editing

Proofreading





How audience influences how and what we write

In most educational situations, when we are asked to write something

we generally think of the teacher, tutor or lecturer as the audience.

However, our writing is often stronger and better directed if we think

of the authentic audience for which the writing is or might be intend-

ed.

Thinking about the audience helps us to make informed decisions

about the appropriate form or genre and the level of formality re-

quired. It will also influence the language or register we use and

whether it is written in the first or third person or using active or

passive voice.

An example of this might be writing a job application. Here ,the

language would be formal but you would use the first person ‘I’. In an

essay, though, you would use formal language and third

person voice. In a personal letter, however, you would

most likely use informal language and the first person.

Some common school text types and their purposeSome common school text types and their purposeSome common school text types and their purpose

Procedure—To instruct how a task is done

Personal recount—To retell important personal events

Narrative—To entertain

Report—To describe or classify living or non-living worlds

Choosing the right text type or form

Your choice of form will be determined largely by

why you are writing whatever you are writing. That

is, you need to be clear about your purpose. Are

you writing to inform someone, persuade them,

entertain them or to show someone else what you

know or understand? There may be other reasons

as well but what you answer to the why am I

writing? question will determine what form you will

use to convey what you want.

More common school text types and their purposeMore common school text types and their purposeMore common school text types and their purpose

Explanation—To explain how or why processes occur

Argument—To persuade using one side of an issue

Discussion—To persuade by presenting opposing points

Review—To present a personal response to a text

Adapted from Literacy Secretariat Draft Resource Paper 2010

teacher-of-english.com

PURPOSE, AUDIENCE & FORM Pre-writing strategies


Planning

Drafting

Reviewing/editing

Proofreading





The writer’s purpose

Common purposes used by

students are to:

inform

persuade

argue

narrate

describe

report

reflect

explain

instruct

analyse

imagine

compare

contrast

Share

More text types

descriptions

dialogues

web pages

Possible audiences

Popular audiences that

students frequently write

to—usually implied rather

than real—include:

peers

employers

editors

general public

politicians

parents

teachers

professionals

business people

advisers

writers

experts

Range of text types or forms

Common text types or forms

used by students—include:

reports

letters

essays

journals

stories & poems

news stories

magazine articles

biographies

autobiographies

brochures

advertisements

directions

instructions

reviews more text types

MORE TEXT TYPES Pre-writing strategies


Planning

Drafting

Reviewing/editing

Proofreading





Here’s a useful link that will give you lots of examples of

different text types and what they are used for. It says it is for

primary students but the Writing Activities link has some useful

planning sheets:

http://www.inetword.com/mc10617316/Grammar%

20Website_files/page0006.htm

Here is another website that gives you lots of information about

different text types, what they are used for, how they are struc-

tured and the language used.

http://www.grchurstville.bmcc.education.nsw.gov.au/

english_text_types.htm

This website does much the same as the previous one but you

have to scroll down to page two to get the detail.

csusap.csu.edu.au/~cburge10/docs/currev1.doc

Try this one:

For more help writing different text types follow this link to

Writing Tasks

What text type will I use?

http://www.inetword.com/mc10617316/Grammar%20Website_files/page0006.htm

http://www.inetword.com/mc10617316/Grammar%20Website_files/page0006.htm

http://www.grchurstville.bmcc.education.nsw.gov.au/english_text_types.htm

http://www.grchurstville.bmcc.education.nsw.gov.au/english_text_types.htm

csusap.csu.edu.au/~cburge10/docs/currev1.doc

PLANNING Pre-writing strategies


Planning

Drafting

Reviewing/editing

Proofreading





Is planning necessary?

For some kinds of writing, narrative or imaginative writing, for

instance, the text should be allowed to evolve to some degree.

However, for most academic writing used in schools, there are

features of common text types that define that form. In order to

meet the requirements of a particular text type, you do need to

plan your work. Furthermore, if you are writing an academic

essay, developing an argument, preparing a recount or writing

an evaluation, for instance, it is essential to ‘nut out’ what you

are going to say and the order in which you might put it. This is

what planning is all about.

Go to Planning Details

The informal to formal continuum

Where does your writing fit on this continuum? Think about audience, purpose and text type.

Informal and

familiar language

Formal and

technical language

Most writing has the following components:

Orientation or Introduction This is where you introduce the setting and the main characters or

refer to the key ideas and definitions that will shape the text.

Main body of the text or argument What are the main points, ideas or arguments to include and how

might they be sequenced? What are the topic sentences?

