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8/11/2019 Project Report Rekha

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INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

ON

AC DC POWER SUPPLY

FROM

POWERTEC SUPPLIES INDIA PVT. LTD.

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

IN

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG.

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

MR. V.K.KHANNA

(HEAD OF OPERATIONS R&D)

POWERTEC SUPPLIES INIDIA PVT. LTD

.

TEK CHAND MANN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

GANNAUR (SONEPAT)

SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:Mr. DHEERAJ VINOD SAINI

H.O.D. OF ECE DEPT. ROLL NO: 11!1"!##$


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Training is an agglomeration of the theoretical and practical and

technical concepts, which enhances our skills in the filed of technology.

Training plays a strong role in the building up of strong personality.

Training at POWERTEC !PP"#E #$%#& P'T."T%. is a learning

e(perience.

# would like to thank POWERTEC for pro)iding us the opportunity to

carry out my industrial training. #t is a wonderful e(perience working with

learned people of the institute.

# am e(tremely thankful to *r.'.+.+&$$& -ead of training

department for allowing us to carry on my training at this prestigious

organi/ation. # am e(tremely indebted to him for allowing us to train

myself in )arious processes carried out in institute and helping me to do

my 0ob properly.

# feel duty bound to e(press my sincere token of gratitude to *r.

%e)ender ingh and *r. &shish 1ain for their e(cellent e(pert guidance,

moti)ation and all the help, which has powered me to here today. They

e(plained the technicalities to me, which will remain of great help to me

in times to come.

# e(press my gratitude to all the employees for their immense support

and cooperation.

# am also thankful to those to whom # ha)e forgotten to mention.

VINOD SAINI


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PREFACE

Training is an agglomeration of the theoretical and practical and

technical concepts, which enhances our skills in the field of technology.

Training plays a strong role in the building up of strong personality.

Training at ilicon technical institute is a learning e(perience.

The training report has been de)eloped as a part of the industrial

training that *%!, Rohtak re2uires its students to undergo after the fifth

semester of the curriculum the purpose of the industrial training is to

familiari/e the students of the 3achelor or engineering course with the

present working en)ironment in the country.

To pro)ide them to study with the latest trends those ha)e been

established and edged a well as the one4s that are being de)eloped in

the country. *oreo)er to make students feel sure that whate)er they are

learning in this training period would certainly help them for the futurecourses of action and help them to de)elop their potential and technical

skills.

To allow them to e(plore )arious fields and to better e2uip them as a

professional in the time to time.

The training is being carried out at POWERTEC !PP"#E #$%#&

P'T."T%. is &n #O 56678966: Certified Company situated at 3;779 ,

Phase;##, $oida;967


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

7 Company Profile >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>7 ? @

9 Power upply................................................................=A B

>>>>>>>>5 ; @9

= #ntroduction to Regulator............................................@7

B #ntroduction to ilter Circuit ..........................................@9


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POWERTEC SUPPLIES INDIA PVT.LTD.

Pr%'

P%*r+, , was form! "# $%% w"' ' o*+'" 'o offr ' E-+'ro#"+

I#!s'r/ "# I#!"a 0a-"'/ 1owr 1ro!+'s +o#form"#2 'o I#'r#a'"o#a- s'a#!ar!s.

Powr'+ was s'a-"s! w"' ' a"m of !s"2#"#2, !-o1"#2 ma#fa+'r"#2

a#! mar3'"#2 'o1 of ' -"# 1ro!+'s "# S*'+,- M% P%*r

S/00'(SMPS)2 AC3DC 45 DC3DC ,%56r+r for ' 0a-"'/ +o#s+"os

I#!"a# +o#smr.

I# $%%4, Powr'+ #'r! "# 'o a# a2rm#' w"' Cos- Co. L'!. 5a1a# for

#a'"o#a- !"s'r"'"o# of Powr s11-"s a#! +o#r'ors. Cos- "s o# of ' mos'

rs1+'! ra#!s "# ' I#'r#a'"o#a- 1owr s11-/ "#!s'r/.

I# 677 V',%r C%r0. USAa11o"#'! P%*r+,as ' a'or"8! !"s'r"'ors "#

I#!"a for '"r 1ro!+'s +o#s"s'"#2 of Powr Co#rs"o# +om1o##'s -"3 DC9

DC & AC :DC Co#r'rs a#! 1owr s11-"s.

S"#+ "#+1'"o#, ' ra#! #am 7P%*r+,8 as # w-- s'a-"s! for "'s

"2 0a-"'/ 1ro!+' -"#s. D-o1"#2 "##oa'" 1ro!+'s w"' ' -a's'

'+#o-o2/ "s ' +or s'r#2' of Powr'+. R0"rm#'s +a# m' /

s'a#!ar! or +s'om"8! 1ro!+'s as! o# C% & V',%r P%*r /00' 45

,%56r+r.


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P%*r S/009

; I# a !"2"'a- +"r+"' 1owr s11-/ o-'a2 --s ar +o#s'ra"#! 'o 'wo

!"s'"#+' a-s

:


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Pr'5+ C'r,/'+ B%4r

; E-+'ro#"+ +om1o##'s ar of'# assm-! a#! "#'r+o##+'! o# a f-a'

srfa+ 3#ow# as a +"r+"' oar!.

; T sra- '/1s of @"s'"#2 +"r+"' oar!s ma/ !""!! "#'o 'wo

roa! +a'2or"sB

: 'os "#'#!! for 1ro'o'/1 or @1r"m#'a- +"r+"'s>

: a#! 'os "#'#!! for 1ro!+'"o# a#!or +ommr+"a- sa-.

; C"r+"' oar!s s! for @1r"m#'a- wor3 ar of'# rfrr! 'o as

ra!oar!s or 1ro'ooar!s.

; Pro!+'"o# +"r+"' oar!s ar !s"2# sa--/ s"#2 s1+"a-"s! CAD

sof'war (.2. OrCAD, Pro'-, '+..). O#+ ' !s"2# "s +om1-'!, '


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PC as 'o ma#fa+'r!. T/1"+a- s'1s ar sow# "# ' 1"+'r.


10/41


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ELECTRONIC DEVICES

A# -+'ro#"+ +om1o##' "s a#/ "#!""s"- -+'ro#"+ "-!"#2 -o+3 1a+3a2!

"# a !"s+r' form w"' 'wo or mor +o##+'"#2 -a!s or m'a--"+ 1a!s.

Com1o##'s ar "#'#!! 'o +o##+'! 'o2'r, sa--/ / so-!r"#2 'o a

1r"#'! +"r+"' oar!, 'o +ra' a# -+'ro#"+ +"r+"' w"' a 1ar'"+-ar f#+'"o#

(for @am1- a# am1-"f"r, ra!"o r+"r, or os+"--a'or). Com1o##'s ma/

1a+3a2! s"#2-/ (rs"s'or, +a1a+"'or, 'ra#s"s'or, !"o! '+.) or "# mor or -ss

+om1-@ 2ro1s as "#'2ra'! +"r+"'s (o1ra'"o#a- am1-"f"r, rs"s'or arra/,

-o2"+ 2a' '+). A+'" +om1o##'s ar som'"ms +a--! !"+s ra'r 'a#

+om1o##'s.

ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE:

E,+r',4 r'+45, "s a masr of ' !2r 'o w"+ a# o*+' o11oss '

1assa2 of a# -+'r"+ +rr#'. T S- #"' of -+'r"+a- rs"s'a#+ "s ' om,

T 0a#'"'/ of rs"s'a#+ "# a# -+'r"+ +"r+"' !'rm"#s ' amo#' of

+rr#' f-ow"#2 "# ' +"r+"' for a#/ 2"# o-'a2 a11-"! 'o ' +"r+"'.

RV 3 I

wr

R "s ' rs"s'a#+ of ' o*+', sa--/ masr! "# oms, 0"a-#' 'o

5.sC6

V "s ' 1o'#'"a- !"ffr#+ a+ross ' o*+', sa--/ masr! "# o-'s

"s ' +rr#' 1ass"#2 'ro2 ' o*+', sa--/ masr! "# am1rs


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Rs"s'ors ar 'wo9'rm"#a- !"+s 'a' rs'r"+', or rs"s', ' f-ow of +rr#'.

