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Prehistoric Archaeology in China: 1920-60Author(s): Kwang-Chih ChangSource: Arctic Anthropology, Vol. 1, No. 2 (1963), pp. 29-61Published by: University of Wisconsin PressStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40315559 .

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PREHISTORIC ARCHAEOLOGY IN CHINA: 1920-60*

KWANG-CHIH CHANG

I. PALAEOLITHIC AND MESOLITHIC PERIODS

A. History of Research B. Stratigraphy and Palaeontology C. Palaeolithic-Mesolithic Sites: A Synopsis

Palaeolithic Mesolithic

D. Human and Cultural Development E. Discussion

Problems of Human Evolution Problems of Cultural Evolution Problems of Cultural Ecology Problems of Comparison

II. NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION IN NORTH CHINA

A. History of Research B. Important Neolithic Sites: A Synopsis C. The Neolithic Developmental Sequence D. Discussion

III. GENERAL COMMENTS

Scientific archaeology may be said to have begun in China in 1920, when Emile Licent discovered the first Palaeolithic implement in China from a sub-loess level at Ch'ing-yang in eastern Kansu (Teilhard de Chardin 1924; Teilhard de Chardin and Licent 1924), and when Liu Cnang- shan, a field assistant of J. G. Andersson, located the Neolithic site at Yang-shao-ts'un in Mien-chih Hsien, western Honan (Andersson 1923). During the subsequent forty years, a considerable amount of field work has been undertaken in China, and a preliminary framework of Chinese prehistory, from the beginning of human occupation through

the threshold of civilization, has been firmly established (Cheng 1959; Fairservis 1959; Watson 1960, 1961a, 1961b; K. C. Chang 1963). This is no small achievement, considering that before 1920 the prehistory of China was virtually unknown (Laufer 1912: 54-55; de Morgan 1925: 293), but certainly unsolved problems still abound today. This paper outlines the accomplishments of prehistoric archaeology in China during these four decades, gives a preliminary bibliographic intro- duction to the field, and discusses some of the current problems.

I. PALAEOLITHIC AND MESOLITHIC PERIODS

HISTORY OF RESEARCH

With a few exceptions field work in Palaeolithic and Mesolithic archaeology has been carried out in China by geologists and palaeontologists as a by-product of their own investigations, although concentrated efforts in the archaeological field are as a rule made when important Palaeolithic and Mesolithic stations are discovered. Three broad stages of archaeological development in this field can be distinguished: 1920-40, 1940-50, and 1950-60.

1920-40.

During this period the geologists of the Geo- logical Survey laid the groundwork for the stratigraphic and palaeontological subdivision of the Pleistocene period in both North and South China (Boule et al 1928; Black et al 1933; Pei 1937). The most important single excavation was at Choukoutien, southwest of Peiping in Hopei Pro- vince, where the remains of Peking Man and his culture were found. Elsewhere Palaeolithic implements were discovered in the Ordos area of northern Shansi, Shensi, and eastern Kansu and Ninghsia by Emile Licent, Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, and Young Chung-chien; and Mesolithic

*Part 1 of this article was given as a lecture for Anthropology -Biology -Geology 192 at Yale during the Spring of 1963. Part 2 is a revised ver- sion of a paper, Current Problems in the Neo- lithic Archaeology of North China, read at the 14th annual meeting of the Association for Asian Studies in Boston on April 2, 1962.

29



30 ARCTIC ANTHROPOLOGY 1, 2

assemblages were found in Manchuria, Mongolia and the Southwest by Chinese, Japanese, and Western scientists, both belonging to and outside of the Geological Survey.

1940-50.

Toward the end of the last stage Pei Wen- chung and Pierre Teilhard de Chardin had begun to attempt making syntheses of the Chinese Pa- laeolithic and Mesolithic cultures and their geological and palaeontological contexts, but more significant results were achieved after 1940 when the Second World War halted extensive field undertakings and stimulated library research. The Chinese Pleistocene geology, palaeontology, and archaeology as reconstructed by Teilhard de Chardin, de Terra and Movius sum up the pre- war materials, and their conclusions still guide field research and interpretation even today (de Terra 1941; Teilhard de Chardin 1941; Movius 1944).

1950-60.

An Institute of Vertebrate Palaeontology and Palaeoanthropology (formerly Laboratory of Vertebrate Palaeontology and, subsequently, Institute of Vertebrate Palaeontology) was established under the Communist Academia Sinica to take complete control of the field research in the Pleistocene period (M. J. Kuo et al 1955; K. C. Chang 1958, 1959/61, 1962a; Chia 1959a). For the most part doing salvage work in coordi- nation with industrial and commercial construction, the Institute has so far made concentrated excavations in no less than four regions: Chou- koutien, Ordos, the Fenho valley and the Huangho valley in Shansi and western Honan, and the limestone caves in Kwangsi. Shansi becomes the second prolific region of Palaeolithic cultures next to Choukoutien, and a great future is indicated by the scattered but highly important finds of Palaeolithic and Mesolithic assemblages and human fossils in Southwest China, including western Hupei, Szechwan, Yunnan, Kwangsi, and western Kwangtung.

STRATIGRAPHY AND PALAEONTOLOGY1

Throughout China the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary is well marked by tectonic movements

and by the appearance of the Villafranchian fauna. Subsequently the stratigraphy of North China is characterized by four sedimentary periods and their respective intervening erosion stages; these are, successively from start to finish, the Red Clay, the Huangshui Erosion, the Reddish Clay, the Chingshui Erosion, the Malan Loess, the Pan- chiao Erosion, and the Panchiao Alluvium. From a palaeontological standpoint, a Villafranchian (Lower Pleistocene) fauna characterizes the Red Clay stratum, a Middle Pleistocene fauna characterizes the lower two thirds of the Reddish Clay stratum, an Upper Pleistocene fauna characterizes the upper third of the Reddish Clay stratum and the Malan Loess stratum, and a Modern fauna characterizes the Panchiao Alluvium. Both the fauna and the geological cycle of sedimentation and erosion suggest cyclical climatic changes, and Movius asserts that such climatic changes were probably related to the glacial and inter -

glacial cycles of the Himalayas. Within each of the major climatic and sedi-

mentary phases of the Pleistocene in North China- Red Clay, Reddish Clay, Loess, and the Panchiao Alluvium- minor subdivisions can in some in- stances be made. The Reddish Clay stage represents a long cycle of Choukoutien (Upper Sanmeni- an) sedimentation which, according to the sedimentary history at Choukoutien alone, can be broken down into at least two cold and dry phases and a warm and damp interval; these have been correlated by Movius with the second glacial, the second interglacial, and the third glacial of the Himalayas, respectively. In the Fenho and the Huangho valleys of Shansi and Honan, a widespread horizon of "tubercles" or "concretions" has been identified in the upper levels of the Reddish Clay, in which Palaeolithic assemblages are often found. It is possible that this concretion band indicates a "fluviolacustrine" interstadial within the upper phase of the Reddish Clay Stage- the third glacial stage represented by Choukoutien Locality 15 (Chia, Wang and Chiù 1960). But it seems equally possible that the Chingshui Erosion Stage is not universally represented geologically in North China, whereas the concretion bands in the upper levels of the Reddish Clay stage were deposited during a time when the Chingshui Erosion was active elsewhere but only marginally affected the Fenho valley (Movius 1956; K. C. Chang 1958, 1962a). More work in geomorphology and palaeontology will be necessary before one of these possi- bilities can be said to be the more likely. After the Chingshui Erosion Stage (when the so called Basal Gravel was deposited), the Malan Loess was accumulated during a long period of time that probably corresponds to the Fourth Glacial in the

1. (Teilhard de Chardin 1937, 1941; de Terra • 1941; Pei 1939e; Movius 1944, 1948; K. C. Chang 1958, 1962a).