Resolution or Conclusion This is more than a summary. It emphasises the main point(s).

See Writing Tasks for

details about planning

for particular text types.

aate.org.com

PLANNING DETAILS Pre-writing strategies


Planning

Drafting

Reviewing/editing

Proofreading





Questions to think about in the planning process:

Be clear about the task.

Ask yourself: What am I being asked to do?

If you have a question to answer use your hi-lighter to high-

light, underline or circle the key words.

Ask yourself: Am I being asked to describe, explain, report,

analyse, narrate etc.?

Think about the appropriate text type for the task.

Ask yourself: Is the text type more towards the narrative

and imaginative end of the scale or is it closer to the more

formal, academic end?

If the piece of writing uses factual information…

Ask yourself: What facts might be useful and how do they

relate to the question or topic?

Consider how you might make the piece flow.

Ask yourself: What information do I need to put into each

topic sentence to help make the piece of writing cohere?

Draw up a plan and get started.

Ask yourself: What do I need to put into my introduction?

Then write it!

Note:

You can always go back and revise your opening paragraph

later.

Remember, your first draft does not have to be perfect—see it

as a work-in-progress.

Adjust the plan according to the text type to be used—the plan

opposite is for a formal essay (or use a graphic organiser

instead.)

What does an essay PLAN look like?

Opening (Introduction/Orientation)

Include central theme or thesis, key ideas

and appropriate definitions.

Body of the essay (main content)

Para1. Work out topic sentences

Para 2. Look for how to sequence

Para 3. the information/argument

etc.

Para 4. Include relevant evidence

Add paragraphs as needed.

Ending (Conclusion/Resolution)

Re-emphasise main points or argument(s)

Assert your conclusion based on evidence.

DRAFTING



Planning

Drafting

Reviewing/editing

Proofreading





Getting something down

Once you have done your plan, it is time to try putting together

your first draft. Getting started is often the hardest thing. You

just have to do it.

Here’s a useful link by a guy called John Tagg who provides five

hints about writing an effective draft.

http://daphne.palomar.edu/handbook/firstdraft.htm

Interestingly, he suggests not writing the introduction

immediately but generally it is a good idea to have something

down as an introduction even if you go back and change it

radically at the end—lots of writers do that.

Writing your draft

Your first paragraph

Introduce the topic; entice the reader (remember: audi-ence)

Establish perspective and/or point of view!

Focus on at least three main points to develop.

Establish flow from paragraph to paragraph

Topic sentences of each paragraph define their place in the overall scheme

Transition sentences, clauses, or words at the beginning of paragraph connect one idea to the next. Avoid one and two sentence paragraphs which may reflect lack of develop-ment of your point

Continually prove your point of view throughout the essay

Don't drift or leave the focus of the essay

Don't lapse into summary in developing paragraphs--wait until it’s time, at the conclusion

Keep your voice active— "The Academic Committee decided..." not "It was decided by..."

Avoid the verb "to be" for clear, dynamic and effective presentation (Avoid the verb "to be" and your presentation will be effective, clear, and dynamic)

Avoiding "to be" will also avoid the passive voice

Support interpretations with quotes, data, etc.

Properly introduce, explain, and cite each quote

Block (indented) quotes should be used sparingly; they can break up the flow of your argument

Conclusion

Read your first paragraph, the development, and set it aside

Summarize, then conclude, your argument

Refer back (once again) to the first paragraph(s) as well as the development

Ask, ‘Do the last paragraphs briefly restate the main ideas?’

Reflect on the succession and importance of the arguments—do they lead logically to a conclusion?

Edit/rewrite the first paragraph to better set your development

and conclusion.

This is what the Study Guides and Strategies Centre suggest

http://www.studygs.net/writing/roughdrafts.htm

http://daphne.palomar.edu/handbook/firstdraft.htm

http://www.studygs.net/writing/roughdrafts.htm

REVIEWING & EDITING



Planning

Drafting

Reviewing/editing

Proofreading





Strategies Procedures

Reread and ask yourself if you Revisit the question and

have answered the question or the key words that you

dealt with the topic. highlighted or underlined.

Look for poor organisation or Reorganise or restructure

lack of logical progression. the essay and check topic

sentences for clear

cohesive links.

Check for evidence and Add facts, details, quotes,

supporting detail. in-text references etc.

Check for ambiguity, Delete unnecessary

unnecessary or irrelevant details and contradictions

detail and contradictions. and rewrite for clarity.