T -ar2r ' rs"s'or, ' -ss +rr#' +a# f-ow 'ro2 "' for a 2"# o-'a2

(a# 0a'"o# 3#ow# as Oms -aw, V$$, r-a's +rr#', rs"s'a#+, a#!

o-'a2). E-+'r"+a- rs"s'a#+ w"'"# ' rs"s'or o!/ "s +as! / '

+o--"s"o#s of -+'ro#s "# mo'"o# 'ro2 ' rs"s'or. S+ +o--"s"o#s +as

#r2/ 'o !"ss"1a'! "# ' form of a' or -"2' (as "# a 'oas'r or -"2' -).

Rs"s'a#+ "s masr! "# Oms 9 a $ Om rs"s'or "s r-a'"-/ sma--, a#! a

$77Om rs"s'or "s r-a'"-/ -ar2. Rs"s'ors f"#! ma#/ ss "# -+'ro#"+

s/s'ms, O# ' D"2"-a oar!, rs"s'ors ar s! 'o -"m"' ' +rr#' 'a' f-ows

"#'o a# o'1' LED (so '/ !o#' r# 'oo r"2' a#! !s'ro/ 'ms-s) a#!

'o -"m"' ' +rr#' 'a' f-ows "# rs1o#s 'o a ''o# or sw"'+ "#1' "#2

a+'"a'!. T D"2"-a oar! ss sra- !"ffr#' rs"s'or a-s. Of +ors,

' +orr+' rs"s'or ms' -oa!! "# ' +orr+' 1-a+ o# ' PC.

Rs"s'ors +om "# ma#/ sa1s a#! s"8s, a#! !1#!"#2 o# '"r s"8 a#!

+o#s'r+'"o# '+#o-o2/, '/ +a# !"ss"1a' !"ffr"#2 amo#'s of 1owr ('

amo#' of 1owr !"ss"1a'! "# a rs"s'or +a# +a-+-a'! s"#2 ' 0a'"o#

PI 6 R, wr I "s ' +rr#' f-ow"#2 'ro2 ' rs"s'or a#! R "s '

rs"s'a#+). T/1"+a--/, rs"s'ors s! "# !"2"'a- s/s'ms #+o#'r r-a'"-/ -ow

o-'a2s a#! +rr#'s, a#! 'rfor, '/ +a# r-a'"-/ sma--. T D"2"-a

rs"s'ors ar ra'! 'o !"ss"1a' 6?7mW of 1owr, or $ Wa''. Rs"s'ors 'a' +a#

!"ss"1a' mor 'a# $ Wa'' ar 1/s"+a--/ -ar2r. For @am1-, 1owr rs"s'ors

'a' +a# !"ss"1a' sra- Wa''s or mor +a# +"2ar9s"8! or # -ar2r. For

sma-- rs"s'ors, rs"s'or a-s ar #+o!! as a sr"s of +o-or! a#!s o#

' rs"s'or o!/.

To !'rm"# ' a- of a sma-- rs"s'or (".., $J Wa'' or $ Wa''), f"rs'

-o+a' ' 'o-ra#+ a#! o# o# #! of ' rs"s'or 9 "' w"-- '/1"+a--/ "'r

2o-! (?%K 'o-ra#+) or s"-r ($7K 'o-ra#+). T +o-or a#! a' ' o'r

#! of ' rs"s'or "s a#!$. Us ' 'a- -ow 'o f"#! ' 'wo9!"2"' #mr

asso+"a'! w"' ' +o-ors of a#!s $ a#! 6. T a#! #ars' ' 'o-ra#+


13/41

a#! "s ' m-'"1-"r (or @1o##') a#! 9 ' !"2"'s asso+"a'! w"' ' f"rs'

'wo +o-or a#!s ar m-'"1-"! / $7 ra"s! 'o ' 1owr "#!"+a'! / '

+o-or of ' m-'"1-"r a#!. T fo--ow"#2 'a- asso+"a's a#! +o-ors 'o

!"2"'s a#! m-'"1-"r fa+'ors. S"m1-/ m-'"1-/ ' 'wo9!"2"' a- / '

m-'"1-"r, a#! /o 2o' ' rs"s'or a-.

BAND

COLOR

1+45 ;5 ! 1!! 1?

Br%*5 1 1!1 ;?

R ; 1!; ?

Or45= 1! "?Y%* " 1!" N3A

Gr5 $ 1!$ N3A

B/ # 1!# N3A

V'%+ @ 1!@ N3A

Gr9 1! N3A

W-'+ 1! N3A

G% N3A .1 $?

S'6r N3A .!1 1!?

N% ,%%r N3A N3A ;!?

Rs"s'ors ar ma#fa+'r! w"' ma#/ o!/ +o-ors, w"' 'a# or -"2' row#

"#2 ' mos' '/1"+a-. T o#-/ s"2#"f"+a#' rs"s'or o!/ +o-ors ar w"' a#!

-> 's +o-ors s"2#"f/ a #o#9f-amma- or fs"- rs"s'or. S+ rs"s'ors ar

s! "# +"r+"'s wr ora'"#2 m"2' 1os a saf'/ r"s3. I# +"r+"'

s+ma'"+s a#! "# 1ar's -"s's, rs"s'or rfr#+ !s"2#a'ors a-wa/s 2"# w"'

a# R. Mo +a# s sra- r+'a#2-ar w"' o@s w"' R9 o# ' D"2"-a

oar! s"-39s+r#. T s+ma'"+ s/mo- for a rs"s'or "s sow# ao.

Rs"s'ors ar #o#91o-ar"s!, so '/ +a# 1-a+! "# a PC "# a#/ or"#'a'"o#.


14/41

For a w"! ar"'/ of ma'r"a-s a#! +o#!"'"o#s, ' -+'r"+a- rs"s'a#+ !os #o'

!1#! o# ' amo#' of +rr#' f-ow"#2 or ' amo#' of a11-"! o-'a2. V

+a# "'r masr! !"r+'-/ a+ross ' o*+' or +a-+-a'! from a

s'ra+'"o# of o-'a2s r-a'" 'o a rfr#+ 1o"#'. T formr m'o! "s

s"m1-r for a s"#2- o*+' a#! "s -"3-/ 'o mor a++ra'. Tr ma/ a-so

1ro-ms w"' ' -a''r m'o! "f ' o-'a2 s11-/ "s AC a#! ' 'wo

masrm#'s from ' rfr#+ 1o"#' ar #o' "# 1as w"' a+ o'r.

RESISTANCE IN SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS

Series circuits

& series circuit is a circuit in which resistors are arranged in a chain, so

the current has only one path to take. The current is the same through

each resistor. The total resistance of the circuit is found by simply

adding up the resistance )alues of the indi)idual resistors8

e2ui)alent resistance of resistors in series 8 R D R7 R9 R


15/41

PARALLEL CIRCUITS

& parallel circuit is a circuit in which the resistors are arranged with theirheads connected together, and their tails connected together. The

current in a parallel circuit breaks up, with some flowing along each

parallel branch and re;combining when the branches meet again. The

)oltage across each resistor in parallel is the same.

The total resistance of a set of resistors in parallel is found by adding up

the reciprocals of the resistance )alues, and then taking the reciprocalof the total8

E2ui)alent resistance of resistors in parallel8 7 F R D 7 F R7 7 F R9 7 F

R


16/41

#7 D 76 F : D 7.9= &

#9 D 76 F : D 7.9= &

#


17/41

CAPACITORS

A ,404,'+%r "s a# -+'r"+a- !"+ 'a' +a# s'or #r2/ "# ' -+'r"+ f"-!

'w# a 1a"r of +-os-/9s1a+! +o#!+'ors (+a--! 1-a's). W# o-'a2 "s

a11-"! 'o ' +a1a+"'or, -+'r"+ +ar2s of 0a- ma2#"'!, ' o11os"'

1o-ar"'/, "-! 1 o# a+ 1-a'.

A +a1a+"'or "s a 'wo9'rm"#a- !"+ 'a' +a# s'or -+'r"+ #r2/ "# ' form

of +ar2! 1ar'"+-s. Mo +a# '"#3 of a +a1a+"'or as a rsro"r of +ar2 'a'

'a3s '"m 'o f"-- or m1'/. T o-'a2 a+ross a +a1a+"'or "s 1ro1or'"o#a- 'o '

amo#' of +ar2 "' "s s'or"#2 9 s"#+ "' "s #o' 1oss"- 'o "#s'a#'a#os-/ mo

+ar2 'o or from a +a1a+"'or, "' "s #o' 1oss"- 'o "#s'a#'a#os-/ +a#2 '

o-'a2 a+ross a +a1a+"'or. I' "s '"s 1ro1r'/ 'a' ma3s +a1a+"'ors sf- o# '

D"2"-a oar!.