CHANG: PREHISTORIC ARCHAEOLOGY IN CHINA 31

European glacial sequence and presumably is subject to minute subdivision according to minor climatic fluctuations, but thus far only two sub- cycles (Malan Loess Proper and the Sjara-osso- gol riverine -lacustrine) and a number of regional facies have been distinguished.

For South China the Pleistocene stratigraphy has not been thoroughly investigated. Although Teilhard de Chardin and Young have worked out a sedimentary and erosional cyclical sequence of the Yangtze terraces (Teilhard de Chardin and Young 1935), and J. S. Lee has reconstructed four glacial advances for the Lushan and Yunnan regions (Lee 1939), such cyclical changes cannot be directly transferred geologically to the many cave and fissure deposits in which the over- whelming majority of palaeontological and archaeological assemblages in South China have been brought to light. Some efforts have been made, however, to compare the palaeontological history of South China with that of the North and of other parts of southern and eastern Asia, re- sulting in a similar four -fold subdivision of the Pleistocene period into Lower, Middle, Upper, and Modern segments (von Koenigswald 1952; Pei 1957a, 1957b, 1957c, 1960a, 1961; Pei and Li 1958; Pei and Wu 1956; Kahlke 1961; Chou 1958; K. C. Chang 1962a).

Palaeolithic cultures in China mostly date from the Middle and the Upper Pleistocene periods of both North and South China, and the Meso- lithic stage began with the Panchiao Erosion in the north and with the extinction of Pleistocene mammals in the south. New evidence is beginning to come to light indicating that the human occupation of North China began during the Villa - franchian period, and the possible existence of australopi the cines in South China at this time has also been indicated.

PALAEOLITHIC -MESOLITHIC SITES: A SYNOPSIS

All Palaeolithic and Mesolithic sites that have been specifically described in publications are listed below under several regional headings (Map 1). Entered here are the name and location of the sites, their probable dating, and the typological classification of their artifacts and human fossils.

I. Palaeolithic

Hopei: Choukoutien CKT Locality 1: Middle and early Upper

Pleistocene (possibly 2nd glacial,

2nd interglacial, and 3rd glacial) (Teil- hard de Chardin 1929, 1937, 1941; Pei 1939e; Movius 1944, 1948; Kurten 1957, 1959; Kahlke and Hu 1957; Chia 1959b; Huang 1960a, 1960b; T. K. Chao and Li 1960); remains of Sinanthropus pekinensis^ (Black 1927, 1934; Pei 1929; Weiden- reich 1935, 1936a, 1936b, 1937, 1939a, 1939b, 1941, 1943; J. K. Wu 1960; J. K. Wu and Chao 1959; J. K. Wu and Chia 1955; Movius 1955b); Choukoutienian assemblage: use of fire (Black 1931; Breuil 1931, 1932a, 1932b) Celtis seeds and animal bones (both large and small game) (Chaney 1935a, 1935b; Chaney and Daugherty 1933), cannibalism (Chaney 1935a; Weidenreich 1939b), manufacture of stone implements- chopper -chopping tools and flakes predominantly (Pei 1931; Teilhard de Chardin and Pei 1932; Black et al 1933; Movius 1944, 1948; Chia 1959b; T. K. Chao and Tai 1961), and use of bone tools (Breuil 1931, 1932a, 1939; Pei 1932, 1938, 1960b; Chia 1959c).

CKT Locality 4: Early Upper Pleistocene or later (possibly 3rd glacial or later); late Choukoutienian assemblage (Pei 1939a).

CKT Locality 13: Early Middle Pleistocene (possibly 2nd glacial); a chopping-tool (Pei 1934).

CKT Locality 15: Early Upper Pleistocene (possibly 3rd glacial); late Choukoutieni- an assemblage (Pei 1939b).

Middle Huangho: In southern Shansi, eastern Shensi, and western and northern Honan.

Pei-lou-ting-shan, Anyang, northern Honan: Implements of flint and quartzite, hearths, fossil mammals, and ostrich egg shells from a cave deposit; glacial age is suggested by stone typology but not established by geology or fauna (Anonymous 1961).

Ku-lung-ts'un, Yang-ch'eng, southern Shansi: Nuclei, long and thin flakes, and implements of black flint, found in u sandy reddish loams;" implements include uni- facially retouched points and side- scrapers with deep and long retouches (C. Wang 1960).

Nan-hai-yü, Yüan-ch'ü, southern Shansi: One of some 40 Palaeolithic localities located in 1957 in Yüan-ch'ü county; pebble tools, discoidal cores, scrapers and points; fauna indicates "warm climate;" a Middle Pleistocene or later" (Chiù 1958a; T. Y. Wang, Chiù and Pi 1959).




Hou-chia-po, Shan Hsien, western Honan: Pebble flakes from lower levels of the Reddish Clay (Chia, T. Y. Wang and Chiù 1960: 27).

Miao-hou and other localities in P'ing-lu, southern Shansi: Palaeolithic implements in the middle strata of the Red- dish Clay stage (T. Y. Wang and Hu 1961).

Ho -ho, Jui-ch'eng, southern Shansi: On the left bank of the Huangho river, excavated in 1960; stone implements include unilateral and bilateral choppers and chopping tools on cores or flakes, large prismatic pointed instruments, small pointed implement of flakes, scrapers, and stone balls, made of pebbles of quartzite; the prismatic points and the stone balls are of the Ting-ts'un types, but geology and fauna (Stegodon zdansky, Euryceros flabellatus, Eury ceros pachy- osteus, Bubalus cf. teilhardi, and Lam- protula antigua) indicate an early Middle Pleistocene dating, possibly slightly earlier than Choukoutien Locality 1 (Chia, T. Y. Wang and C. Wang 1961).