Check that you have used the appropriate register.

The reviewing, editing and/or rewriting stage is the critical

shaping stage of the writing. It is here that you take your ini-

tial draft and make it into a refined and polished piece. This

is where you need to be a little detached and self-critical and

be prepared to make some tough decisions.

Sometimes you will find that you have to discard whole

sections of what you have written or you will need to rewrite

parts to make things clearer. At times you may find that a

draft needs to be totally reorganised. If you have prepared a

good plan in the first place, this is likely to be rare.

It is worth spending time on this process—and it is often

good to leave a draft for a day or so and come back to it with

fresh eyes.

Have you checked your introduction & conclusion?

Rewrite your introduction if it no longer quite fits what you have written in your

paper.

zazzle.com

PROOFREADING



Planning

Drafting

Reviewing/editing

Proofreading





Is proofreading important?

While proofreading isn’t the most important part of the writing pro-

cess, it is a significant part of polishing and preparing a text for

publication or assessment.

A text with grammatical mistakes, problems with the use of

conventions (such as capitalisation) or spelling errors are what

many readers notice first. These kinds of errors are a distraction

and need to be fixed before submitting work for whatever purpose.

Some writers proofread each paragraph as they go or while they

are re-reading during the composing process but many others leave

it until the end, after the hard work of writing and re-writing has

been done.

There is more than one way, but it has to be done. No writer worth

his or her salt likes to see errors in their published work—and

examiners also notice when students have not checked their work

too and, believe me, they take off marks.

Correcting and Proofreading

Checklist

Spelling

technical words

difficult or confusing words

check spelling demons

using dictionaries and thesauruses

Punctuation

sentences that start with a clause or phrase

using colons & semi-colons

using the dash

apostrophes

Capitalization

sentence beginnings

proper names etc.

Usage

check for ambiguity & verbosity

run-on sentences

paragraph structure & topic sentences

avoiding clichés & idioms

Grammar

tense consistency

noun/verb agreement

conjunctions and linking words

betterwritinghabits.com

PROOFREADING—Spelling



Planning

Drafting

Reviewing/editing

Proofreading





Proofreading for spelling

Technical words

Technical or specialist words just have to be learnt. Here are some

clues to help.

Put the words into a sentence and highlight or bold the word

you want to learn. Think of it in the context of the sentence.

If a word is part of a system or concrete object, draw a diagram

and label it. Try and reproduce the diagram regularly until you

get the spelling right.

Say the words and spell them out on your iPod, iPad or other

electronic device and play them over regularly. Write each

word down as you listen to it.

Make up a crossword or word game where you need to put the

words to be learnt into the allocated spaces–you will soon see

where you have made mistakes.

Use the words to be learnt as often as you can–just as you

would when learning a new language. PRACTICE!!

Difficult or confusing words

There are too many of these to make a comprehensive list here

but following are some of the common ones to check carefully for.

there, their, they’re

its, it’s

your, you’re

then, than

brought, bought

Go to the Usage link for examples of how and where these words

(and lots more) should be used. It’s important to use these words

correctly!

to, too, two

our, are

discreet, discrete

desert, dessert

whether, weather, wether

More hints on

proofreading spelling

PROOFREADING— More on Spelling



Planning

Drafting

Reviewing/editing

Proofreading





Proofreading for spelling

Word processing and modern usage has created some difficulties

with what we once accepted as standard spellings. In most word

processing programs you have a choice about using American,

English or Australian English dictionaries.

Many of the differences relate to the use of double consonants

when adding suffixes. e.g. enrolment or enrollment. Other issues

relate to the representation of phonemes e.g. colour or color.

Many words in English actually sound the same but are spelled

differently. Then there are some words with silent letters and oth-

ers with pronunciations that don’t quite sound the way they are-

spelt e.g. rendezvous, restaurant, epitome etc.

There are many lists of so called spelling demons and it is useful to

have your own check list. What follows are some links to various

websites that provide lists of commonly misspelled words. Of

course, you can always use your spellchecker on the computer but

make sure that you select the right word for the right context or

purpose.

Using dictionaries and thesauruses

It is a good idea to have a good diction-ary and thesaurus.

The following are recommended for school use:

Australian Macquarie Dictionary

Australian Oxford Dictionary

Collins Australian Concise Dictionary

Heinemann Australian Student Dictionary

Here is a link to the dictionaries recom-mended by the SACE Board

http://www.sace.sa.edu.au/the-sace/students-families/

assessment-and-exams/approved-dictionaries

When you use a Thesaurus—make

sure the alternative word you use is

appropriate for the purpose.