Ca1a+"'a#+ "s masr! "# Fara!s 9 a o# Fara! +a1a+"'or +a# s'or o#

Co-om of +ar2 a' o# o-'. For #2"#r"#2 o# a sma-- s+a- (".., a#!9-!

or !s39'o1 !"+s), a o# Fara! +a1a+"'or s'ors far 'oo m+ +ar2 'o of

2#ra- s ("' wo-! -"3 a +ar a"#2 a $777 2a--o# 2as 'a#3). or sf-

+a1a+"'ors ar masr! "# m"+ro9fara!s (F) or 1"+o9fara!s (1F). T 'rms


18/41

m"--"9fara! a#! #a#o9fara! ar rar-/ s!. Lar2 +a1a+"'ors of'# a

'"r a- 1r"#'! 1-a"#-/ o# 'm, s+ as $7 F (for $7 m"+rofar!s). Sma--r

+a1a+"'ors, a11ar"#2 as sma-- !"s3s or wafrs, of'# a '"r a-s 1r"#'!

o# 'm "# a# #+o!! ma##r (s"m"-ar 'o ' rs"s'or 1a+3s !"s+ss! ao).

For 's +a1a+"'ors, a 'r !"2"' #mr "#!"+a's ' +a1a+"'or a- "# P"+o

fara!s. T f"rs' 'wo !"2"'s 1ro"!s ' as #mr, a#! ' '"r! !"2"'

1ro"!s a# @1o##' of $7 (so, for @am1-, $7 1r"#'! o# a +a1a+"'or

"#!"+a's a +a1a+"'a#+ a- of $7 @ $7 or $77777 1F). O++as"o#a--/, a

+a1a+"'or w"-- o#-/ sow a 'wo !"2"' #mr, "# w"+ +as 'a' #mr "s

s"m1-/ ' +a1a+"'or a- "# 1F. (To +om1-', "f a +a1a+"'or sows a 'r

!"2"' #mr a#! ' '"r! !"2"' "s J or %, '# ' f"rs' 'wo !"2"'s ar m-'"1-"!

/ .7$ a#! .$ rs1+'"-/). Of'#, a s"#2- -''r "s a11#!! 'o ' +a1a+"'a#+

a- 9'"s -''r "#!"+a's ' 0a-"'/ of ' +a1a+"'or.

Ca1a+"'ors ar s! o# ' D"2"-a oar! 'o 31 ' o-'a2 s11-"s a#! som

s"2#a-s s'a- r2ar!-ss of +"r+"' a+'""'/, a#! 'o s'or +ar2 w# "#1's ar

a+'"a'! "# or!r 'o s-ow '"r assr'"o# '"ms. Tw#'/9s# +a1a+"'ors of

'r !"ffr#' '/1s a#! a-s ar s! o# ' D"2"-a oar!. T ma*or"'/ of

' +a1a+"'ors (6 o' of 64) ar s! 'o !+o1- D"2"-as "#'2ra'! +"r+"'s

from ' 1owr s11-/. Ts 6 /1ass +a1a+"'ors ar 1-a+! o# ' oar!

r/ +-os 'o ' V!! 1"#s of a-- +"1s, wr '/ +a# s11-/ ' sor'9'rm

-+'r"+a- +rr#' #!s of ' +"1s. W"'o' s+ /1ass +a1a+"'ors, "#!""!a-

+"1s +o-! +as ' V!! s11-/ a+ross ' #'"r D"2"-a oar! 'o !"1 -ow

?V !r"#2 '"ms of a/ +rr#' !ma#!. Nar-/ r/ +"1 "# r/ !"2"'a-

s/s'm ss /1ass +a1a+"'ors. /1ass +a1a+"'or a- +a# !'rm"#! "f '

wors'9+as +rr#' r0"rm#'s ar 3#ow# (/ s"#2 ' form-a I C !!'),

' mor '/1"+a--/, +a1a+"'ors "# ' ra#2 7.7$F 'o 7.$F ar s! w"'o'

r2ar! 'o ' a+'a- +rr#' r0"rm#'s. T D"2"-a oar! ss 7.74F

/1ass +a1a+"'ors. T oar! a-so ss a -3 /1ass +a1a+"'or (C64) 'o 1ro"!

+ar2 s'ora2 for ' #'"r +"r+"' oar! 9 '"s -ar2 4F +a1a+"'or +a# s11-/

' "#!""!a- /1ass +a1a+"'ors !r"#2 '"ms of @+1'"o#a- #!.


19/41

ENERGY STORAGE

A +a1a+"'or +a# s'or -+'r"+ #r2/ w# !"s+o##+'! from "'s +ar2"#2

+"r+"', so "' +a# s! -"3 a 'm1orar/ a''r/. Ca1a+"'ors ar +ommo# s!

"# -+'ro#"+ !"+s 'o ma"#'a"# 1owr s11-/ w"- a''r"s ar "#2

+a#2!. (T"s 1r#'s -oss of "#forma'"o# "# o-a'"- mmor/.)

Ca1a+"'ors ar s! "# 1owr s11-"s wr '/ smoo' ' o'1' of a f-- or

a-f wa r+'"f"r. T/ +a# a-so s! "# +ar2 1m1 +"r+"'s as ' #r2/

s'ora2 -m#' "# ' 2#ra'"o# of "2r o-'a2s 'a# ' "#1' o-'a2,

Ca1a+"'ors ar +o##+'! "# 1ara--- w"' ' 1owr +"r+"'s of mos' -+'ro#"+

!"+s a#! -ar2r s/s'ms (s+ as fa+'or"s) 'o s#' awa/ a#! +o#+a-

+rr#' f-+'a'"o#s from ' 1r"mar/ 1owr sor+ 'o 1ro"! a +-a# 1owr

s11-/ for s"2#a- or +o#'ro- +"r+"'s. A!"o 0"1m#', for @am1-, ss

sra- +a1a+"'ors "# '"s wa/, 'o s#' awa/ 1owr -"# m for "' 2's "#'o

' s"2#a- +"r+"'r/. T +a1a+"'ors a+' as a -o+a- rsr for ' DC 1owr

sor+, a#! /1ass AC +rr#'s from ' 1owr s11-/. T"s "s s! "# +ar

a!"o a11-"+a'"o#s, w# a s'"ff#"#2 +a1a+"'or +om1#sa's for ' "#!+'a#+

a#! rs"s'a#+ of ' -a!s 'o ' -a!9a+"! +ar a''r/.


20/41

CAPACITORS IN SERIES

T 'o'a- +a1a+"'a#+ of ' ao +"r+"' "sB

neq CCCC

$......

$$$

6$

+++=

CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL

T 'o'a- +a1a+"'a#+ of '"s +"r+"' w"-- B

C0 C$ C6 .. C#

CAPACITOR TYPES

M+4 ': a! from "2 0a-"'/ 1o-/mr fo"- (sa--/

1o-/+aro#a', 1o-/s'/r#, 1o-/1ro1/-#, 1o-/s'r (/-ar), a#! for

"2 0a-"'/ +a1a+"'ors 1o-/s-fo#), w"' a -a/r of m'a- !1os"'! o#

srfa+. T/ a 2oo! 0a-"'/ a#! s'a"-"'/, a#! ar s"'a- for '"mr

+"r+"'s. S"'a- for "2 fr0#+"s.


21/41

M',4: S"m"-ar 'o m'a- f"-m. Of'# "2 o-'a2. S"'a- for "2

fr0#+"s. E@1#s".

P40r: Us! for "2 o-'a2s

G4: Us! for "2 o-'a2s. E@1#s". S'a- 'm1ra'r

+off"+"#' "# a w"! ra#2 of 'm1ra'rs.

Cr4',: C"1s of a-'r"#2 -a/rs of m'a- a#! +ram"+. D1#!"#2 o#

'"r !"-+'r"+, w'r C-ass $ or C-ass 6, '"r !2r of'm1ra'r+a1a+"'/ !1#!#+ ar"s. T/ of'# a (s1+"a--/ '

+-ass 6) "2 !"ss"1a'"o# fa+'or, "2 fr0#+/ +off"+"#' of !"ss"1a'"o#,

'"r +a1a+"'/ !1#!s o# a11-"! o-'a2, a#! '"r +a1a+"'/ +a#2s

w"' a2"#2. Howr '/ f"#! mass" s "# +ommo# -ow91r+"s"o#

+o1-"#2 a#! f"-'r"#2 a11-"+a'"o#s. S"'a- for "2 fr0#+"s.

