THE USE OF THEORY
QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE METHODS
Qualitative and Quantitative Methods The use of a theory varies between
qualitative and quantitative methods Quantitative methods: Theories are
presented then tested to explain, predict, or establish causal relations between variables
Qualitative methods: Theories are presented to serve as a “lens” which then guides what is looked at and how questions are developed. Theories can also be generated as seen in grounded theory approaches
Theory and the Quantitative Method
Definition of a Theory Theory
Interrelated set of constructs formed into propositions that specify the relationships among variables
Describes how and why variables are related○ Variables = Constructs Sometimes referred to as:
Theoretical Perspective Theoretical Framework
Conceptual Framework – A visual framework of a theoretical perspective/framework
QUANTITATIVE
Independent Variables Independent
Variables that are inferred to cause outcomes○ Factor, Program, Treatment (variable), Predictor (variable),
Intervention Dependent
The outcome that depends on the independent variable○ Outcome (variable), criterion
Intervening or mediating Variables that stand between the independent and dependent
variables Moderating
New variables that measure the joint impact of two variables Confounding
Variables that could also affect the dependent variables, but cannot or will not be measured. Confounding variables can be moderating or intervening variables
QUANTITATIVEVariables in Quantitative Methods
Dependent Variables Independent
Variables that are inferred to cause outcomes○ Factor, Program, Treatment (variable), Predictor (variable),
Intervention Dependent
The outcome that depends on the independent variable○ Outcome (variable), criterion
Intervening or mediating Variables that stand between the independent and dependent
variables Moderating
New variables that measure the joint impact of two variables Confounding
Variables that could also affect the dependent variables, but cannot or will not be measured. Confounding variables can be moderating or intervening variables
QUANTITATIVEVariables in Quantitative Methods
Intervening or Mediating Variables Independent
Variables that are inferred to cause outcomes○ Factor, Program, Treatment (variable), Predictor (variable),
Intervention Dependent
The outcome that depends on the independent variable○ Outcome (variable), criterion
Intervening or mediating Variables that stand between the independent and dependent
variables Moderating
New variables that measure the joint impact of two variables Confounding
Variables that could also affect the dependent variables, but cannot or will not be measured. Confounding variables can be moderating or intervening variables
QUANTITATIVEVariables in Quantitative Methods
Moderating Variables Independent
Variables that are inferred to cause outcomes○ Factor, Program, Treatment (variable), Predictor (variable),
Intervention Dependent
The outcome that depends on the independent variable○ Outcome (variable), criterion
Intervening or mediating Variables that stand between the independent and dependent
variables Moderating
New variables that measure the joint impact of two variables Confounding
Variables that could also affect the dependent variables, but cannot or will not be measured. Confounding variables can be moderating or intervening variables
QUANTITATIVEVariables in Quantitative Methods
Confounding Variables Independent
Variables that are inferred to cause outcomes○ Factor, Program, Treatment (variable), Predictor (variable),
Intervention Dependent
The outcome that depends on the independent variable○ Outcome (variable), criterion
Intervening or mediating Variables that stand between the independent and dependent
variables Moderating
New variables that measure the joint impact of two variables Confounding
Variables that could also affect the dependent variables, but cannot or will not be measured. Confounding variables can be moderating or intervening variables
QUANTITATIVEVariables in Quantitative Methods
Theory Operating as a Bridge
Independent Variable
Dependent Variable
Theory
QUANTITATIVE
Social Learning Theory
ConfidenceTest
Performance
Social Learning Theory (Bandura , 1977 )
QUANTITATIVETheory Operating as a Bridge
Examples of Theories
Attribution Theory by Heider The Health Belief Model by Hochbaum
et al. Learning Theories
Behavioral perspectiveCognitive perspectiveSocial InteractionInstructional approach
QUANTITATIVE
Deductive Technique for the Quantitative Method
Data is collected, analyzed, and interpreted
The Variables in the Research Questions are defined and operationalized
Research Questions are developed based on the Theory (and supported literature)
A Literature Review is developed
A discussion is presented to support or refute the Theory
The Theory is Introduced
QUANTITATIVE
Theory Is Introduced
\
The Theory is Introduced
QUANTITATIVEDeductive Technique for the Quantitative Method
Lit Review Is Developed
A Literature Review is developed
The Theory is Introduced
QUANTITATIVEDeductive Technique for the Quantitative Method
RQs Are Developed
\
Research Questions are developed based on the Theory (and supported literature)
A Literature Review is developed
The Theory is Introduced
QUANTITATIVEDeductive Technique for the Quantitative Method
Variables Are Defined
The Variables in the Research Questions are defined and operationalized
Research Questions are developed based on the Theory (and supported literature)
A Literature Review is developed
The Theory is Introduced
QUANTITATIVEDeductive Technique for the Quantitative Method