Hsi-hou-tu, Jui-ch'eng, southern Shansi: The site is on the back of a small hill to the northeast of Hsi-hou-tu village, approximately 3 km to the east of the Huangho, discovered in 1959 and excavated in 1960 and 1961; stone implements (bilaterally flaked giant flakes, small scrapers, cores with a small number of flaking scars, and irregularly flaked flakes) of quartzite pebbles were uncovered from a sandy -gravel layer underneath the Reddish Clay stratum, in direct association with a Nihowan fauna (Proboscidip- parion, Equus sanmensis, Cervus boulei, Cervus bifurcatus, Elasmotherium, Rhi- noceros, Bos, Elephas, Ostrich, wild pig, and carp) apparently dating from the first interglacial period of the Lower Pleistocene (Chia and C. Wang 1962).

Chang- chia -wan and Wo-lun-p'u, T'ung-kuan, eastern Shensi: Pebble flakes from the lower levels of the Reddish Clay (Chia, T. Y. Wang and Chiù 1960: 27).

Fenho and Upper Sangkanho: Shansi Hsi-kou, near Li-ts'un, in Hou-ma (formerly

in Ch'ii-wo), southern Shansi: Chopping - tools, pebble flakes, stone balls, points, and side-scrapers, found in a sandy layer with concretion bands beneath a

marl stratum; possibly Chingshui Erosion stage (Ku 1956; Chia 1959d).

Nan-liang, Hou-ma, southern Shansi: "Ting- ts'un type" stone and bone tools and faun- al assemblage, possibly of the same date (T. Y. Wang, Hu and Li 1959; Hu 1961).

Ting-ts'un, Hsiang-fen, southern Shansi: Choppers, chopping-tools, Clactonian flakes, flakes with prepared core surface and facetted striking platform, parallel- sided flakes, pick-like implements, stone balls, a bone awl, three human teeth of a "neanderthaloid" type, from sandy gravels underlying the Malan Loess. Type site of the Middle Palaeolithic u Fen- hoian." (Chia 1955; Movius 1956; Pei el al 1958).

Tung-ko-ta, Yu-she, central Shansi: Unknown except for name of site (Y. Kuo 1959).

Ts'ao-chia-yai, Wen-shui, central Shansi: Un- known except for name of site (Y. Kuo 1959).

Chiao-ch'eng, central Shansi: 45 localities, "Ting-ts'un type" stone implements from concretion bands in upper Reddish Clay and the Basal Gravel (Chia and T. Y. Wang 1957).

Tsao-yen, P'ing-ting, central Shansi: Unknown except for name of site (Y. Kuo 1959).

Feng-ch'eng-shan, Ching-lo, northern Shansi: "Ting-ts'un type" site in upper levels of Reddish Clay (Chia, T. Y. Wang and Chiù 1960; Pei 1958).

Shih-fang-tzu-shan, Ching-lo, northern Shansi: Unknown except for name of site and its location in the loess (Pei 1958).

Yang-fang-k'ou and Kuo- chia -ching, Ning-wu, northern Shansi: Unknown except for names of sites and their location in concretion bands in upper levels of Reddish Clay (Pei 1958).

Fen-wang-ssu, and Sha-ho-ts'un, Shuo Hsien, northern Shansi: Unknown except for names of sites and their location in the concretion bands in the upper levels of Reddish Clay or in the loess (Pei 1958; Chia, Wang and Chiù 1960).

Hou-ko-ta-feng, Shuo Hsien, northern Shansi: Finely made small- size implements and scrapers from the Basal Gravel (Chia, Wang and Chiù 1960).

Ma-po-shan, Ta-t'ung, northern Shansi: From loess stratum (Chia, Wang and Chiù 1960).

Ordos: Middle Huangho valley in southern Inner Mongolia, northwestern Shansi, northern




Shensi, eastern Ninghsia, and eastern Kansu.

Sung-chia-ch'uan, Wu-pao, northern Shensi: A workshop site under the loess on the surface of the Basal Gravel (Teilhard de Chardin and Young 1930: 33-34).

Hsiao -ch'iao -pan, Sjara-osso-gol, southern Inner Mongolia: Blades, flakes, microblades, micro-flakes, and a human tooth, from a sandy -muddy complex, now type site of * riverine-lacustrine subcycle" of the Loess stage (Teilhard de Chardin 1924, 1926a: 239-42; Teilhard de Char- din and Licent 1924: 46-48; Licent and Teilhard de Chardin 1925: 220-28; Li- cent, Teilhard de Chardin and Black, 1926; Boule et al 1928).

Ta-kou-wan-ts'un, Sjara-osso-gol: Flakes and scrapers from sandy loess (Y. P. Wang 1957).

Ti-shao-kou-ts'un, Sjara-osso-gol: Fossil parietal and femur of man, from sandy loess (Y. P. Wang 1957; J. K. Wu 1958).

Yu-ho-pao, Yu-lin, northern Shensi: A workshop site in the Sjara-osso horizon (Teilhard de Chardin and Young 1930: 33).

Yu-fang-t'ou, Yu-lin, northern Shensi: Pebble tools from Basal Gravel (Teilhard de Chardin and Licent 1924: 48-49; Teilhard de Chardin 1926a: 242-44; Boule et al 1928).

Yung-hsing-pao, Shen-mu, northern Shensi: Basal Gravel (Teilhard de Chardin and Young 1930: 33).

Huo-shan, near Pao-te, northwestern Shansi: Quartzite flakes in the Basal Gravel (Teilhard de Chardin and Young 1930: 32).

Hsiün-chien-ssu, Ho-ch'u, northwestern Shan- si: Quartzite flakes from the lower levels of loess (Teilhard de Chardin and Young 1930: 32).

Northeastern Ordos, in Chungar, Tokto, and Ch'ing-shui-ho of Inner Mongolia and P'ien-kuan of northwestern Shansi: Flakes from the loess deposits (Teilhard de Chardin and Young 1930: 32-33, 1932: 104; S. S. Chang 1959, 1960).

Northwestern Ordos: Quartzite artifacts and a probable workshop near the St. Jacques7 Mission (Teilhard de Chardin and Young 1932: 104).

Chung-wei, eastern Ninghsia: "Flakes and scrapers of hard quartzite" collected on the surface of the Sanmenian sediment

(Teilhard de Chardin and Young 1932: 103-4).

Shui-tung-kou, east of Yin-ch'uan, eastern Ninghsia: Type site of the Malan Loess Proper subcycle of the Malan Loess stage; blades and flakes as well as pebble tools in the loessic deposits (Teilhard de Chardin and Licent 1924: 45-46; Licent and Teilhard de Chardin 1925: 206-19; Teilhard de Chardin 1926a: 239).

Ch'ing-yang, eastern Kansu: Pebble implements and flakes from both the Basal Gravel and the Loess Proper (Teilhard de Chardin 1924; Licent and Teilhard de Chardin 1925: 230).

Manchuria Chien-p'ing, Liaoning: Human right humerus

in a stray collection of fossil mammals probably Upper Pleistocene in date (J. K. Wu 1961).

Pan-la-ch'eng-tzu, near Harbin: Two *bone implements" found in association with a fossil rhinoceros, possibly of Upper Ple- istocene age (Jernakov and Ponosov 1958).