E,+r%9+',: Po-ar"8!. Co#s'r+'"o# a--/ s"m"-ar 'o m'a- f"-m, ' '

-+'ro!s ar ma! of a-m"#m '+! 'o a+0"r m+ "2r

srfa+s, a#! ' !"-+'r"+ "s soa3! w"' -"0"! -+'ro-/'. T/ sffr

from "2 'o-ra#+s, "2 "#s'a"-"'/, 2ra!a- -oss of +a1a+"'/ s1+"a--/

w# s*+'! 'o a', a#! "2 -a3a2. S1+"a- '/1s w"' -ow

0"a-#' sr"s rs"s'a#+ ar aa"-a-. T#! 'o -os +a1a+"'/ "# -ow

'm1ra'rs. Ca# a+" "2 +a1a+"'"s.

T45+4/: L"3 -+'ro-/'"+. Po-ar"8!. ''r 1rforma#+ w"' "2r

fr0#+"s. H"2 !"-+'r"+ asor1'"o#. H"2 -a3a2. Ha m+ ''r

1rforma#+ "# -ow 'm1ra'rs.


22/41

S/0r,404,'+r: a! from +aro# aro2-, +aro# #a#o's, or

"2-/ 1oros -+'ro! ma'r"a-s. E@'rm-/ "2 +a1a+"'/. Ca# s!

"# som a11-"+a'"o#s "#s'a! of r+ar2a- a''r"s.

USES OF CAPACITORS

Ca1a+"'ors ar s! for sra- 1r1ossB

T''5= 9 for @am1- w"' a ??? '"mr IC +o#'ro--"#2 ' +ar2"#2 a#!

!"s+ar2"#2.

S%%+-'5= 9 for @am1- "# a 1owr s11-/.

C%/0'5= for @am1- 'w# s'a2s of a# a!"o s/s'm a#! 'o

+o##+' a-o!s1a3r.

F'+r'5= 9 for @am1- "# ' 'o# +o#'ro- of a# a!"o s/s'm.

T/5'5= for @am1- "# a ra!"o s/s'm.

S+%r'5= 5r=9 9 for @am1- "# a +amra f-as +"r+"'


23/41

CURRENT

E,+r', ,/rr5+ Is / !f"#"'"o# ' f-ow of -+'r"+ +ar2. T S- #"' of

-+'r"+ +rr#' Is ' am1r (A), w"+ Is 0a- 'o a f-ow of o# +o-om of

+ar2 1r s+o#!.

VOLTAGE

Vo-'a2 "s ' !"ffr#+ of -+'r"+a- 1o'#'"a- 'w# 'wo 1o"#'s of a#

-+'ro#"+ +"r+"', @1rss! "# o-'s Q$. I' masrs ' +a1a+"'/ (#o' '

'+#"+a- ma#"#2) of a# -+'r"+ f"-! 'o +as a# -+'r"+ +rr#' "# a#

-+'r"+a- +o#!+'or. D1#!"#2 o# ' !"ffr#+ of -+'r"+a- 1o'#'"a- "' "s

+a--! @'ra -ow o-'a2, -ow o-'a2, "2 o-'a2 or @'ra "2 o-'a2

RESISTANCE

E-+'r"+a- rs"s'a#+ "s a masr of ' !2r 'o w"+ a# o*+' o11oss '

1assa2 of a# -+'r"+ +rr#'. T SI #"' of -+'r"+a- rs"s'a#+ "s ' om.

OHM8S LAW

Oms -aw 1r!"+'s ' +rr#' "# a# ("!a-) rs"s'or (or o'r om"+ !"+) 'o

a11-"! o-'a2 !""!! / rs"s'a#+B

IV3R

Wr

"s ' +rr#', masr! "# am1rs

V "s ' 1o'#'"a- !"ffr#+ masr! "# o-'s

R "s ' rs"s'a#+ masr! "# oms


24/41

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

VOLTMETER

A 6%++r "s a# "#s'rm#' s! for masr"#2 ' 1o'#'"a- !"ffr#+

'w# 'wo 1o"#'s "# a# -+'r"+ +"r+"'.

T o-'a2 +a# masr! / a--ow"#2 "' 'o 1ass a +rr#' 'ro2 a

rs"s'a#+> 'rfor, a o-'m'r +a# s# as a r/ "2 rs"s'a#+ amm'r.

O# of ' !s"2# o*+'"s of ' "#s'rm#' "s 'o !"s'r ' +"r+"' as -"''-

as 1oss"- a#! #+ ' "#s'rm#' so-! !raw a m"#"mm of -+'r"+

+rr#' 'o o1ra'. T"s "s a+"! / s"#2 a s#s"'" amm'r or m"+rom'r

"# sr"s w"' a "2 rs"s'a#+.

T mo"#2 +o"- 2a-a#om'r "s o# @am1- of '"s '/1 of o-'m'r. I'

m1-o/s a sma-- +o"- of f"# w"r ss1#!! "# a s'ro#2 ma2#'"+ f"-!. W#

a# -+'r"+a- +rr#' "s a11-"!, ' 2a-a#om'rs "#!"+a'or ro'a's a#!

+om1rsss a sma-- s1r"#2. T a#2-ar ro'a'"o# "s 1ro1or'"o#a- 'o ' +rr#'

'a' "s f-ow"#2 'ro2 ' +o"-9 For s as a o-'m'r, a sr"s rs"s'a#+ "s

a!!! so 'a' ' a#2-ar ro'a'"o# +oms 1ro1or'"o#a- 'o ' a11-"! o-'a2

AMMETER

A# amm'r "s a masr"#2 "#s'rm#' s! 'o masr ' f-ow of -+'r"+

+rr#' "# a +"r+"'. E-+'r"+ +rr#'s ar masr! "# am1rs, #+ ' #am.

T wor! amm'r "s +ommo#-/ m"ss1--! or m"s1ro#o#+! as

am1m'r / som.

T ar-"s' !s"2# "s ' DArso#a- 2a-a#om'r or mo"#2 +o"- amm'r. I'

ss ma2#'"+ !f-+'"o#, wr +rr#' 1ass"#2 'ro2 a +o"- +ass ' +o"-

'o mo "# a ma2#'"+ f"-!. T o-'a2 !ro1 a+ross ' +o"- "s 31' 'o a

m"#"mm 'o m"#"m"8 rs"s'a#+ a+ross ' amm'r "# a#/ +"r+"' "#'o w"+

' "' "s "#sr'!.


25/41

o"#2 "ro# amm'rs s a 1"+ or 1"+s of "ro# w"+ mo w# a+'!

1o# / ' -+'roma2#'"+ for+ of a f"@! +o"- of (sa--/ a/ 2a2) w"r.

T"s '/1 of m'r rs1o#!s 'o o' !"r+' a#! a-'r#a'"#2 +rr#'s (as o11os!

'o ' mo"#2 +o"- amm'r, w"+ wor3s o# !"r+' +rr#' o#-/).

To masr -ar2r +rr#'s, a rs"s'or +a--! a s#' "s 1-a+! "# 1ara--- w"'

' m'r. os' of ' +rr#' f-ows 'ro2 ' s#', a#! o#-/ a sma--

fra+'"o# f-ow 'ro2 ' m'r. W"' '"s so-'"o#, ar"'rar"-/ -ar2 +rr#'s +a#

masr! w"' a s"#2- m'r. Tra!"'"o#a--/, ' m'r s! w"' a s#'

ra+s f--9s+a- !f-+'"o# w# a o-'a2 of ?7mV "s 1-a+! a+ross "'s +o"-,

so s#'s ar '/1"+a--/ !s"2#! 'o 1ro!+ a o-'a2 !ro1 of ?7mV w#

+arr/"#2 '"r f-- ra'! +rr#'.

or mo!r# amm'r !s"2#s ar #o#9m+a#"+a-, or !"2"'a-, a#! s a#

a#a-o2 'o !"2"'a- +o#r'r 'o masr ' o-'a2 a+ross ' s#' rs"s'or. T

ADC "s ra! / a m"+ro+om1'r 'a' 1rforms ' +a-+-a'"o#s 'o !"s1-a/ '

+rr#' 'ro2 ' rs"s'or.

