Should I be a Should I be a constructivist constructivist

language teacher?language teacher?

Mike LawsonMike LawsonFlinders UniversityFlinders University

April 2008April 2008

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My AnswerMy Answer

YESYES

Be a teacher who makes use of the Be a teacher who makes use of the well-founded theories of cognitive well-founded theories of cognitive constructivismconstructivism

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Why be concerned about Why be concerned about constructivism?constructivism?

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On the one hand: On the one hand: Constructivism as basis for Constructivism as basis for

curriculumcurriculum

““The theoretical basis for the conception of The theoretical basis for the conception of learning in the SACSA Framework is provided learning in the SACSA Framework is provided by the family of theories of learning that are by the family of theories of learning that are grouped under the title ‘grouped under the title ‘constructivismconstructivism’. While ’. While theoretical distinctions exist between particular theoretical distinctions exist between particular versions of constructivism, such as personal, versions of constructivism, such as personal, social and radical, it is this family of theories social and radical, it is this family of theories which have guided the preparation of the which have guided the preparation of the Framework.”Framework.”

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On the other hand: On the other hand: Critique Critique

Of particular concern in Australia, for example, Of particular concern in Australia, for example, is is that despite a lack of supporting evidence for that despite a lack of supporting evidence for its utility, the prevailing educational philosophy its utility, the prevailing educational philosophy of constructivismof constructivism (an established student- (an established student-centred theory of learning and knowing rather centred theory of learning and knowing rather than a theory of teaching) continues to have than a theory of teaching) continues to have marked influences on shaping teachers’ marked influences on shaping teachers’ interpretations of how they should teach. interpretations of how they should teach.

Rowe, K. J. (2007). Rowe, K. J. (2007). The Imperative of Evidence-based The Imperative of Evidence-based Practices for the Teaching and Assessment of NumeracyPractices for the Teaching and Assessment of Numeracy, (p. , (p. 8). Invited submission to National Numeracy Review July. 8). Invited submission to National Numeracy Review July. Camberwell, Vic: Australian Council for Educational Research Camberwell, Vic: Australian Council for Educational Research

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Education writer Education writer critiquecritique

““Constructivist Constructivist – a term used – a term used by progressive teachers to by progressive teachers to argue that argue that instead of being instead of being taught,taught, that students learn that students learn best by constructing their best by constructing their own knowledge and own knowledge and understanding. Similar to understanding. Similar to ‘discovery learning’, the ‘discovery learning’, the belief is that it is best for belief is that it is best for students to negotiate what students to negotiate what they learn, to learn at their they learn, to learn at their own pace and own pace and not to be not to be taught in a formal, taught in a formal, structured way..”structured way..” (195)(195)

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Spelling it outSpelling it out While state governments and teacher While state governments and teacher

unions keep saying there are no illiteracy unions keep saying there are no illiteracy problems in our schools, the latest ACER problems in our schools, the latest ACER research shows conclusively that research shows conclusively that current current primary teaching methods (whole language primary teaching methods (whole language and constructivism) are flawedand constructivism) are flawed and cause and cause the 30 per cent illiteracy level in schools the 30 per cent illiteracy level in schools

Jo Rogers, FrankstonJo Rogers, Frankston (Education 19/3/2007).(Education 19/3/2007).

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Background to my Background to my answeranswer

Constructivism is a group of theories about a Constructivism is a group of theories about a range of issues, range of issues, not only theories about learning, not only theories about learning, Also theories about knowledge, reality, truth Also theories about knowledge, reality, truth

discussed in sociology, philosophy, language, discussed in sociology, philosophy, language, sciencescience

We must be specific about the type of We must be specific about the type of constructivism we are talking about. constructivism we are talking about. As a word ‘constructivism’ is like ‘democracy’. A As a word ‘constructivism’ is like ‘democracy’. A

reference to “constructivist learning” or reference to “constructivist learning” or “constructivist teaching” is too vague, because “constructivist teaching” is too vague, because these terms could refer to many different theories these terms could refer to many different theories in different disciplinesin different disciplines

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One group of constructivist theory One group of constructivist theory does provide a sound and useful basis does provide a sound and useful basis for designing teaching proceduresfor designing teaching procedures Cognitive constructivismCognitive constructivism Focus on this theoryFocus on this theory

The critiques just shown are not of The critiques just shown are not of relevance to cognitive constructivist relevance to cognitive constructivist theory of learning and teachingtheory of learning and teaching

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Sorting out different Sorting out different constructivismsconstructivisms

Denis Phillips’ two categories of Denis Phillips’ two categories of constructivismconstructivism

Social constructivismSocial constructivism Psychological constructivismPsychological constructivism