Data Collected, Analyzed, Interpreted
Data is collected, analyzed, and interpreted
The Variables in the Research Questions are defined and operationalized
Research Questions are developed based on the Theory (and supported literature)
A Literature Review is developed
\
The Theory is Introduced
QUANTITATIVEDeductive Technique for the Quantitative Method
Discussion Supports or Refutes Theory
Data is collected, analyzed, and interpreted
The Variables in the Research Questions are defined and operationalized
Research Questions are developed based on the Theory (and supported literature)
A Literature Review is developed
A discussion is presented to support or refute the Theory
The Theory is Introduced
QUANTITATIVEDeductive Technique for the Quantitative Method
Theory Placement: IntroductionPlacement Advantages Disadvantages
In the introduction Common approach; familiar to readers; conveys a deductive approach
Difficult for a reader to isolate theory base from other components of the research process
In the literature review
Including theories in a literature review is a logical extension or part of the literature
Difficult for a reader to see the theory in isolation from the larger literature
After hypotheses or research questions
The theory discussion explains how and why variables are related
May leave out an extended discussion about the origin and use of the theory
In a separate section Clearly separates the theory from other components of the research process, enables a reader to better identify and to understand the theory base
The theory discussion is isolated and may not easily connect with other components of the research process
QUANTITATIVE
Theory Placement
Placed in Lit ReviewPlacement Advantages Disadvantages
In the introduction Common approach; familiar to readers; conveys a deductive approach
Difficult for a reader to isolate theory base from other components of the research process
In the literature review
Including theories in a literature review is a logical extension or part of the literature
Difficult for a reader to see the theory in isolation from the larger literature
After hypotheses or research questions
The theory discussion explains how and why variables are related
May leave out an extended discussion about the origin and use of the theory
In a separate section Clearly separates the theory from other components of the research process, enables a reader to better identify and to understand the theory base
The theory discussion is isolated and may not easily connect with other components of the research process
QUANTITATIVE
Theory Placement
Placed After RQsPlacement Advantages Disadvantages
In the introduction Common approach; familiar to readers; conveys a deductive approach
Difficult for a reader to isolate theory base from other components of the research process
In the literature review
Including theories in a literature review is a logical extension or part of the literature
Difficult for a reader to see the theory in isolation from the larger literature
After hypotheses or research questions
The theory discussion explains how and why variables are related
May leave out an extended discussion about the origin and use of the theory
In a separate section Clearly separates the theory from other components of the research process, enables a reader to better identify and to understand the theory base
The theory discussion is isolated and may not easily connect with other components of the research process
QUANTITATIVE
Theory Placement
Placed in Separate SectionPlacement Advantages Disadvantages
In the introduction Common approach; familiar to readers; conveys a deductive approach
Difficult for a reader to isolate theory base from other components of the research process
In the literature review
Including theories in a literature review is a logical extension or part of the literature
Difficult for a reader to see the theory in isolation from the larger literature
After hypotheses or research questions
The theory discussion explains how and why variables are related
May leave out an extended discussion about the origin and use of the theory
In a separate section Clearly separates the theory from other components of the research process, enables a reader to better identify and to understand the theory base
The theory discussion is isolated and may not easily connect with other components of the research process
QUANTITATIVE
Theory Placement
Theory and the Qualitative Method
Theory Use in Qualitative Methods
The definition of Theory remains the same but is typically applied differently in Qualitative Methods:
The Theory provides a broad explanation of behavior and attitudes Establish a theoretical lens (i.e., orienting lens)
○ Feminist perspective○ Racialized discourse○ Critical theory
Starts with an endpoint - a theory that is generated (inductive)
No theory is employed (the inquiry is developed explicitly from participants as seen in phenomenological approaches)
QUALITATIVE
Sometimes referred to as: “Paradigms” of Social Science Theoretical Lens Foundational Theory (same as theoretical
lens)○ Conflict theory○ Marxist theory○ Structural functionalism○ Symbolic interaction○ Feminist perspective○ Racialized discourse○ Critical theory○ Queer theory○ Disability inquiry
Paradigms, Theoretical Lens, Foundational Theory
QUALITATIVE
Theory Use in Qualitative Methods
Applications Theoretical Lens or Foundational Theory Grounded Theory
Does Not include initial a priori presentation of one of the “big” foundational theories
Critical-reflexive Theory
Theory Use in Qualitative Methods (cont.)