Some spelling demons

Here’s a useful site that you can go to to check some of the most

commonly misspelt words:

http://classroom.jc-schools.net/read/spelldemons.htm

http://www.esldesk.com/vocabulary/misspelled-words

http://grammar.about.com/od/words/a/misspelled200.htm

http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0862708.html

A really useful thing to do is to develop your own list of spelling

demons that you know are a problem for you. For instance, if you

have a problem remembering if accommodation has a single or

double mm or not or if signalled has one l or a double ll, add the

problem words to your list. Back to Proofreading

http://www.sace.sa.edu.au/the-sace/students-families/assessment-and-exams/approved-dictionaries

http://www.sace.sa.edu.au/the-sace/students-families/assessment-and-exams/approved-dictionaries

http://classroom.jc-schools.net/read/spelldemons.htm

http://www.esldesk.com/vocabulary/misspelled-words

http://grammar.about.com/od/words/a/misspelled200.htm

http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0862708.html

PUNCTUATION



Planning

Drafting

Reviewing/editing

Proofreading





Why punctuation is important.

There are two main reasons for punctuation.

To help the reader create the meaning that the writer intend-

ed.

To help a reader reading a text aloud to give the appropriate

emphasis to the words and phrasing.

As you can see in the bottom right corner there are at least ten

different kinds of punctuation marks–and some have sub-sets.

Following is advice about a number of areas where there are

common punctuation problems.

Commas: Sentences that start with a clause or phrase

These sentences are very common in English. They start with a

dependent clause and lead into an independent sentence. For

instance:

“When I get through university,, I will start my career as a

dentist.”

“Because of the flooding, the train was delayed twenty four

hours.”

The words in orange are dependent clauses. The remainder of the

sentence is independent and could stand alone as a sentence. When

you have a sentence construction like this, you separate the two

parts with a comma.

Here are two sites that will give you detailed information (with

examples) about how to use punctuation properly. Interestingly,

the first link numbers the punctuation marks from 10 to 1.

http://listverse.com/2007/10/12/top-10-rules-of-punctuation/

http://www.grammarbook.com/english_rules.asp

A list of punctuation marks:

Apostrophes

Brackets

Colons (colon & semi-colon)

Commas

Dashes

Exclamation marks

Full stops

Hyphens

Question marks

Quotation marks (direct speech &

quotation)

Back to Proofreading

More on Punctuation

http://listverse.com/2007/10/12/top-10-rules-of-punctuation/

http://www.grammarbook.com/english_rules.asp

PUNCTUATION



Planning

Drafting

Reviewing/editing

Proofreading





Commas: more examples of sentences that start with a clause or

phrase

In the afternoon, time will be given for a rest break.

When the scooter is moving, you will need to balance.

On arriving at the stadium, we purchased a program.

Because of the mechanical failure, we were unable to race.

Without the help of her friend, Julie would not have coped.

Rising from the ashes, the ruin appeared surreal.

Commas in sentences with beginning words

However, there is a belief that the exception proves the rule.

Rather, the practice is different from what is expected.

Commas used to separate out phrases within a sentence

The grandfather, a rather taciturn man with old-fashioned views,

could not accept the freedom given to his young grandchildren.

The building, perched precariously on the edge of a sheer drop,

seemed more like an eagle’s nest than a home.

Commas used to separate more than one item in a series in a

sentence

The country was barren—rusty, gibber-strewn and uninterestingly

flat.

Sometimes a comma is inserted after the second-to-last descriptor

where emphasis is needed or to make meaning clear. For example;

I was devastated by the sheer poverty, desolation, and the abso-

lute sense of hopelessness.

Other uses of Commas

Commas are also used in special ways in correspondence, direct

speech and numbers.


Apostrophes

Brackets


Commas

Dashes

Exclamation marks

Full stops

Hyphens

Question marks


quotation)


More on Punctuation

PUNCTUATION



Planning

Drafting

Reviewing/editing

Proofreading





End Marks: Full stop

Full stops are used most commonly to end a sentence.

Examples:

“Yesterday was World Peace Day.”

“I didn’t have the heart to tell him. He was so proud of what he

had done, it would have shattered him to know. I don’t know why I

couldn’t tell him, cowardice maybe.”