Dairen: Two u definitely human flakes in quartzite", collected in 1933 by Henri Breuil along the Dairen-Port Arthur route from "red deposit" whose exact geological age is not clear (Teilhard de Chardin 1941: 62).

Middle Yangtze: western Hupei, Szechwan, and eastern Sikang.

Ch'ang-yang, western Hupei: a human maxilla and an isolated premolar of "neanderthaloid type" found in a cave of probably late Reddish Clay age (Chia 1957b).

Wan Hsien, eastern Szechwan: "A retouched flake from a siliceous pebble," collected by Teilhard de Chardin on a Yangtze terrace about 10 km west of Wan Hsien. "Its pre -Neolithic age is impossible to prove." (Teilhard de Chardin and Young 1935: 176; Teilhard de Chardin 1941: 71).

Yen-ching-kou, Wan Hsien: A possible artifact of antler in a Middle Pleistocene collection of fossil mammals (Hooijer 1951).

Between Yih-ch'ang, western Hupei, and Ch'ung-ch'ing (Chungking), central Szech- wan: " Five palaeoliths" collected by J. Huston Edgar from Pleistocene deposits possibly corresponding to the Basal Gravel of North China. One of these is a hand axe of an "Acheulian" type and




another is a cleaver (Graham 1935: 48).

Tzu-yang, western Szechwan: A fossil human skull (Homo sapiens) and a bone awl found near the Huang- shan -hsi Bridge from sandy loams possibly of an early fourth glacial date (Pei and Wu 1957).

Between Ch'ung-ch'ing, central Szechwan, in the east, and Ta-chien-lu, Sikang, in the west, on the terraces of the Yangtze, the Min, and the Yalung Rivers, Edgar collected a large number of "palaeoliths." Their Pleistocene dating, however, is not established (Graham 1935; Edgar 1933/34; Bowles 1933).

Fu-lin, Han-yüan, western Szechwan (formerly eastern Sikang): Discoidal cores, a . blade core, many flakes and scrapers on flakes, and a small number of blades, found in direct association with Pleisto- cene mammals and human habitation remains from sandy loams of possibly Upper Pleistocene age (L. Yang 1961).

Tibet: Heiho, in northeastern Tibet, and Totokoyen,

Hohohsili, and Garmu in southwestern Chinghai: Pebble choppers, flakes and micro-blades collected on the surface (Chiù 1958b).

Yunnan: Mu-chien-ch'iao, Li -Chiang, northwestern

Yunnan: Three fossil human femurs and a half -perforated antler, collected from probably Upper Pleistocene deposits (Y. H. Li 1961).

Lu-nan-shan-ch'ung, Pan-ch'iao-an-jen-ts'un, and Pan-ch'iao-pai-shih-ling, Yih-liang, eastern Yunnan: a Flakes, cores, and stone implements", collected from probably Upper Pleistocene deposits (Pei and Chou 1961).

Kwangsi and Kwangtung Wu-ming, Kwangsi: In cave A among the Meso-

lithic artifacts was a core-scraper that Henri Breuil considered to be a re- worked palaeolith possibly of the Reddish Clay stratum (Pei 1935).

Liu-chiang, Kwangsi: A fossil cranium and some post- cranial skeletons (Homo sapiens) found in a limestone cave from probably Upper Pleistocene deposits (J. K. Wu 1959).

Ma-pa, Ch'u-chiang, northern Kwangtung: A fossil human calvarium found in limestone cave deposits of probably Reddish Clay stage (Anonymous 1959a, 1959b; J. K. Wu and Peng 1959).

II. Mesolithic

Manchuria: Djalai Nor, northwestern Heilungkiang: Worked

antler, a bone hammer, and willow wicker found in the Black Earth stratum of the Early Recent period (Akabori 1939; Teil- hard de Chardin 1926b; Tolmatchov 192Sf>.

Hailar, northwestern Heilungkiang: Microliths and a carved rhinoceros vertebra from the Black Earth stratum (Titoff and Tol- matcheff 1928).

Ku-hsiang-f un, near Harbin: Microliths in association with extinct mammals from the Black Earth stratum (Tokunaga and Naora 1933, 1934).

Ta-kou, near Harbin: Chipped stone implements from non- ceramic horizon (S. T. Chao 1960).

Hopei Upper Cave, Choukoutien: Pebble implements,

worked antlers and animal bones, stone beads (Pei 1939c, 1939d), and skeletons of Homo Sapiens (Weidenreich 1939c; H. C. Wu 1961a, 1961b; Y. C. Chao 1961), in association with an early post-glacial fauna (Pei 1940).

Inner Mongolia A series of localities throughout Inner Mongolia

located by Folke Bergman, Young Chung- chien and Teilhard de Chardin. (Teilhard de Chardin and Young 1932; Maringer 1950).

Northwestern Ordos Ch'ing-shui-ho, Tokto, and Chungar in southern

Inner Mongolia and Pien-kuan in northwest Shansi: Microliths and flakes possibly of the "Sha-yiian type." (S. S. Chang 1959; C. M. An 1959b).

Eastern Shensi Sha-yüan, in Chao-yih and Ta-li counties:

Microliths and flake points and scrapers (C. M. An and Wu 1957; C. M. An 1956a).

Szechwan and Sikang




Surface collections throughout the province of chipped stone implements of the pebble tool type (Cheng 1957; Graham 1935).

Yunnan Ch'iu-pei: Pebble chopper and hearth re-

mains from the rock shelter of Hei- ching-lung (Bien and Chia 1938).

Kwangsi Kwei-lin and Wu-ming: Pebble implements

from limestone caves (Pei 1935; Chia and Chiù 1960).

Lai -pin: Human skeleton and a pebble implement from a limestone cave (Chia and Wu 1959; Chia and Chiù 1960).

Kwangtung Tung-hsing, western Kwangtung: Pebble chop-

pers and axes found in stratum beneath ceramic horizon at two localities: Ya- p'u-shan and Ma-lang-ch'uan-shan (Anonymous 1960).

Hsi-chiao-shan, Nan-hai: Flakes and blades found around the Hsi-chiao hill, some in association with ceramics but others not (Mo 1959; Peng and Wang 1959).

Hongkong: Pebble implements found in pre- ceramic horizon (Schofield 1935).