O# 1ro-m w"' ' s of a# amm'r "s ' #! for ' m'r 'o "#sr'!

"#'o ' +"r+"' a#! +om 1ar' of "'. "s'a3#-/ 1-a+"#2 ' amm'r "#

1ara--- w"' a +"r+"' w"-- -ow ' fs, 1oss"-/ !ama2"#2 ' m'r a#!

+as"#2 "#*r/. I# AC +"r+"'s, a# "#!+'" +o1-"#2 a!a1'r +o#r's '

ma2#'"+ f"-! aro#! a +o#!+'or "#'o a sma-- AC +rr#' 'a' +a# as"-/

ra! / a m'r. S +-am1 m'r. I# a s"m"-ar wa/, a++ra' DC #o#9+o#'a+'

ar#m'rs a # +o#s'r+'! s"#2 Ha-- ff+' ma2#'"+ f"-! s#sors


26/41

OHMMETER

A# Omm'r "s a# -+'r"+a- masr"#2 "#s'rm#' 'a' masrs -+'r"+a-

rs"s'a#+, ' o11os"'"o# 'o ' f-ow of a# -+'r"+ +rr#'.

T or"2"#a- !s"2# of a# omm'r 1ro"!! a sma-- a''r/ 'o a11-/ a o-'a2

'o a rs"s'a#+. I' s! a 2a-a#om'r 'o masr ' -+'r"+ +rr#' 'ro2

' rs"s'a#+. T s+a- of ' 2a-a#om'r was mar3! "# oms, +as '

f"@! o-'a2 from ' a''r/ assr! 'a' as rs"s'a#+ !+ras!, ' +rr#'

'ro2 ' m'r wo-! "#+ras.

A mor a++ra' '/1 of omm'r as a# -+'ro#"+ +"r+"' 'a' 1asss a

+o#s'a#' +rr#' I 'ro2 ' rs"s'a#+, a#! a#o'r +"r+"' 'a' masrs '

o-'a2 V a+ross ' rs"s'a#+. A++or!"#2 'o ' fo--ow"#2 0a'"o#, !r"!

from Oms Law, ' a- of ' rs"s'a#+ R "s 2"# /B

R V$

For "291r+"s"o# masrm#'s ' ao '/1s of m'r ar "#a!0a', T"s

"s +as ' m'rs ra!"#2 "s ' sm of ' rs"s'a#+ of ' masr"#2

-a!s, ' +o#'a+' rs"s'a#+s a#! ' rs"s'a#+ "#2 masr!. To r!+ '"s

ff+', a 1r+"s"o# omm'r as for 'rm"#a-s, +a--! -"# +o#'a+'s. Two

'rm"#a-s +arr/ ' +rr#' from ' m'r, w"- ' o'r 'wo a--ow ' m'r

'o masr ' o-'a2 a+ross ' rs"s'or. W"' '"s '/1 of m'r, a#/ +rr#'

!ro1 ! 'o ' rs"s'a#+ of ' f"rs' 1a"r of -a!s a#! '"r +o#'a+' rs"s'a#+s

"s "2#or! / ' m'r. T"s for 'rm"#a- masrm#' '+#"0 "s +a--!

-"# s#s"#2, af'r W"--"am Tomso#, Lor! -"#, wo "##'! ' -"#

r"!2 "# $J$ 'o masr r/ -ow rs"s'a#+s.


27/41

DIODES

D"o!s ar +o#s'r+'! from ' sam '/1 of s"-"+o# as 'ra#s"s'ors, ' '/ ar

s"m1-r !"+s 'a' a o#-/ 'wo 'rm"#a-s. Ca--! ' a#o! a#! +a'o!, '

'wo #!s of ' !"o! ar +o#s'r+'! of 1os"'"-/ !o1! s"-"+o# (' a#o!)

*o"#! !"r+'-/ 'o #2a'"-/ !o1! s"-"+o# (' +a'o!). T"s 1#9*#+'"o#

@""'s ' #"0 +ara+'r"s'"+ of a--ow"#2 +rr#' 'o f-ow "# o#-/ o#

!"r+'"o# (from ' a#o! 'o ' +a'o!). D"o!s a a m"#"mm 'rso-!

o-'a2 (or V', sa--/ aro#! 7.4V) 'a' ms' 1rs#' 'w# ' a#o!

a#! +a'o! "# or!r for +rr#' 'o f-ow. If ' a#o! o-'a2 "s #o' a' -as' V'

2ra'r 'a# ' +a'o! o-'a2, #o +rr#' w"-- f-ow. L"3w"s, "f ' +a'o!

o-'a2 "s 2ra'r 'a# ' a#o! o-'a2, ' !"o! "s sa"! 'o rrs9"as!

a#! #o +rr#' w"-- f-ow. I# a# "!a- !"o!, "f ' !"o! o-'a2 0a-s '

'rso-! o-'a2 (1-s a sma-- amo#'), '# #-"m"'! +rr#' +a# f-ow

w"'o' +as"#2 ' o-'a2 a+ross ' !"o! 'o "#+ras. A#!, "f ' !"o! "s

rrs!9"as!, #o +rr#' w"-- f-ow r2ar!-ss of rrs9o-'a2 ma2#"'!.


28/41

D'%

D"o!s a ma#/ ss "# -+'ro#"+ +"r+"'s. As @am1-s, '/ ar fr0#'-/

m1-o/! "# 1owr s11-/ +"r+"'s 'o 'r# a-'r#a'"#2 +rr#' (AC) "#'o !"r+'

+rr#' (DC), '/ ar s! 'o -"m"' ' amo#' of or9o-'a2 'a' +a#

a11-"! 'o a 2"# +"r+"' #o!, a#! '/ ar s! 'o for+ 2"# +"r+"' #o!s 'o

rma"# a' or -ow a +r'a"# o-'a2. O# ' D"2"-a oar!, 'r "#!""!a-

!"o!s ar s! 'o -"m"' ' o-'a2s a11-"! 'o ' R!, -, a#! Gr# 1"#s

of ' VGA +o##+'or () 'o 7.4VDC or -ss.

No' ' "!#'"f"+a'"o# m'o!s s! 'o mar3 a !"o!s +a'o! 9'rm"#a-B '

s+ma'"+ s/mo- as a -"# a' ' 1o"#' of ' 'r"a#2-> ' 1/s"+a- !"o! as a

!ar3 -"# o# ' 1-as'"+ +om1o##' os"#2> a#! ' s"-39s+r# 1a''r# as o'

a -"# a' ' +a'o! #! a#! a s0ar 1a! for ' +a'o! -a!. W# -oa!"#2 a

!"o! "#'o a +"r+"' oar!, ma3 sr 'a' ' !ar3 -"# o# ' !"o! ma'+s '

-"# "# ' s"-39s+r# 1a''r#. Rmmr 'a' s"#+ !"o!s a--ow +rr#' 'o

f-ow "# o#-/ o# !"r+'"o#, a a+3war!s !"o! w"-- +as ' +"r+"' 'o

ma-f#+'"o#.

LED SCHEMATIC SYMBOL

D"o!s -o+a'"o#s o# ' +"r+"' oar! ar '/1"+a--/ !#o'! w"' a D9

rfr#+ !s"2#a'or

A '=-+'++'5= '% (LED) "s a sm"+o#!+'or !"+ 'a' m"'s "#+or#'

#arrow9s1+'rm -"2' w# -+'r"+a--/ "as! "# ' forwar! !"r+'"o#. T"s

ff+' "s a form of -+'ro -m"#s+#+. T +o-or of ' m"''! -"2' !1#!s

o# ' +om1os"'"o# a#! +o#!"'"o# of ' sm" +o#!+'"#2 ma'r"a- s!, a#!


29/41

+a# "#frar!, "s"- or #ar9-'ra"o-'. R"# ra#s'"# of ' Ra!"o

Cor1ora'"o# of Amr"+a f"rs' r1or'! o# "#frar! m"ss"o# from 2a--"m

ars#"! (GaAs) a#! o'r sm"+o#!+'or a--o/s "# $%??. E@1r"m#'rs a'

T@as I#s'rm#'s, o "ar! Q$ a#! Gar/ P"''ma#, fo#! "# $%$ 'a' 2a--"m

ars#"! 2a off "#frar! ("#"s"-) -"2' w# -+'r"+, +rr#' was a11-"!.