Both are broad categories covering Both are broad categories covering diverse viewsdiverse views

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Social constructivismSocial constructivism

“embodies a thesis about the disciplines or bodies of knowledge that have been built up during the course of human history - that these disciplines (or public bodies of knowledge are human constructs and that the form that the knowledge has taken in these fields has been determined by such things as politics, ideologies, values, the exertion of power and the preservation of status, religious beliefs and economic self-interest. This thesis denies that the disciplines are objective reflections of an “external world.” (Phillips 2000, p. 6)

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Psychological Psychological ConstructivismConstructivism

“ “A set of views about how individuals learn A set of views about how individuals learn (and about how those who help them to learn (and about how those who help them to learn ought to teach). Roughly, this second type of ought to teach). Roughly, this second type of constructivist view is that learners constructivist view is that learners actively actively constructconstruct their own (internal, some would say) their own (internal, some would say) sets of meanings or understandings; sets of meanings or understandings; knowledge is not a mere copy of the external knowledge is not a mere copy of the external world, nor is knowledge acquired by passive world, nor is knowledge acquired by passive absorption or by simple transference from one absorption or by simple transference from one person (a teacher) to another (a learner or person (a teacher) to another (a learner or knower). “knower). “ (Phillips, 2000)(Phillips, 2000)

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Mt focus is now on Mt focus is now on Psychological Psychological

ConstructivismConstructivism This is a mainstream theory of This is a mainstream theory of

learninglearning

Broad principles in handoutBroad principles in handout

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Situated

Social

Motivated, affective

Cognitive

Metacognitive

Developmental

Learners exist in specific situations, and their learning and the outcomes of that learning, are always impacted by the situation.

People learn through and from their interactions with other people.

Learners approach all learning activity with a set of inter-related dispositions and motivational expectations.

In their attempts to understand the world, learners represent that world and develop and transform these representations.

Learners develop knowledge about themselves as learners and use this as they plan, monitor and reflect upon their actions and their current situations.

Learners change across time: New structures and functions emerge and are developed.

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Teacher: “Listen to me say Teacher: “Listen to me say ’Zhou”’Zhou”

LEARNER LEARNER BEHAVIOURBEHAVIOUR

MENTAL PROCESSESMENTAL PROCESSES

Engages with, enters the Engages with, enters the teachingteaching

MotivationMotivation

Attends to the information Attends to the information being presentedbeing presented

Allocation of attention in Allocation of attention in working memoryworking memory

Interprets the teacher’s Interprets the teacher’s utteranceutterance

Perception, activation in Perception, activation in working memoryworking memory

Associates the sound with Associates the sound with a known sound in Englisha known sound in English

Retrieval of prior knowledgeRetrieval of prior knowledge

Sets up a first draft Sets up a first draft representation of the representation of the pronunciation of “Zhou”pronunciation of “Zhou”

Organisation and storage Organisation and storage of information in long of information in long

term memoryterm memory

Tries out and checks the Tries out and checks the sound silentlysound silently

MetacognitionMetacognition

Talks to Maria: Is it like Talks to Maria: Is it like ‘Oh dear’‘Oh dear’

,Metacognition, Social ,Metacognition, Social interactioninteraction

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This student is constructing This student is constructing knowledgeknowledge

Construction is occurring throughConstruction is occurring through Engagement: Engagement: [Kate’s presentation][Kate’s presentation] InterpretationInterpretation Associating: [Associating: [Mirella’s presentation]Mirella’s presentation] Retrieval:Retrieval: [Marietta’s and Mirella’s [Marietta’s and Mirella’s

presentations]presentations] Organisation during storageOrganisation during storage Evaluation of the first utteranceEvaluation of the first utterance Discussion with Maria and interpretation of Discussion with Maria and interpretation of

feedbackfeedback

NB: Each of these processes could run off in NB: Each of these processes could run off in different waysdifferent ways

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Constructing a mental Constructing a mental representationrepresentation

The learner is constructing a mental The learner is constructing a mental representation for a new word.representation for a new word.

The representation is establishing a The representation is establishing a relationship, a connection, a link between a relationship, a connection, a link between a sound to a form.sound to a form.

The process of representation is influenced The process of representation is influenced by the activity of the learner and by what the by the activity of the learner and by what the teacher and other students do.teacher and other students do.

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The construction siteThe construction site

The nature of representations in The nature of representations in memory is now a major focus of memory is now a major focus of research in neuroscienceresearch in neuroscience

The following passages are examples of The following passages are examples of research where the act of knowledge research where the act of knowledge construction, the building of construction, the building of relationships at the symbolic level, are relationships at the symbolic level, are mirrored at the level of mirrored at the level of neural activityneural activity. .