HUMAN AND CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

The information derived from the above-listed Palaeolithic and Mesolithic sites in China pro- vides a firm foundation for a reconstruction of human and cultural development in China during the Pleistocene before the beginning of a food- producing way of life (Table 1). Four broad stages of cultural development are distinguishable: Lower Palaeolithic, Middle Palaeolithic, Upper Palaeolithic, and Mesolithic. Three broad stages of human development can be characterized: pithecanthropoid, neanderthaloid, and Homo sapiens. 2

The Lower Palaeolithic cultures probably had their earliest beginnings in China in the Villa - franchian stage or the Lower Pleistocene period,

as indicated by the Hsi-hou-tu site in Jui-ch'eng Hsien, southern Shansi. The associated fauna, including Probo scidipparion, Cervus boulei, Cer- vus bifurcatus, Elasmotherium, as well as Bos, Equus, and Elephas, is without question of a Villafranchian type, and the geological deposits from which the mammalian fossils and stone implements were collected are composed of sandy gravels which lie beneath the Reddish Clay stratum, suggesting a First Interglacial date. The "implements" consist of crudely chipped pebbles of quartzite, compared by the investigators to the Oldowan of East Africa. This is the only probable occurrence of a human industry in the Lower Pleistocene period in the entire world outside Africa, but its detailed characteristics remain to be described. Two other discoveries from the Villafranchian stage in China that may be attribut- able to man have now become highly noteworthy since the discovery of the Hsi-hou-tu site. One is the "facetted stone" and "worked bones" recognized by Henri Breuil in the 1930' s among the Ni- howan assemblage, type site of the Villafranchian in China (Breuil 1935). These had been dismissed by scholars as being derived from natural agen- cies, but now appear to deserve reconsideration in this new light. The other is the Hemanthropus peii teeth, found by von Koenigswald in Hong Kong drugstores and alleged to be derived from South China deposits, which have been compared with Paranthropus of South Africa (von Koenigswald 1957).

Probably having an origin during the Villa- franchian stage, the Lower Palaeolithic cultures continued to evolve throughout the entire Reddish Clay Stage in North China. They are characterized by the predominance of two technological traditions of stone working: the pebble, or chopper -

chopping-tool, tradition and the flake tradition. The latter is characterized by the so-called Clac- tonian flakes with unfacetted striking-platform, broad body, and obtuse angle of percussion. Com- mon types of implements are choppers, chopping- tools, scrapers, pointed instruments and miscel- laneous retouched pieces. Bifacial hand-axes, prepared cores, and facetted striking platforms are rare as a rule although toward the end of this stage they increased slightly in proportion, together with a general improvement of stone work- manship. Prismatic points and stone balls are characteristic types of artifacts during this stage in the Fenho valley, although they are absent at Choukoutien. Fire was used, large (e.g. deer) and small (e.g. rodents) animals were killed, and plant seeds were collected. Animal bones were

2. For general descriptions of the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic cultures and human remains in China, see: Pei 1937; Teilhard de Chardin 1941; Movius 1944, 1955a; Mathieu 1956; Tam- burello 1958; Chia 1956, 1957a; C. M. An 1956b; J. K. Wu and Chia 1955.




probably utilized for implements, and evidence of secondary retouch is occasionally seen on them.

Remains of this Lower Palaeolithic stage have been located in North China, in the Choukoutien region in Hopei and in the lower Fenho and the Huangho valley in southern Shansi and western Honan. Human skeletal materials have been found in association with the Palaeolithic remains in the Choukoutien region, and these have been described variously under the genus names of Sinanthropus, Pithecanthropus, and Homo. The Mapa skull of Kwangtung is possibly another instance of this widespread pithecanthropoid population in China, but of his cultural equipment there is no evidence. Both the Mapa Man and the Ch'ang-yang Man of South China may belong chronologically to the final phase of the Reddish Clay stage of Chinese Pleistocene, and the Ch'ang-yang Man is taxonom- ically a neanderthaloid representative.

Toward the end of the Reddish Clay stage, or possibly during the third glacial stage, the Middle Palaeolithic Fenhoian cultures appeared in North China and the neanderthaloids began to evolve out of a pithecanthropoid base in both the North and the South. But the culmination of the Middle Palaeolithic cultures and of the neanderthaloid population was probably an event occurring during the Chingshui Erosion stage or the third interglacial. In North China this Middle Palaeo- lithic phase, which has been found in the concretion bands in the upper levels of the Reddish Clay stratum of Shansi and Honan and in the sub- loess gravel beds of the Chingshui Erosion stage, is characterized by an essential continuation of the Lower Palaeolithic traditions of stone manufacture, on the one hand, and by the appearance of parallel- sided flakes, which can probably be said to be the proto-type of the blades that appeared in the subsequent geological stage, on the other. The Ting-ts'un assemblages of Hsiang- fen Hsien, southern Shansi, also contained a number of pick -like implements, stone balls, polygonal scrapers, and other flake and pebble implements, better made than their Lower Palaeo- lithic antecedents. Clactonian flakes still constitute the bulk of the flakes but smaller, triangular flakes struck from discoidal cores (remains of which have been found), and larger flakes showing evidence of both prepared core -surface and facetted striking platform make up a considerable part of the total assemblage. The Ting-ts'un assemblage includes three human teeth, which, according to Wu Ju-kang, show neanderthaloid features. Middle Palaeolithic industrial remains have not been identified elsewhere, but fossil materials of a neanderthaloid affinity have been

found in the caves at Ch'ang-yang and Mapa from deposits possibly dating from the latest Reddish Clay stage.

The Loess stage witnessed the appearance of Homo sapiens in South China as well as of the Upper Palaeolithic industries in both the North and the South. Both the Ordosian of North China and the Han-yüan assemblage of Szechwan are characterized by flake and blade implements. Cores of the prismatic and the discoidal varieties are widely found and the classical European Upper Palaeolithic tool types, such as burins and scrapers on the end of blades, are present in these assemblages side by side with the * Mousterian" flakes and points and side-scrapers manufactured on them. Regional diversification is plainly seen now in the Upper Palaeolithic industries. In the North, where the loessic stage is divisible into two sub-cycles, there are correspondingly two regional facies of industries, one featuring the flake -and-blade industry described above and the other with additional components characterized as the micro -blade tradition. In South China only two stone assemblages have been reported for this period; the one from Szechwan is similar to the Shui-tung-kou facies of the North, although flakes are more typical here than blades; and the other from Yunnan seems, from the scanty evidence that has been published, to be an Upper Pleistocene manifestation of the Lower Palaeolithic Choukou- tienian.

Skeletal materials that have been found in association with the Ordosian industry of North China seem to indicate a neanderthaloid morphology, but the skulls found in South China from the same chronological horizons as those of Upper Palaeolithic cultures in other localities appear to show unequivocal characteristics of Homo sapiens. These skulls, furthermore, show a number of Mongoloid as well as Negroid features. The following conclusions have been drawn from these facts: (a) In China Homo sapiens appeared first in the South; (b) this new hominid species was not necessarily responsible for the emergence of the blade tradition in the North; (c) it was possibly the ancestor from which both the modern Mongo- loid and the modern Oceanic Negroid populations were derived at least in part (K. C. Chang 1962a).