"ar! a#! P"''ma# wr a- 'o s'a-"s ' 1r"or"'/ of '"r wor3 a#! r+"!

' 1a'#' for ' "#frar! -"2'm"''"#2 !"o!. N"+3 Ho-o#/a3 5r. of ' G#ra-

E-+'r"+ Com1a#/ !-o1! ' f"rs' 1ra+'"+a- "s"-9s1+'rm LED "# $%6.

LEDs ar aa"-a- "# a w"! ar"'/ of s"8s a#! sa1s. T s'a#!ar! LED

as a ro#! +ross9s+'"o# of ?mm !"am'r a#! '"s "s 1roa-/ ' s' '/1

for 2#ra- s, ' mm ro#! LEDs ar a-so 1o1-ar.

Ro#! +ross9s+'"o# LEDs ar fr0#'-/ s! a#! '/ ar r/ as/ 'o "#s'a--

o# o@s / !r"--"#2 a o- of ' LED !"am'r, a!!"#2 a s1o' of 2- w"-- -1

'o o-! ' LED "f #+ssar/. LED +-"1s ar a-so aa"-a- 'o s+r LEDs "#

o-s. O'r +ross9s+'"o# sa1s "#+-! s0ar, r+'a#2-ar a#! 'r"a#2-ar.

As w-- as a ar"'/ of +o-ors, s"8s a#! sa1s, LEDs a-so ar/ "# '"r

"w"#2 a#2-. T"s '--s /o ow m+ ' am of -"2' s1ra!s o'. S'a#!ar!

LEDs a a "w"#2 a#2- of 77 ' o'rs a a #arrow am of 77 or

-ss.

Ra1"! E-+'ro#"+s s'o+3 a w"! s-+'"o# of LEDs a#! '"r +a'a-o2 "s a 2oo!

2"! 'o ' ra#2 aa"-a-.


30/41

ADVANTAGES OF USING LEDS

LEDs 1ro!+ mor -"2' 1r Wa'' 'a# !o "#+a#!s+#' -s> '"s "s

sf- "# a''r/ 1owr! !"+s.

LEDs +a# m"' -"2' of a# "#'#!! +o-or w"'o' ' s of +o-or f"-'rs

'a' 'ra!"'"o#a- -"2'"#2 m'o!s r0"r. T"s "s mor ff"+"#' a#! +a#

-owr "#"'"a- +os's.

T so-"! 1a+3a2 of a# LED +a# !s"2#! 'o fo+s "'s -"2'.

I#+a#!s+#' a#! f-ors+#' sor+s of'# r0"r a# @'r#a- rf-+'or

'o +o--+' -"2' a#! !"r+' "' "# a sa- ma##r. W# s! "# a11-"+a'"o#s wr !"mm"#2 "s r0"r!, LEDs !o #o'

+a#2 '"r +o-or '"#' as ' +rr#' 1ass"#2 'ro2 'm "s -owr!,

#-"3 "#+a#!s+#' -am1s, w"+ /--ow.

LEDs ar "-' "$#s"! so-"! +ass 'a' 1ro'+' 'm, #-"3 "#+a#!s+#'

a#! !"s+ar2 sor+s, ma3"#2 'm @'rm-/ !ra-.

LEDs a a# @'rm-/ -o#2 -"f s1a#B 1war!s of $77,777 ors,

'w"+ as -o#2 as ' s' f-ors+#' -s a#! 'w#'/ '"ms -o#2r 'a#

' s' "#+a#!s+#' -s. (I#+a#!s+#' -s +a# a-so ma! 'o -as'

a# @'rm-/ -o#2 '"m / r##"#2 a' -owr 'a# #orma- o-'a2, '

o#-/ a' a 2 +os' "# ff"+"#+/> LEDs a a -o#2 -"f w# o1ra'! a'

'"r ra'! 1owr.)

Fr'r, LEDs mos'-/ fa"- / !"mm"#2 or '"m, ra'r 'a# ' ar1'

r#9o' of "#+a#!s+#' -s,

LEDs -"2' 1 r/ 0"+3-/. A '/1"+a- r! "#!"+a'or LED w"-- a+"

f-- r"2'#ss "# m"+ros+o#!s> LEDs s! "# +omm#"+a'"o#s !"+s

+a# a # fas'r rs1o#s '"ms.

LEDs +a# r/ sma-- a#! ar as"-/ 1o1-a'! o#'o 1r"#'! +"r+"'

oar!s.


31/41

C##ecti#$ LEDs i# series

If /o w"s 'o a sra- LEDs o# a' ' sam '"m "' ma/ 1oss"- 'o

+o##+' 'm "# sr"s. T"s 1ro-o#2s a''r/ -"f / -"2'"#2 sra- LEDs w"'' sam +rr#' as *s' o# LED.

&ll the "E%s connected in series pass the sa%e curre#tso it is best if they

are all the same type. The power supply must ha)e sufficient )oltage to

pro)ide about 9' for each "E% -@' for blue and white plus at least another

9' for the resistor. To work out a )alue for the resistor you must add up all the

"E% )oltages


32/41

SIE AND SHAPES

LEDs ar 1ro!+! "# a s'a22r"#2 arra/ of sa1s a#! s"8s, T ? mm

+/-"#!r"+a- 1a+3a2 (r!, f"f' from ' -f') "s ' mos' +ommo#, s'"ma'! a'

J7K of wor-! 1ro!+'"o#. T +o-or of ' 1-as'"+ -#s "s of'# ' sam as '

a+'a- +o-or of -"2' m"''!, ' #o' a-wa/s. For "#s'a#+, 1r1- 1-as'"+ "s

of'# s! for "#frar! LEDs, a#! mos' - !"+s a +-ar os"#2s. Tr

ar a-so LEDs "# @'rm-/ '"#/ 1a+3a2s, s+ as 'os fo#! o# -"#3"s.

C%%/r % LED

LEDs ar aa"-a- "# r!, ora#2, amr, /--ow, 2r#, - a#! w"'. -

a#! w"' LEDs ar m+ mor @1#s" 'a# ' o'r +o-ors.

T +o-or of a# LED "s !'rm"#! / ' sm"+o#!+'or ma'r"a-, #o' / '

+o-or"#2 of ' 1a+3a2 (' 1-as'"+ o!/). LEDs of a-- +o-ors ar aa"-a- "#

#+o-or! 1a+3a2s w"+ ma/ !"ffs! (m"-3/) or +-ar (of'# !s+r"! as


33/41

I wa'r +-ar). T +o-or! 1a+3a2s ar a-so aa"-a- as !"ffs! (' s'a#!ar!

'/1) or 'ra#s1ar#'

LIST OF LED APPLICATIONS

Som of 's a11-"+a'"o#s ar fr'r -aora'! 1o# "# ' fo--ow"#2 '@'.

Ar+"'+'ra- -"2'"#2.

S'a's "#!"+a'ors o# a-- sor's of 0"1m#'.

Traff"+ -"2's a#! s"2#a-s.

E@"' s"2#s.

o'or+/+- a#! "+/+- -"2's.

To/s a#! r+ra'"o#a- s1or'"#2 2oo!s.

Ra"-roa! +ross"#2 s"2#a-s.

L"2' ars o# mr2#+/ "+-s.

E-a'or Ps ''o# L"2'"#2.

T"#, -"2'w"2' mssa2 !"s1-a/s a' a"r1or's a#! ra"-wa/ s'a'"o#s a#!

as !s'"#a'"o# !"s1-a/s for 'ra"#s, ss, 'rams a#! frr"s.

R! or /--ow LEDs ar s! "# "#!"+a'or a#! a-1a#mr"+ !"s1-a/s "#

#"ro#m#'s wr #"2' "s"o# ms' r'a"#!B a"r+raf' +o+31"'s,

smar"# a#! s"1 r"!2s, as'ro#om/ osra'or"s, a#! "# ' f"-!,

.2. #"2' '"m a#"ma- wa'+"#2 a#! m"-"'ar/ f"-! s.

R!, /--ow, 2r#, a#! - LEDs +a# s! for mo!- ra"-roa!"#2

a11-"+a'"o#s.

Rmo' +o#'ro-s, s+ as for TVs a#! VCRs, of'# s "#frar! LEDs.


34/41

I# !o' ma'r"@ arra#2m#'s for !"s1-a/"#2 mssa2s.