NOTE: The placement of full stops in direct speech and where

brackets are used is important. If it is the end of a sentence en-

closed between brackets or the end inverted commas, the full stop

goes inside, not after. This also applies to exclamation marks and

question marks.

Full stops also are put in place when there is an abbreviation e.g.

B.C. which refers to ‘before Christ’ or P.S. which means

‘postscript’.


Apostrophes

Brackets


Commas

Dashes

Exclamation marks

Full stops

Hyphens

Question marks


quotation)


More on Punctuation

PUNCTUATION



Planning

Drafting

Reviewing/editing

Proofreading





End Marks: Exclamation mark

This mark is a widely used mark and is useful for many writing

purposes. It is used to show a reader how to read a particular

sentence. Exclamation marks are used for the following:

Commands (orders or directives)

Examples: “Stop!” “Look to the front!” “Ready, set go!”

Exclamations (showing fear, surprise or to emphasise a point.)

Examples: “Oh, wow!” “No way!” “Over there?!” “Oh no!”

Greetings (showing slight animation or enthusiasm)

Example: “Hello! What a great day!”

Humour: (sometimes to emphasise a joke, punch-line or

humorous point)

Example: With that, the little dog laughed, the cow jumped like

a loon and the spoon ran away to her room!” (End of

story!)

Interjections (where someone has been dramatically cut off or

where the sentence has been interrupted.)

Example: “He marched proudly around the corner, aware of

the honour bestowed on him, when Bang! Bang!, the corridor

resounded with two loud explosions and he was dead.”

Irony or sarcasm (to put someone or something down or draw

attention to the unexpected.)

Example: “If we all had friends like you, we’d be in World War

3!”


Apostrophes

Brackets


Commas

Dashes

Exclamation marks

Full stops

Hyphens

Question marks


quotation)


More on Punctuation

PUNCTUATION



Planning

Drafting

Reviewing/editing

Proofreading





End Marks: Question mark

The most obvious use of the question mark is when asking a question but question marks are used in a variety of other contexts as well: Rhetorical questions—questions that do not need to be

answered e.g. We need to get going. Remember the map they showed us? I think we go East.

Tag questions—questions that are added onto a statement to turn it into a question eg. If we connect the positive wire here and the negative wire there and press the button, the motor should start, shouldn’t it?

Direct speech—e.g. ”Are you ready yet?” she called. A question within a sentence—sometimes there is a question

as part of a longer sentence. This means that the question mark goes at the end of the question rather than the end of the sentence e.g. What would happen if a car careered out of control down that steep hill? He thought, pondering the potential disaster.

To indicate a doubt—a doubt can be inferred in several ways using a question mark e.g. Is that right? or I was really excited (?) about the possibility.


Apostrophes

Brackets


Commas

Dashes

Exclamation marks

Full stops

Hyphens

Question marks


quotation)


More on Punctuation

PUNCTUATION—more advice



Planning

Drafting

Reviewing/editing

Proofreading





Using colons (:)

Colons can be tricky at times but their main functions in texts are

fairly clear.

Colons are commonly used to provide a link between one part of a

sentence and another, that is, it signals that what follows is an

expansion of what has gone before.

Example: I experienced a great sense of fulfilment: I had achieved

the A grade I had set my self a goal for in spite of extended

absences.

However, colons are also used in lists, for indicating speakers in

film/drama scripts and in transcripts and at the end of titles and

subtitles.

Example used in lists:

Products from the garden centre include:

vegetable plants

seeds

tomato stakes

fertilizer

Note: Each dot point begins in lower case because the list is in sin-

gle words or phrases. Where the listed items are full sentences, the

dot point listings are introduced with a capital letter.

Example used in a script:

Thomas: (Rather belligerently) I didn’t ask you to do that!

Jane: (Calmly) I know, but I thought I could be helpful and you

seemed so busy.

Thomas: (Still annoyed) That’s all very well, but it’s my job and I

prefer to do it my way. (Long pause) Okay, thanks anyway.

Example used in introducing a quotation:

As Charles Dickens once wrote: “It was the best of times and the

worst of times…”


Apostrophes

Brackets


Commas

Dashes

Exclamation marks

Full stops

Hyphens

Question marks


quotation)


More on Punctuation




Planning

Drafting

Reviewing/editing

Proofreading





Using semicolons (;)

Semicolons are used for various purposes to create a break in a

sentence, to make a comment more dramatic or to more strongly

link ideas than might be possible using a comma.