After the Malan Loess stage in North China there was a stage of climatic amelioration which brought about a swampy and forested environment (Andersson 1943; Rausing 1956; Teilhard de Chardin 1936/37; K. C. Chang 1959a, 1959b, 1962b; Sowerby 1922). A Mesolithic culture adapt- ed to the changed environment seems to have appeared in North China, characterized by




microblades, bone implements, composite tools, arrowheads and the pressure flaking technique of stone manufacture. In South China, the transition from the Upper Pleistocene to the modern period does not seem to have been marked by strong climatic changes (Pei 1960a), and the Upper Palaeolithic flak e -and -blade and the pebble traditions of culture appear to have persisted into the modern period without appreciable changes, with the probable exception of the increased use of molluscs. Skeletal materials dating from the Mesolithic stage in both North and South China reportedly indicate that the racial differentiation into Mongoloid and Oceanic Negroid branches, only initiated during the Upper Palaeolithic stage, is now complete (Weidenreich 1939c; Chia and Wu 1959).

DISCUSSION

Problems of Human Evolution

Any consideration concerning these problems must certainly be made on a world-wide basis, but the palaeoanthropological remains from the area of China offer some important regional data. The site of Choukoutien remains the richest archaeological site of the Middle Pleistocene period in the world, as well as the most prolific in its yield of a pithecanthropoid type of hominid fossils. The complete typological sequence from pithecanthropoids to Homo sapiens in this part of the world touches upon some basic theoretical questions in human evolution and heredity in general, and the notable persistence throughout the Pleistocene of certain morphological traits challenges the imagination of all physical anthro- pologists (Weidenreich 1943; J. K. Wu and Che- boksarov 1958; K. C. Chang 1962a). The racial differentiation within the Upper Palaeolithic periods in China has thrown much light upon the origin of the Mongoloid population, although the data at hand remain inadequate for any final solution of the latter problem.

Problems of Cultural Evolution

In China as well as elsewhere the typological sequence of Lower, Middle, Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic has been established, but these terms must first of all be read in the Chinese context of cultural development. The Lower Palaeolithic stage was the stage of cultural beginnings, characterized by the predominance of the pebble and flake traditions and a hunting and

collecting subsistence. The Middle Palaeolithic stage marks a transitional period, in which the Lower Palaeolithic traditions taper off, whereas the rudimentary forms of the Upper Palaeolithic traditions make an initial appearance. The Upper Palaeolithic stage is primarily characterized by the regionalization and diversification of stone industries: persistent Lower Palaeolithic industries, flake -and-blade industries, and micro-flake- and-blade industries existed side by side; in some regional facies one or two of these components dominated over the others, and in other regional facies other components take their place. Such regionalization continued into the Mesolithic stage, with adaptive changes in culture appearing where climatic changes occurred.

Problems of Cultural Ecology Since the environmental reconstruction has

only been very imperfectly carried out (Chou 1955; Pei 1957b, 1960a), the problems in cultural ecology cannot be discussed at the present time in very specific terms but may evoke much investi- gative work in the future. For the time being, the only observation in this realm that we can make is a broad and long-range one: the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic history of China shows that the adaptive sensitivity of the food-gathering cultures increased with time and with the complexity of culture. The Lower Palaeolithic culture of the Choukoutienian apparently lived through three major climatic cyclical intervals, two of which were characterized by cold and dry and the other by mild and damp conditions; however, the culture at Locality 1 shows a slow tempo of development but little change that can be directly tied in with the long-range climatic fluctuation. The Middle Palaeolithic culture of the Fenho Complex, at- tributable to the mild and damp Chingshui Erosion stage, contains a considerable number of pick-like implements that apparently were designed to cope with a wooded landscape, thus showing the inten- sification of an active and concentrated effort on the part of men to adapt to a changed environment. The tempo of changes and the active and concentrated efforts at adaptation apparently increased during the Upper Palaeolithic stage when regional specialization occurred. Such environment- oriented industrial specialization is more marked- ly developed during the Mesolithic stage, when an oasis-Mesolithic and a woodland -Mesolithic are probably distinguishable in North China, and a flake -and -blade Mesolithic and a pebble Mesolithic can be recognized in the South, on the coasts and in the interior respectively.




Problems of Comparison

Neither man himself nor his culture can be considered as having evolved in China in iso- lation, but the comparisons with outside parallels can often be made only in the broadest terms on account of the broad and general nature of the currently known Chinese Pleistocene stratigraphy. It goes without saying that in the later periods with their increasing tempo of cultural development the need for a more precise and minute subdivision of the geological periods is correspondingly greater.

The Lower Palaeolithic cultures and the pi the - canthropoid types of human forms in China offer relatively few problems for comparative studies, and we can state positively that these developments in China took place as part of a wider picture for the entire Old World. Although the existence of man in China during the Lower Pleisto- cene period is only now beginning to be suggested, we know for sure that the chopper -chopping -tool and the Clactonian industrial traditions were widespread in the Middle Pleistocene in the entire Old World, and that the pi the canthropoid human forms have been identified, in addition to the Chinese specimens, in Java, Africa, and probably Europe. To be sure, we still face the problem of explaining the rarity of the hand-axes and the Levalloisian flakes in the existant Chinese sites of this stage, but this is a matter of discovery rather than cross-dating.

Starting with the Middle Palaeolithic culture and the neanderthaloid human forms, however, we begin to be in much more troubled waters. As far as the Chinese evidence goes, we feel reason- ably certain that they both began toward the close of the third glacial period according to the Hima- layan time scale, and that the peak of their development was in the third interglacial period. On the following specific questions, however, there is as yet no answer: (a) If the third interglacial period in China, as it is in many other places of the world, is an extraordinarily extended period of time, what then are the time factors for both the Middle Palaeolithic culture and the neanderthaloid development? (b) The Middle Palaeolithic stage is "middle" in the Chinese Palaeolithic context, as described above, but one of the cultural characteristics of this stage is the extensive development of the discoidal cores and "Mousterian" flakes. In what sense, then, is this development related to the appearance of the Mousterian assemblages in Russian Turkestan and the Altai in approximately the same time range? (c) The association of the Middle

Palaeolithic culture with the neanderthaloid human form has been identified thus far only at the site of Ting-ts'un, whereas elsewhere the cultures and the bones were found independent of each other. In what sense, then, can it be said (or can it be said at all) that the evolution of the Middle Palaeo- lithic culture is related to the evolution of the neanderthaloids in China? (d) About the neanderthaloids themselves, their physical characteristics remain to be described more intensively as well as extensively, and their morphological similari- ties with the pithecanthropoids in Eastern Asia on the one hand and with the neanderthaloids in Europe and Central and Western Asia on the other remain to be specified.