G-ow -"2's, as a mor @1#s" ' -o#2r -as'"#2 a#! rsa-

a-'r#a'" 'o G-ow s'"+3s.

om#' s#sors, for @am1- "# o1'"+a- +om1'r m"+.

+as of '"r -o#2 -"f a#! fas' sw"'+"#2 '"ms, LEDs a #

s! for a'omo'" "29mo#'! ra3 -"2's a#! 'r+3 a#! s ra3-"2's a#! 'r# s"2#a-s for som '"m, ' ma#/ "29#! "+-s ar

#ow s'ar'"#2 'o s LEDs for '"r #'"r rar -"2' +-s'rs. s"!s '

2a"# "# r-"a"-"'/, '"s as s'/-"#2 a!a#'a2s +as LEDs ar +a1a-

of form"#2 m+ '"##r -"2's 'a# "#+a#!s+#' -am1s w"' 1arao-"+

rf-+'ors. T s"2#"f"+a#' "m1rom#' "# ' '"m 'a3# 'o -"2' 1

(1ra1s 7.?s fas'r 'a# a# "#+a#!s+#' -) "m1ros saf'/ /

2""#2 !r"rs mor '"m 'o ra+'.

a+3-"2'"#2 for LCD '-"s"o#s a#! !"s1-a/s. T aa"-a"-"'/ of LEDs

"# s1+"f"+ +o-ors (RG) #a-s a f--9s1+'rm -"2' sor+ w"+

@1a#!s ' +o-or 2am' / as m+ as ?K.

Nw s'a2 -"2'"#2 0"1m#' "s "#2 !-o1! w"' LED sor+s "#

1r"mar/ r!92r#9- arra#2m#'s.

LED 1o'o'ra1/ for a+# s"#2 - or r! LEDs as # 1ro# 'o

s"2#"f"+a#'-/ r!+ a+# or a mo#' 1r"o!.

As Vo-'a2 Rfr#+ "# -+'ro#"+ +"r+"'s. T +o#s'a#' o-'a2 !ro1

(.2. $.4 V for a #orma- r! LED) +a# s! "#s'a! of a #r !"o!


35/41

"# -ow9o-'a2 r2-a'ors. #r !"o!s ar #o' aa"-a- -ow o-'a2s

of ao' V.

RELAY

A r-a/ "s a# -+'r"+a- sw"'+ 'a' o1#s a#! +-oss #!r +o#'ro- of a#o'r

-+'r"+a- +"r+"'. I# ' or"2"#a- form, ' sw"'+ "s o1ra'! / a#

-+'roma2#' 'o o1# or +-os o# or ma#/ s's of +o#'a+'s. I' was "##'! /

5os1 H#r/ "# $J?. +as a r-a/ "s a- 'o +o#'ro- a# o'1' +"r+"' of

"2r 1owr 'a# ' "#1' +"r+"', "' +a# +o#s"!r!, "# a roa! s#s, 'o

a form of -+'r"+a- am1-"f"r

OPERATION

W# a +rr#' f-ows 'ro2 ' +o"-, ' rs-'"#2 ma2#'"+ f"-! a''ra+'s a#

arma'r 'a' "s m+a#"+a--/ -"#3! 'o a mo"#2 +o#'a+'. T mom#' "'r

ma3s or ra3s a +o##+'"o# w"' a f"@! +o#'a+'. W# ' +rr#' 'o ' +o"-

"s sw"'+! off, ' arma'r "s r'r#! / a for+ a11ro@"ma'-/ a-f as s'ro#2

as ' ma2#'"+ for+ 'o "'s r-a@! 1os"'"o#. Usa--/ '"s "s a s1r"#2, ' 2ra"'/

"s a-so s! +ommo#-/ "# "#!s'r"a- mo'or s'ar'rs. os' r-a/s ar

ma#fa+'r! 'o o1ra' 0"+3-/. I# a -ow o-'a2 a11-"+a'"o#, '"s "s 'o r!+

#o"s. I# a "2 o-'a2 or "2 +rr#' a11-"+a'"o#, '"s "s 'o r!+ ar+"#2.

If ' +o"- "s #r2"8! w"' DC, a !"o! "s fr0#'-/ "#s'a--! a+ross ' +o"-,

'o !"ss"1a' ' #r2/ from ' +o--a1s"#2 ma2#'"+ f"-! a' !a+'"a'"o#,

w"+ wo-! o'rw"s 2#ra' a s1"3 of o-'a2 a#! m"2' +as !ama2 'o

+"r+"' +om1o##'s. If ' +o"- "s !s"2#! 'o #r2"8! w"' AC, a sma--

+o11r r"#2 +a# +r"m1! 'o ' #! of ' so-#o"!. T"s sa!"#2 r"#2

+ra's a sma-- o'9of91as +rr#', w"+ "#+rass ' m"#"mm 1-- o# '

arma'r !r"#2 ' AC +/+-. Q$


36/41

/ a#a-o2/ w"' ' f#+'"o#s of ' or"2"#a- -+'roma2#'"+ !"+, a

so-"!9s'a' r-a/ "s ma! w"' a '/r"s'or or o'r so-"!9s'a' sw"'+"#2 !"+.

To a+" -+'r"+a- "so-a'"o#, a -"2' m"''"#2 !"o! (LED) "s s! w"' a

1o'o 'ra#s"s'or.

APPLICATIONS

R-a/s ar s!B

'o +o#'ro- a "29o-'a2 +"r+"' w"' a -ow9o-'a2 s"2#a-, as "# som

'/1s of mo!ms,

'o +o#'ro- a "29+rr#' +"r+"' w"' a -ow9+rr#' s"2#a-, as "# '

s'ar'r so-#o"! of a# a'omo"-,

'o !'+' a#! "so-a' fa-'s o# 'ra#sm"ss"o# a#! !"s'r"'"o# -"#s /

o1#"#2 a#! +-os"#2 +"r+"' ra3rs (1ro'+'"o# r-a/s),

'o "so-a' ' +o#'ro--"#2 +"r+"' from ' +o#'ro--! +"r+"' w# ' 'wo

ar a' !"ffr#' 1o'#'"a-s, for @am1- w# +o#'ro--"#2 a

ma"#s91owr! !"+ from a -ow9o-'a2 sw"'+. T -a''r "s of'#

a11-"! 'o +o'ro- off"+ -"2'"#2 as ' -ow o-'a2 w"rs ar as"-/

"#s'a--! "# 1ar'"'"o#s, w"+ ma/ of'# mo! as #!s +a#2. T/

ma/ a-so +o#'ro--! / room o++1a#+/ !'+'ors "# a# ffor' 'o

+o#sr #r2/,

'o 1rform -o2"+ f#+'"o#s. For @am1-, ' oo-a# AND f#+'"o# "s

ra-"s! / +o##+'"#2 NO r-a/ +o#'a+'s "# sr"s, ' OR f#+'"o# /

+o##+'"#2 NO +o#'a+'s "# 1ara---. T +a#29or or Form C +o#'a+'s

1rform ' OR (@+-s" or) f#+'"o#. S"m"-ar f#+'"o#s> for NAND


37/41

a#! NOR ar a++om1-"s! s"#2 NC +o#'a+'s. D 'o ' fa"-r mo!s

of a r-a/ +om1ar! w"' a sm"+o#!+'or, '/ ar w"!-/ s! "#

saf'/ +r"'"+a- -o2"+, s+ as ' +o#'ro- 1a#-s of ra!"oa+'" was'

a#!-"#2 ma+"#r/. 9

ALTERNATING CURRENT

A# 4+r54+'5= ,/rr5+ (AC) "s a# -+'r"+a- +rr#' wos ma2#"'! a#!

!"r+'"o# ar/ +/+-"+a--/, as o11os! 'o !"r+' +rr#', wos !"r+'"o# rma"#s

+o#s'a#'. T sa- waform of a# AC 1owr +"r+"' "s a s"# wa, as '"s

rs-' "# ' mos' ff"+"#' 'ra#sm"ss"o# of #r2/. Howr "# +r'a"#

a11-"+a'"o#s !"ffr#' waforms ar s!, s+ as 'r"a#2-ar or s0ar was.