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Protzner & McIntosh, (2007).Protzner & McIntosh, (2007). ““The notion that cognition results The notion that cognition results

from from large-scale neural network large-scale neural network operationoperation has been proposed in has been proposed in various forms throughout the history various forms throughout the history of neuroscience… Advances in of neuroscience… Advances in functional neuroimaging have functional neuroimaging have provided empirical validation of this provided empirical validation of this proposition. “proposition. “

[i][i] Protzner, A. B., & McIntosh, A. R. (2007). The interplay of stimulus modality Protzner, A. B., & McIntosh, A. R. (2007). The interplay of stimulus modality and response latency in neural network organization for simple working memory and response latency in neural network organization for simple working memory tasks. tasks. The Journal of Neuroscience, 27(12The Journal of Neuroscience, 27(12):3187-3197):3187-3197

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NoteNote Explicit reference to a Explicit reference to a networknetwork structure at structure at

the neural level. the neural level. The network is an organized structure, the The network is an organized structure, the

organization occurring during initial organization occurring during initial learning and during all activity related to learning and during all activity related to that particular task or topic. that particular task or topic.

During learning the nature of the mental During learning the nature of the mental activity carried out by the learner influences activity carried out by the learner influences the structure of the network, the pattern of the structure of the network, the pattern of connections that is constructed in memory. connections that is constructed in memory.

It makes sense to talk of learning as being It makes sense to talk of learning as being centrally concerned with construction, with centrally concerned with construction, with constructivist activity. constructivist activity.

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Murray, & Ranganath (2007).[Murray, & Ranganath (2007).[ Our findings are generally consistent with Our findings are generally consistent with

results from studies that have investigated results from studies that have investigated neural correlates of memory encoding. For neural correlates of memory encoding. For example, other studies of memory encoding example, other studies of memory encoding have reported the dorsolateral prefrontal have reported the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC )activation during interactive cortex (DLPFC )activation during interactive imagery of pairs of words ...during intentional imagery of pairs of words ...during intentional encoding of pairs of images …All of these encoding of pairs of images …All of these findings share a common basic principle: findings share a common basic principle: DLPFC activation was obtained in tasks that DLPFC activation was obtained in tasks that involved involved active processing of active processing of relationships between items that were relationships between items that were active in working memory.active in working memory.

[i][i] Murray, L. J., & Ranganath C. (2007). The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex contributes to successful Murray, L. J., & Ranganath C. (2007). The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex contributes to successful relational memory encoding. relational memory encoding. Journal of. Neuroscience, 27Journal of. Neuroscience, 27(20):5515–5522(20):5515–5522

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Students are setting up, or constructing, Students are setting up, or constructing, relationshipsrelationships, and the relationships they are , and the relationships they are constructing are reflected in patterns of constructing are reflected in patterns of neural activity. neural activity.

When teachers are helping students set up When teachers are helping students set up these relationships we should expect that these relationships we should expect that different teaching procedures will be different teaching procedures will be reflected in different neural patterns.reflected in different neural patterns.

In both cases it is appropriate to say that the In both cases it is appropriate to say that the students and the teacher are being students and the teacher are being constructivist.constructivist.

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This is mainstream This is mainstream theorytheory

In their discussion of radical constructivism, three In their discussion of radical constructivism, three prominent cognitive psychologists make this point:prominent cognitive psychologists make this point:

A consensus exists within cognitive psychology that A consensus exists within cognitive psychology that people do not record experience passively but people do not record experience passively but interpret new information with the help of prior interpret new information with the help of prior knowledge and experience. The term knowledge and experience. The term “constructivism” is used in this sense in “constructivism” is used in this sense in psychology, and we have been appropriately psychology, and we have been appropriately referred to as constructivists (in this sense) by referred to as constructivists (in this sense) by mathematics educators.mathematics educators.[i[i]]

[i][i] Anderson, J. R., Reder, L. M. & Simon, H. A. (1998) Radical constructivism Anderson, J. R., Reder, L. M. & Simon, H. A. (1998) Radical constructivism and cognitive psychology. In D. Ravitch (Ed). and cognitive psychology. In D. Ravitch (Ed). Brookings Papers on Education Brookings Papers on Education PolicyPolicy, p. 232). Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution., p. 232). Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution.

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Construction, not Construction, not transmissiontransmission

It is because of this It is because of this active active interpretationinterpretation on the part of the on the part of the student that we also say that student that we also say that knowledge knowledge cannot be “transmitted”cannot be “transmitted” directly from teacher to student in directly from teacher to student in an unchanged form. an unchanged form.

Whatever the teacher does or says Whatever the teacher does or says will be interpreted, and so will be will be interpreted, and so will be changed in some way by the student. changed in some way by the student.