A minute subdivision of the Upper Pleistocene period is a prerequisite for any comparison between the Chinese Upper Palaeolithic stage and the Upper Palaeolithic cultures of other regions. The Middle Palaeolithic stage in China includes in its inventory prototypes of blades, but the whole blade assemblages, or assemblages in which blades constitute an appreciable part, appeared either toward the end of the third interglacial or during the fourth glacial period in the areas neigh- boring China. In order to answer the questions on the origin of the blade tradition in China, we must necessarily know first of all the successive steps by which the various types of blades, and the various types of industrial assemblages in which blades made up variable proportions, appeared in China, which must in turn depend on a minute time scale for the fourth glacial period or the Malan Loess stage in North China. This we do not have, however. A minute subdivision of the Chinese Fourth Glacial is even more indispensable when we come to the question of the origin of Homo sapiens in this part of the world. There are indications that Homo sapiens began in South China earlier than in the North, but there is no ground for comparing the date of its appearance in South China with that in other parts of the Old World. The closest affinity of the North China Ordosian is seen in the Upper Palaeolithic cultures of Transbaikal and in the Upper Yenisei, the Upper Angara, and the Upper Lena valleys of Siberia, but the close connection between an Upper Palaeo- lithic culture and Homo sapiens in China is found only in the Southwest. Only much work in the future, I think, can determine the relationship of the Upper Palaeolithic blade tradition with (a) the antecedent cultures in China, (b) the similar assemblages in other parts of the Old World, and (c) the appearance of Homo sapiens, respectively.




II. NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION IN NORTH CHINA

HISTORY OF RESEARCH

During the forty years subsequent to the discovery of the site of Yang-shao-ts'un in 1920, field work has been actively carried out in Neo- lithic archaeology in North China for about twenty eight years intermittently, and two stages of work can be distinguished. The first stage spans the interval between 1921 and 1937, when prehistoric remains were only just beginning to be brought to light, the material circumstances surrounding the archaeological research were not always favorable, and the number of trained archaeologists active in the field was relatively small. A working hypothesis for the interpretation of the neolithic remains in North China began to take shape with the excavation of the stratified site at Hou-kang near Anyang in 1931 (Liang 1933a, 1933b), a hypothesis in which two parallel Neolithic cultural traditions in North China were recognized, namely, the Yangshao Culture characterized by the painted red pottery, and the Lungshan Culture characterized by the black pottery (Andersson 1934, 1943; G. D. Wu 1938; Liang 1939; Teilhard de Chardin and Pei 1941; Y. Liu 1947; Pei 1948; Yin 1955; Cheng 1959; Watson 1960, 1961a, 1961b). At Hou-kang, the Lungshan was found to overlie the Yangshao, and thus was shown to be later in time than the Yangshao in that part of North China, but most archaeologists during this period tended to re- gard this as a local phenomenon and the Yangshao and the Lungshan as largely contemporaneous. Such considerations were primarily based upon two facts known during that period: (a) that these two cultures had a mutually exclusive distribution, the Yangshao culture being confined to the western part of North China, and the Lungshan culture to the eastern low country of the Lower Huangho valley; (b) that several sites in western Honan, including the Yang-shao-ts'un site, had yielded both red and black pottery in one and the same stratum, thus implying contemporaneity and intermixture rather than chronological succession (Andersson 1943).

With the above hypothesis of two parallel Neo- lithic cultures as a basic premise, several infer- ences followed: (a) The Yangshao culture was thought to correspond to the Western Hsia group and the Lungshan to the Eastern Yih group, the two major ethnic divisions in ancient China so forcefully distinguished by the late Fu Ssu-nien on the basis of literary evidence (Fu 1933).

(b) The characteristic feature of the Yangshao culture, namely the painted pottery, apparently resembled the painted pottery of the early Near East- the closest affinity being the painted pottery of the site of Anau near Ashkhabad in Russian Turkmenia. It therefore followed, many scholars reasoned, that the Yangshao Culture originated in the West and was introduced into the Huangho valley via Chinese Turkestan and Kansu (Anders- son 1923, 1943; Arne 1925; Palmgren 1934; Bishop 1942). (c) The Lungshan Culture, on the other hand, was thought to be probably indigenous Chinese (C. Li et al 1934). (d) The Shang civilization, following both Yangshao and Lungshan in time, contained elements similar to both but also traits and complexes typical of neither, suggesting that the Shang civilization had origins from neither of the two, though having probably absorbed cultural elements from both (Table 2) (C. Li 1957).

In 1937 came the Sino-Japanese War, and studies of the Neolithic of North China were brought to a halt. From 1937 to 1950, little new data had been procured from the field, and the working hypothesis described above naturally continued to be discussed and widely quoted in this period. After a while, facing no challenging hypothesis based upon new data, it became the traditional doctrine for the interpretation of Neolithic cultures in North China. To be sure, new studies and new interpretations continued to appear, such as Shih Chang-ju's Three Culture Theory, in which a third culture, the Grey Pottery or Beaten Pottery Culture, was singled out for the Huaiho valley and placed parallel to the Yangshao and the Lungshan (C. J. Shih 1952)- a theory that was taken over by Cheng Te-kun in his recent syn- thesis of prehistoric China (Cheng 1959)- and the comparative studies of Robert von Heine -Geldern who concludes that the Lungshan Culture derived its several basic elements from the eastern Cas- pian Sea area (Heine -Geldern 1950, 1956, 1957; Kaplan 1948/49). Such studies nevertheless continued to be formulated in the traditional frame of reference.

The second stage of North China Neolithic archaeology started soon after the establishment of the Communist regime, and the past eleven years have witnessed not only the resumption of field work long interrupted by war but also a rapid accumulation of new data from the whole of North China. During the past two or three years attempts have been made in Communist China (C M. An 1959b, 1959c; H. P. Shih 1959; C. C. Tung 1957), as well as in the Free World (Mizuno 1956, 1957; Sekino 1956; K. C. Chang 1959a, 1959b, 1959c, 1960a, 1960b, 1962b, 1963), to assess the




culture -historical implications of the new data, initiating a new phase of the Neolithic archaeology of North China. New data have come from each and every province of North China, particularly in those regions where construction work has been going on and salvage archaeology is in oper- ation (K. C. Chang 1959/61). These regions are mostly in river valleys and near cities and towns. Some of these new sites are important for their stratigraphic significance, others for substantial information on prehistoric culture and society. As a result of the excavation and interpretation of these sites, a number of facts can now be considered as established.

(a) The first such basic fact is that in North China before the Bronze Age culture came into being in Honan and its vicinity, there was but a single Neolithic cultural tradition. Cultural remains uncovered from all regions of North China, from eastern Kansu and Chinghai to the Shantung coast, contain essentially recurrent assemblages of stone, bone, antler, and shell industries and pottery, and exhibit common features that indicate a single cultural derivation. This Neolithic tradition, which can best be called the Huangho Neolithic culture, is distinctively characterized not only by such material elements as the cultivation of millet, the domestication of dog and pig, the manufacture of characteristic stone implements-such as the rectangular and semilunar stone knives and sickles- and characteristic pottery types- such as the cord-marked pottery, the ring-footed vessels, and the tripods- but also features that indicate some broadly common spiritual beliefs and values such as those shown by the ceramic art, the deep-rooted ancestor worship, and the planned subdivision of villages into separate dwelling, pottery -making, and burial quarters.

(b) The second basic fact is that within this common Huangho Neolithic culture there were a number of different phases manifestated in archi- tecture, pottery decoration and form, stone implements, and other salient features.