QUALITATIVE
Types of Theories
Theories can be broken down into types:Grand TheoryMid-range TheoryMicro-level Theory
QUALITATIVE
Examples of Types of Theories Theories can be broken down into types:
Grand TheoryMid-range TheoryMicro-level Theory
Type Psychology Social/Educational
Grand Theory Psychodynamic theory
Social Construction
Mid-range Theory Five stage theory Social Interaction
Micro-level Theory Individual formation theory
Phenomenology
QUALITATIVE
Types of Theories
More Examples of Theories Used for Qualitative
Methods Professionalisation Theory by Elliot
Freidson
Labelling Theory by Scheff
Negotiated Order Theory by Strauss
QUALITATIVE
The Inductive Logic of Research in Qualitative Methods
Researcher asks open-ended questions of participants or records fieldnotes
Researcher analyzes data to form themes or categories
Researcher looks for broad patterns, generalizations, or theories from themes or categories
Researcher poses generalizations, or theories, and compares to past experiences and literature
Researcher gathers information
QUALITATIVE
Researcher Gathers Information
Researcher gathers information
QUALITATIVEThe Inductive Logic of Research in Qualitative Methods
Open-Ended Questions and Fieldnotes
Researcher asks open-ended questions of participants or records fieldnotes
Researcher gathers information
QUALITATIVEThe Inductive Logic of Research in Qualitative Methods
Analyze Data to Form Themes
Researcher asks open-ended questions of participants or records fieldnotes
Researcher analyzes data to form themes or categories
Researcher gathers information
QUALITATIVEThe Inductive Logic of Research in Qualitative Methods
Look for Broad Patterns
Researcher asks open-ended questions of participants or records fieldnotes
Researcher asks open-ended questions of participants or records fieldnotes
Researcher looks for broad patterns, generalizations, or theories from themes or categories
Researcher gathers information
QUALITATIVEThe Inductive Logic of Research in Qualitative Methods
Pose Generalizations or Theories
Researcher asks open-ended questions of participants or records fieldnotes
Researcher analyzes data to form themes or categories
Researcher looks for broad patterns, generalizations, or theories from themes or categories
Researcher poses generalizations, or theories, and compares to past experiences and literature
Researcher gathers information
QUALITATIVEThe Inductive Logic of Research in Qualitative Methods
Use of Theory in Mixed Methods
Mixed methods studies may:Include theory deductively (theory testing)
○ Quantitatively orientedInclude theory inductively (an emerging
pattern)○ Qualitatively oriented
Use a theoretical lens and framework to guide the study○ Emphasis is equal between QUAL and QUAN
Examples Qualitative example with a theoretical lens: Haldenby
, A. M., Berman, H., & Forchuk, C. (2007). Homelessness and health in adolescents. Qualitative Health Research, 17(9), 1232–1244.
Discussion of theory on p. 1235. Qualitative example that generates a theory: Harley, A. E.,
Buckworth, J., Katz, M. L., Willis, S. K., Odoms-Young, & Heaney, C. A. (2007). Developing long-term physical activity participation: A grounded theory study with African American women. Health Education & Behavior.
Generated theory on pp. 5–14. Quantitative example: Frankenberger, K. D. (2004).
Adolescent egocentrism, risk perceptions, and sensation seeking among smoking and nonsmoking youth. Journal of Adolescent Research, 19(5), 576–590.
Literature review and theory on pp. 577–580. Mixed methods example: Parmelee
, J. H., Perkins, S. C., & Sayre, J. J. (2007). “What about people our age?” Applying qualitative and quantitative methods to uncover how political ads alienate college students. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1(2), 183–199.
Literature review and theoretical perspective on pp. 184–187.
Selected References Anfara, V., & Mertz, N. T. (2006). Theoretical frameworks in
qualitative research. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed method approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Reeves, S., et al. (2008). Why use theories in qualitative research? BMJ(337:a949), 631-634.
Scott, G., & Garner, R. (2013). Doing qualitative research: Designs, methods, and techniques. Boston, MA: Pearson.