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The student does the final act of The student does the final act of knowledge constructionknowledge construction

But the act of construction can be But the act of construction can be influenced by influenced by What the teacher doesWhat the teacher does What the student doesWhat the student does What another student says or doesWhat another student says or does

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““The way I remember this is The way I remember this is by ….by ….

Much of our teaching is also Much of our teaching is also concerned to help students to concerned to help students to develop new learning strategies, develop new learning strategies, new ways of analysing, interpreting, new ways of analysing, interpreting, organising, storing, etc. organising, storing, etc.

This is constructivist teachingThis is constructivist teaching

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SACSA againSACSA again

The position set out in the The position set out in the introduction to SACSA is quite introduction to SACSA is quite mainstream and quite sound.mainstream and quite sound.

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South Australian Curriculum and Standards Accountability Framework. [i]

(Numbering not in original)

1. The central thesis of constructivism is that the learner is active in the process of taking in information and building knowledge and understanding; in other words, of constructing their own learning…

2. Constructivism also has clear implications for the social situation or context in which learning happens, in so far as learners are more likely to engage in constructing their own understanding in a supportive social environment… [PP]

3. Learners, however, are not social islands. They exist in a cultural context with others, and in turn this social context is shared with other groups and, at a different level, with other species. Individuals enter a context where there are already many shared understandings. In their most sophisticated form such understandings can be classed as cultural knowledge

4. Each individual is not expected to remake or rediscover such knowledge.

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The perspective on learning presented in The perspective on learning presented in these four sections of the SACSA framework these four sections of the SACSA framework is not controversial for someone using a is not controversial for someone using a cognitive constructivist view. cognitive constructivist view.

There is a sound basis for talking of ‘There is a sound basis for talking of ‘active active learninglearning’, ‘’, ‘building knowledgebuilding knowledge’ and ’ and ‘‘constructing’constructing’ learning and for recognizing learning and for recognizing the the socialsocial and and situatedsituated nature of learning. nature of learning. Such descriptions are supported by a strong Such descriptions are supported by a strong basis of evidence.basis of evidence.[i[i]]

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The constructivist The constructivist teacherteacher

Plans what will be the focus of learningPlans what will be the focus of learning Designs conditions that will result in a quality Designs conditions that will result in a quality

knowledge constructionknowledge construction Provides detailed and explicit informationProvides detailed and explicit information Provides for practice that will strengthen the Provides for practice that will strengthen the

students knowledge constructionstudents knowledge construction Sets up links to related knowledgeSets up links to related knowledge Requires use of knowledge in relevant contextsRequires use of knowledge in relevant contexts Provides for transfer beyond the current Provides for transfer beyond the current

teachingteaching

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Influencing construction, Influencing construction, e.ge.g

Clear and slow presentationClear and slow presentation ““ZhouZhou” “” “See where my tongue isSee where my tongue is”” ““Yes. Lets all repeat that sound 5 Yes. Lets all repeat that sound 5

times.”times.” Now Mike. You say “Zhou”Now Mike. You say “Zhou” That’s good. Say it again – Where is That’s good. Say it again – Where is

your tongue?your tongue? How do you remember the sound of How do you remember the sound of

“ou” in Zhou?“ou” in Zhou?

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Influencing construction, Influencing construction, e.ge.g

This teaching is explicit, teacher directed, This teaching is explicit, teacher directed, involves repetition, metacognition, social involves repetition, metacognition, social interactioninteraction

All of this influences Mike’s knowledge All of this influences Mike’s knowledge constructionconstruction

This is constructivist teachingThis is constructivist teaching

NOTENOTE Constructivist teaching DOES NOT just mean Constructivist teaching DOES NOT just mean

Unguided discovery learningUnguided discovery learning Pure discovery learningPure discovery learning Letting the student discover everything by herselfLetting the student discover everything by herself

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RememberRemember

In interacting with students teachers can In interacting with students teachers can offer suggestions, set out procedures, offer suggestions, set out procedures, provide examples, model behaviour, demand provide examples, model behaviour, demand compliance, facilitate, orchestrate, direct, compliance, facilitate, orchestrate, direct, and so on. and so on.

But a teacher cannot control how the But a teacher cannot control how the student interprets what is being presented. student interprets what is being presented.

Any implication that the use of direct Any implication that the use of direct instruction will guarantee a particular instruction will guarantee a particular interpretation is misleading.interpretation is misleading.

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HandoutHandout

Productive pedagogiesProductive pedagogies Will, skill and metaskillWill, skill and metaskill Try this with your class; suggestions Try this with your class; suggestions

for activities that will help for activities that will help construction of knowledgeconstruction of knowledge