Us! 2#r"+a--/, AC rfrs 'o ' form "# w"+ -+'r"+"'/ "s !-"r! 'o

s"#sss a#! rs"!#+s. Howr, a!"o a#! ra!"o s"2#a-s +arr"! o#

-+'r"+a- w"r ar a-so @am1-s of a-'r#a'"#2 +rr#'. I# 's a11-"+a'"o#s, a#

"m1or'a#' 2oa- "s of'# ' r+or/ of "#forma'"o# #+o!! (or mo!-a'!)

o#'o ' AC s"2#a-.

DIRECT CURRENT

D'r,+ ,/rr5+ (DC or "continuous current") is +o#s"!r! as ' +o#s'a#' f-ow

of -+'ro#s "# ' s"#2- !"r+'"o# from -ow 'o "2 1o'#'"a-. T"s "s '/1"+a--/

"# a +o#!+'or s+ as a w"r, ' +a# a-so 'ro2 sm"+o#!+'ors,

"#s-a'ors, or # 'ro2 a a+m as "# -+'ro# or "o# ams. I# !"r+'

+rr#', ' -+'r"+ +ar2s f-ow "# ' sam !"r+'"o#, !"s'"#2"s"#2 "' from

a-'r#a'"#2 +rr#' (AC). A 'rm formr-/ s! for direct current was G4645',

,/rr5+.


38/41

ALTERNATING VS. DIRECT CURRENT

So far w a # 'a-3"#2 ao' a +o#s'a#' s11-/ of o-'a2 9 o# 'a'

!os#' +a#2 or '"m, s+ as a a''r/ for "' s'ar's 'o r# !ow#. T"s "s

wa' "s +ommo#-/ 3#ow of as direct current or DC w"+ "s 'o sa/ 'a' 'r "s

#o +a#2 "# o-'a2 or a 1r"o! of '"m. T"s "s #o' ' 3"#! of -+'r"+"'/

fo#! +om"#2 o' of ' so+3's "# /or wa-- a' om. T -+'r"+"'/ s11-"!

/ ' /!ro +om1a#/ +a#2s or sor' 1r"o!s of '"m ("' +a#2s or -o#2

1r"o!s of '"m as w--, ' 'a's a# #'"r-/ !"ffr#' s'or/...) Er/ s+o#!,

' o-'a2 !"ffr#+ 'w# ' 'wo 'rm"#a-s "# /or wa-- so+3' f-+'a's

'w# ao' 9$47 V a#! $47 V s"@'/ '"ms a s+o#! ("f /o -" "# Nor'

Amr"+a, a' -as' ...). T"s r"#2s 1 'wo "m1or'a#' 1o"#'s 'o !"s+ss.

F"rs'-/, ' #2a'" o-'a2... A-- a #2a'" o-'a2 ma#s "s 'a' ' -+'ro#s

ar f-ow"#2 "# a !"r+'"o# o11os"' 'o 'a' "#2 masr!. Tr ar mor

-+'ro#s "# ' 's'! 1o"#' "# ' +"r+"' 'a# 'r ar "# ' rfr#+ 1o"#',

'rfor mor #2a'" +ar2. If /o '"#3 of '"s "# 'rms of ' 'wo 'a#3s of

wa'r 9 "f wr s"''"#2 a' ' o''om of ' m1'/ 'a#3, a#! w masr '

r-a'" 1rssr of ' f-- o#, "'s 1rssr w"-- mor, a#! 'rfor

1os"'" r-a'" 'o /or rfr#+. If /or a' ' o''om of ' f-- 'a#3 a#!

/o masr ' 1rssr a' ' o''om of ' m1'/ o#, /o-- f"#! 'a' "'s

-ss 'a# /or rfr#+ a#! 'rfor #2a'". (Two o'r a#a-o2"s 'o

+om1-'-/ +o#fs /o.., "'s -"3 !s+r""#2 somo# / '"r "2'. I' !os#'

ma''r ow 'a-- or sor' somo# "s 9 "f /o sa/ '/r 'a--, "' 1roa-/ ma#s

'a' '/r 'a--r 'a# /o.

S+o#!-/, ' "!a 'a' ' o-'a2 "s f-+'a'"#2. W# /o 1-2 /or +off

ma3r "#'o ' wa--, /o-- #o'"+ 'a' ' 1-2 as 'wo 'rm"#a-s. O# "s a

rfr#+ o-'a2 w"+ s'a/s +o#s'a#' (#orma--/ +a--! a +o-! w"r "# '"s

+as ...) a#! o# "s ' o' w"r w"+ +a#2s "# o-'a2 ra-'" 'o ' +o-!

w"r. T !"+ "# ' +off ma3r w"+ "s !o"#2 ' wor3 "s +o##+'! w"'


39/41

a+ of 's 'wo w"rs. W# ' o-'a2 "# ' o' w"r "s 1os"'" "#

+om1ar"so# 'o ' +o-! w"r, ' +rr#' f-ows from o' 'ro2 ' +off

ma3r 'o +o-!. O# o#9#!r! a#! 'w#'"' of a s+o#! -a'r ' o' w"r "s

#2a'" +om1ar! 'o ' +o-!, ' +rr#' f-ows from +o-! 'o o'. T"s "s

+ommo#-/ 3#ow# as a-'r#a'"#2 +rr#' or AC.

So rmmr, a-'r#a'"#2 +rr#' ma#s 'a' o' ' o-'a2 a#! ' +rr#'

ar +a#2"#2 "# '"m.


40/41

F'+r'5=

T o'1' of a PW s11-/ ara2s a s"# wa. Howr, ' "2

fr0#+/ +om1o##'s ms' -"m"#a'! 'o o'a"# a s"# wa. F"2r %

sows o# m'o! of f"-'r"#2 ' o'1' s"#2 a# "#!+'or a#! a +a1a+"'or.

T -ow 1ass f"-'r +'off fr0#+/ "s !'rm"#! / ' LC rso#a#'

fr0#+/.

F"2r B6 F"-'r C"r+"'

Power Supplies

To 1owr ' +o#'ro- +"r+"'r/, 1owr s11-"s ms' !s"2#!. Us"#2 ' AC

1owr aa"-a- a' ' o'1' of ' "#r'r, s"m1- r+'"f"+a'"o# +"r+"'s s"#2

o-'a2 r2-a'ors +a# s! 'o 1ro!+ ' !s"r! o-'a2sB $?V a#!

9$?V. Howr, "#"'"a--/ o-'a2 ms' 1--! !"r+'-/ from ' "#r'r "#1'

o-'a2 'o 1ro"! 1owr !r"#2 s'ar'91. D 'o ' -"m"'! '"m a#! ma#9

1owr, '"s 1or'"o# of ' !s"2# was #o' +om1-'!. I' "s sf- 'o #o' 'a' '

9$?V s11-/ "s #o' #+ssar/ for "#r'r o'1'. Howr, "f ' 9$?V s11-/

"s #o' s'a-"s!, ' o'1' w"-- a s0ar wa a#! w"-- #o' +o#'ro--!

/ ' $6VV +o#'ro- +"r+"'. A-so, ' PW +"r+"' "s +a1a- of a++1'"#2

a w"! ra#2 of o-'a2s. T"s, owr, "s -"m"'! / ' ffrs.


41/41

Pr%+,+'%5

A +o#s"!ra- amo#' of !s"2# wor3 wo-! a 'o 1rform! for '"s

"#r'r !s"2# +o-! mar3'!. I# a!!"'"o# 'o ' 1ro'+'"o# 2"# 'o '

+om1o##'s 'o "#'r#a- 1ro-ms, "' "s a-so "m1or'a#' 'o 1ro'+' a2a"#s' @'r#a-

1ro-ms. For @am1-, ' !s"2# wo-! a 'o 1ro'+'" of +o#smrs

for 1ro-ms s+ as -+'r"+a- so+3. T "#r'r so-! a-so 1ro'+' a2a"#s'

or9!"s+ar2"#2 a a''r/. D 'o ' sw"'+"#2 #a'r of ' !s"2#,

s"2#"f"+a#' 1ro'+'"o# ms' 2"# a2a"#s' EI (E-+'ro9a2#'"+

I#'rfr#+), s1+"f"+a--/ ra!"a'! EI. Co#!+'! EI ms' a-so

1r#'! s"#+ "' +o-! a a !'r"m#'a- ff+' o# ' a'omo"- -+'r"+a-

s/s'm. T "#r'r ms' a-so 1ro'+' "'s-f from or9+rr#' s'a's, sor'9

+"r+"' +o#!"'"o#s, a#! or9'm1ra'r +o#!"'"o#s.