Example of a semicolon used to link ideas but create an emphatic

pause:

The first wave picked them up and tumbled them towards the

shore; the next one was more ferocious and smashed them heavily

into the sharp sand.

Example of a semicolon used dramatic purpose:

He watched with a growing sense of fear; hundreds of insurgents

burst into the square cutting off all retreat.

Example of a semicolon used to separate items in a complex

sentence:

She wondered about the next move; to follow her instinct and re-

treat behind closed doors; to merge with a group and sidle away in

the shadows that might provide her with a degree of cover; or, to

surrender to the invaders knowing with a high degree of certainty

that she would be raped, tortured and killed.

Semicolons are used in other ways as well; lists where the items in

the list are linked to a key topic, in dictionary definitions and to sep-

arate series.

Example of a semicolon used to separate items in list:

For example, the chance of burglary is increased by:

leaving doors unlocked;

leaving windows ajar;

and, making it obvious that you are not at home.

Here is a useful link for The Writer’s Handbook published by the

University of Wisconsin.

http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/Semicolons.html


Apostrophes

Brackets


Commas

Dashes

Exclamation marks

Full stops

Hyphens

Question marks


quotation)


More on Punctuation

http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/Semicolons.html




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Using the dash; em dash and en dash

A dash is quite a useful tool to show a break in a sentence or create

a pause but it can be overused. There are two kinds of dashes:

The em dash is called this because it is the width of the letter M.

It fills the whole space between two words.

The en is half an M and has a space each side of it.

Often the dash can be used in the place of a comma, particularly

when you want the reader to pause.

Examples of the use of the dash:

When the Kingscote Show was over, the organisers began to pack

up—taking down the stalls, removing the tents, packing away the

horse jumps and generally tiding the arena for the coming cricket

season.

The great white shark—prevalent in the waters of the Southern

Ocean—are now a protected species.

Dashes can also be used for other purposes; for example:

To show a change of thought or an interruption by a speaker or

writer in a sentence.

Example of a change of thought:

Hurry up or we will be late for school!—and , by the way, did you

give the note to your teacher yesterday?

In place of a colon when introducing a list.

To include additional information in a sentence:

Example of including additional information:

Every evening he dons his coat and trudges through the snow to

watch the children sledding—the brash boys, the excited girls, the

timid newcomers, and his favourite disabled boy—then, when dark-

ness falls, retires to the local hotel for his warming pint of ale.


Apostrophes

Brackets


Commas

Dashes

Exclamation marks

Full stops

Hyphens

Question marks


quotation)


More on Punctuation




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The hyphen

The hyphen is not a dash. It is used to :

connect two words to create a new compound word e.g.

sister-in-law

add a prefix e.g. re-emphasise

or, to indicate that a word is split at the end of a line e.g. after-

wards

Brackets

There are several different kinds of brackets—here we look at two

of the most common.

The round bracket ( ): This is used to:

Indicate where information has been added in a sentence.

Example: The crowd was made up of activists (mostly Greenies)

protesting about the extended logging leases.

Show who is responsible for a quotation

Example: “It was the best of times; it was the worst of

times.” (Charles Dickens)

Indicate sub headings e.g. a), b), c) etc. or 1), 2), 3), etc

The square bracket * +: This is used to :

show that the words enclosed are not that of the original speak-

er or writer or have been added in explanation in a quote or to

clarify a reference.

Example: “She absolutely adored his *Tom’s+ shock of black,

curly hair.”

Other brackets include

the curly brackets , -

the slash / /


Apostrophes

Brackets


Commas

Dashes

Exclamation marks

Full stops

Hyphens

Question marks


quotation)


More on Punctuation




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Apostrophes

This is one of the most abused punctuation marks in English.

However, the basic rules are quite simple. There are three types of

apostrophe.

Possession

Contractions and abbreviations

Elision

Possession

Apostrophes for possession indicate that something belongs to

someone or something else—it’s a relationship thing—and the

placement of the apostrophe depends on whether the owner is

singular or plural.

Singular example: The husband’s wife was very beautiful.

The apostrophe goes before the ‘s’ because the husband is singular

Plural example : The houses’ verandas were all blown down in the

storm.

The apostrophe goes after the ‘s’ because there is more than one

house.

Some apostrophes to watch out for:

e.g. children’s, people’s (already plural words) and where a word

ends in an ‘s’ e.g. Jesus’ cross (not Jesus’s), Klaus’ wife (not Klaus’s

wife.)

Contractions and abbreviation

This relates to words or phrases where something has been left out

and what is left behind is an abbreviation e.g. don’t, they’re, we’re,

she’s, hasn’t, I’ll etc. An apostrophe is also used with some abbre-

viations such as “The TV’s signal was weak” or “The DVD’s surface

was scratched.”

Elision

This applies to speech where a vowel, consonant or syllable is

dropped e.g. ‘ello (hello), ‘right (alright), ‘tis (it is), g’day (good day)


Apostrophes

Brackets


Commas

Dashes

Exclamation marks

Full stops

Hyphens

Question marks


quotation)


More on Punctuation

CAPITALIZATION



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Capitals have a number of very special functions in written English.

Most commonly capitals are used at the beginnings of sentences or

dialogue/conversations.

Note: Sometimes for artistic reasons, poets for instance, break the

rules for artistic reasons.

Capitals are used in the following ways:

At the start of sentences

At the opening of dialogue or conversation

In drama scripts to indicate who is speaking next

For some abbreviations e.g. ACT (Australian Capital Territory),

ANZ (Australian & New Zealand Bank)

In titles of books, films, articles, poems, magazine or journal

names, newspapers etc.

For proper names—people, places and things. This includes:

people’s real names e.g Ralph Smith, organisations (see ANZ

above), names of countries e.g. Argentina, geographical names

e.g. Victor Harbor, Uluru etc., days and months e.g. Wednesday,

April etc., historical events or eras e.g. World War 1, the

Industrial Age, the Age of Reason etc.

In many fields of government e.g. The Legislative Council, the

Prime Minister, the Governor General etc.

Addresses, that is, the first letter of street names, suburb and

state e.g. 20 Ashley Street, Torrensville, SA 5031

For the personal pronoun ‘I’

For special days and celebrations e.g. Ramadan, Christmas,

Easter, Mayday, Halloween etc.

In the greetings and close of letters e.g. Dear Mary and Yours

faithfully, David.

USAGE



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Here’s a useful site to check the spelling demons

http://www.spelling-words-well.com/spelling-demons.html

Check for ambiguity & verbosity

Example of verbosity: "Our national tendency is to inflate and thereby

sound important. The airline pilot who announces that he is presently

anticipating experiencing considerable precipitation wouldn't think of

saying ‘it may rain. ‘ The sentence is too simple--there must be some-

thing wrong with it.”

from grammar.about.com/od/tz/g/verbosityterm.htm

Examples of ambiguity: “We saw her duck.” “ I can’t recommend this

tool too highly.”

Run-on sentences

A run on sentence occurs when two independent sentences that should be separated or linked in some way are allowed to continue as if it were a single sentence. This is an incorrect construction.

Example of a run on sentence:

The passenger train to Melbourne runs three times a week it is a long journey of over nine hours.

How to fix it::

1. Make two sentences

The passenger train to Melbourne runs three times a week. It is a long journey of over nine hours.

2. Join the two sentences using a semicolon if the two clauses are

related.

The passenger train to Melbourne runs three times a week; it is a long journey of over nine hours.

3. Use a comma and a conjunction or connector

The passenger train to Melbourne runs three times a week, but it is a long journey of over nine hours.

4. Use a semicolon and a linking word

The passenger train to Melbourne runs three times a week; however, it is a long journey of over nine hours.

Paragraph structure & topic sentences Check that each paragraph has a clear

topic sentence and that everything in

the paragraph relates to that topic

sentence.

Make sure that the paragraphs follow

logically and are linked to make a well

ordered text.

See Writing tasks and processes for

advice.

Avoiding clichés & idioms

Try this website for advice: http://www.englishcafe.com/blog/cliche-

or-idiom-11565

http://www.spelling-words-well.com/spelling-demons.html

grammar.about.com/od/tz/g/verbosityterm.htm

http://www.englishcafe.com/blog/cliche-or-idiom-11565

http://www.englishcafe.com/blog/cliche-or-idiom-11565

GRAMMAR



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Proofreading for Grammar

When you are editing, you are looking very much for meaning and

you are in the process of reshaping your writing or making sure that

what you have to say is clear for the reader. When you are proof-

reading, you are checking your spelling, punctuation and grammar.

From time to time, this may require some rewording but generally

you will just be focussing on making sure your writing is correct.

Here are some aspects of grammar to check:

Tense consistency with verbs—try not to swap between tens-

es, that is, past, present or future. We will not go into the dis-

tinctions between past perfect, present perfect or continuous

present etc. here.

The general rule is: If you start writing in one tense, unless you

move into a flashback or incorporate a quoted piece of conver-

sation in a different tense, you need to continue to write in the

tense you started with.

Noun/verb agreement—this is very important. If you have a

singular noun, you need a singular verb. If you have a plural

noun you need to have a plural verb, although many verbs can

be singular or plural e.g. ‘He (singular) went to the circus’ and

‘They (plural) went to the circus.’ Compare this to—’She is lucky

to be alive’ and ‘They are lucky to be alive.’

Here’s a useful site from GrammarBook.com that sums up all

the variations.

http://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.asp

Pronouns—these seem so simple but there are traps, mostly to

do with the personal pronouns “I” and “Me”. If the pronoun is in

the subject position in the sentence it is “I”. If it is in the object

position you use “ME”. e.g. ‘They will cater for you and

me.’ (object) compared to ‘You and I (subject) will cater for

them.’

Main types of Pronouns

personal

possessive

interrogative

reflexive

relative

indefinite

Here’s a great site that shows you

all the pronouns for 1st, 2nd, and

3rd voice.

http://www.speakwrite.net/

pronoun_charts.htm

...more on Grammar

http://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.asp

http://www.speakwrite.net/pronoun_charts.htm

http://www.speakwrite.net/pronoun_charts.htm

...more on GRAMMAR



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Articles—these can be either definite or indefinite. The definite

article is the, so, we can talk about the house or the boat or the

big, friendly giant etc. In these cases , the article the refers to a

specific boat, house or giant .

However, if we talk about a boat, a house or a big, friendly

giant, we are referring to no particular boat, house, or giant.

‘a’ is an indefinite article used for general purposes.

When proofreading, check to see whether you need the defi-

nite article or the indefinite article.

Prepositions—A preposition is a word which shows relation-

ships among other words in the sentence. The relationships in-

clude direction, place, time, cause, manner and amount. In the

sentence, ‘She went to the store,’ to is a preposition which

shows direction. In the sentence, ‘He came by bus,’ by is a prep-

osition which shows manner. In the sentence, ‘They will be here

at three o'clock,’ at is a preposition which shows time and in the

sentence, ‘It is under the table,’ under is a preposition which

shows place.

A preposition always goes with a noun or pronoun which is

called the object of the preposition. The preposition is almost

always before the noun or pronoun and that is why it is called a

preposition. The preposition and the object of the preposition

together are called a prepositional phrase.

Follow this link to list of the most commonly used prepositions.

http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/prepositions-list.htm

Conjunctions –these are words that join one sentence to

another. There are many of them in the English language.

See the following link for the three types of joiners.

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/conjunctions.htm

Other Hints

Adverbs:

Adverbs are words that qualify or

add to the meaning of a verb. They

can be placed before or after de-

pending mainly on how the sen-

tence sounds.

Adjectives:

Adjectives are words that qualify a

noun. These are placed before the

noun.

http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/prepositions-list.htm

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/conjunctions.htm

References and Bibliographies



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Using Resources and References

The resources you might use to develop a response to a task are

many and varied. Some typical resources include:

the web interviews books discussions magazines & journals surveys CDs and DVDs questionnaires live programs forums broadcasts lectures films & documentaries brochures & pamphlets pictures & cartoons tables, graphs & diagrams observation personal experience reports etc.

General Advice:

Check that the material is from a credible source

Ensure that the resource is relevant and at an appropriate

standard for your purpose

Always note down the details of the resource e.g. the website

URL and when it was accessed; the author, year, title, publisher

of books, magazines and journals; the place and time for obser-

vations, discussions, interviews etc.

When you note from texts use summaries and dot points. If you

copy down quotes, always put the quotes between inverted

commas and also provide the page number. This is helpful

when you use the quote in an assignment and you need to

reference it

Information from any of the above sources can provide

evidence for your responses and support for your own views

Always acknowledge you sources if you are paraphrasing, citing

or quoting someone else’s work or ideas.

References and Bibliographies

Go to the following site and access the Bibliography Builder to guide

you through the process of constructing a reference list.

http://www.slasa.asn.au/org1/org4FFB24c6j33W/

http://pocklingtonepq.wikispaces.com/Referencing+and+bibliographies

The Harvard

Referencing System

http://www.slasa.asn.au/org1/org4FFB24c6j33W/

http://pocklingtonepq.wikispaces.com/Referencing+and+bibliographies