(c) The third established fact is that these different Neolithic phases of North China made up a fairly complete sequence of cultural development from the first establishment of village farming to the threshold of civilization. Stratigraphic and typological evidence indicates that these different Neolithic phases can be placed, chronologically, into no less than three stages of development: Yangshao, the earliest; Proto -

Lungshan, or Mao-ti-kou II, a transitional stage between the Yangshao and the subsequent Lung- shan; and the Lungshan, the latest stage. Within

each of these stages, minor chronological stages and major and minor regional phases can be distinguished (Table 3).

This last conclusion about three stages of development of a single Neolithic culture in place of the former hypothesis of two or three separate, contemporaneous traditions was derived from a number of new discoveries and new considerations, among which the following three are para- mount: (a) the discovery of Lungshanoid assemblages in western North China, the area formerly considered to be the exclusive province of distribution of the Yangshao Culture; (b) the discovery of stratified sites in many areas of the sphere of distribution of the Yangshao culture, which indicates that the Hou-kang stratigraphy is applicable and valid for all of North China; and (c) the discovery, in 1957, of the Miao-ti-kou II culture, providing a transitional phase between the Yang- shao and the Lungshan and thus explaining the previously puzzling phenomenon of the so-called intermixture of the two cultures in western Honan.

IMPORTANT NEOLITHIC SITES: A SYNOPSIS

Since literally hundreds of Neolithic sites have been found in North China- Hopei, Shantung, Honan, Shansi, Shensi, and Kansu -Chinghai- it is impractical to list all of these sites here in this synopsis, as has been done above for the Palaeolithic-Mesolithic periods. Only those, therefore, that are stratigraphically and/or sub- stanti vely important will be described below (Map 2).

Honan Shan Hsien: A number of Neolithic sites have

been located in Shan Hsien, western Ho- nan, but the most important is the site of Miao-ti-kou, excavated in 1957 and 1958. Two cultural occupations have been established at this site: the lower stratum belongs to the Yangshao stage, and the upper stratum to the Proto -Lungshan. These are the type localities of the Miao- ti-kou phase of the Yangshao stage and the Miao-ti-kou phase of the Lungshanoid stage (Proto -Lungshan), respectively. (C. M. An and Wang 1954; C. M. An 1957; C M. An, Cheng and Hsieh 1959; Anony- mous 1958, 1959c).

Mien-ch'ih: The site of Yang-shao-ts'un, excavated by Andersson in 1921 and since taken to typify the Yangshao stage of the Neolithic period, probably belongs,




according to recent excavations, to the Proto -Lungshan complex. The Pu-chao- chai site, nearby, is an important site exemplifying the Honan phase of the Lungshan stage (Andersson 1923, 1943, 1947; Arne 1925; Young and Pei 1934; Hsia 1951).

Cheng-chou: A stratigraphic succession of the Proto -Lungshan (e.g., the site at Lin- shan-chai), the Honan phase of the Lungshan, and the Shang civilization has been established for this area. The boundary between the Lungshanoid and the Shang is not sharply demarcated, a fact indicating the close relationship between these two cultural phases (C. H. An 1958; C. Y. Chao 1958; Mao 1958).

An-yang: Here at Hou-kang the stratigraphic relations between the Yangshao, the Lungshanoid and the Shang were first established in 1932 (Liang 1933a, 1933b; C. T. Wu 1936; C. J. Shih 1947).

Hsin-yang: The sites near San-li-tien, in Hsin-yang, typify the Neolithic succes- sions in the Huaiho valley: Proto - Lungshan represents the earliest Neo- lithic occupation, followed by the Honan phase of the Lungshan, which persisted throughout the Shang and the early West- ern Chou periods and was heavily infil- trated by the latter elements (C. H. An 1959; Anonymous 1954).

Shansi Wan-ch'üan: The site at Ching-ts'un gives

rich information on the Yangshao stage Neolithic in southern Shansi, including the reported occurrence here of remains of the broomcorn millet and sorghum (Bishop 1933; K. C. Tung 1933).

Hsia Hsien: The site at Hsi-yin-ts'un is probably another Proto -Lungshan complex site (C. Li 1927; Liang 1930).

Lin-fen: The site at Kao-tui typifies the Shansi phase of the Lungshanoid stage (T. K. Chang 1956).

Shensi Siin: One of the most important regions

throughout Chinese prehistory and history, Sian offers the Yangshao stage site at Pan-p'o-ts'un, where a village settlement was excavated, remains of foxtail millet evidenced, and stone and pottery artifacts so abundant and characteristic that the site typifies the Pan-p'o phase

of the Yangshao stage. The K'o-hsing- chuang (or K'ai-jui-chuang) site is a stratified one where the cultural succession of Yangshao- Shensi phase of the Lungshan- Western Chou was first established for the lower Weishui valley, and where the Weishui phase of the Lungshan stage is typified (Anonymous 1956; H. P. Shih 1955a, 1955b; Su and Wu 1956; P. H. Wang, Chung and Chang 1959; C. J. Shih 1956).

Hua Hsien: A series of village settlements of Yangshao, the Proto -Lungshan, and the Weishui phase of the Lungshan stages were excavated in the neighborhood of Hua Hsien (Anonymous 1959d, 1959e).

Pao-chi: The site at the Fourth Middle School presents a type site of the Yangshao stage in the middle Weishui (Anonymous 1959f; H. C. Chao, Kuan et al 1960; Yen et al 1960), and the site at Kou-tung-ch'ü in Tou-chi-t'ai, excavated by the Peiping Academy of Sciences in 1934, is a stratified one where the Yangshao stage remains were antedated by a stratum of so-called pre-Yangshao pottery characterized by cord-marks, the only occurrence of such a stratum in North China (Hsu 1936).

Kansu and Chinghai: Upper Weishui: A large series of Neolithic

sites have been located in the Upper Wei- shui valley of eastern Kansu, which have established the following phenomena: (a) The Yangshao horizon in this area ap- pears to consist of two subhorizons: Shensi and Kansu. Their overlapping distributions suggest chronological succession rather than contemporaneity, a suggestion substantiated by the stratigraphic evidence from the next region. It is therefore probable that the Kansu phase of the Yangshao stage developed in this area out of the Shensi phase of Yang- shao Neolithic, (b) The Yangshao Neo- lithic was followed in the Upper Weishui, not by the Lungshanoid culture, but by either Western Chou or the Chi-chia Culture (H. C. Chang 1958a; T. Y. Kuo 1958).

The T'ao River valley: The stronghold of the Kansu phase of the Yangshao Neolithic, this region has the famous Pan -shan Hills and the site at Ma-chia-yao. Strati - graphical relationship at Ma-chia-yao




confirms that the Kansu phase of the Yangshao Neolithic was later than the Shensi phase. A number of sites in this region have demonstrated that the Ch'i- chia culture followed the Kansu phase of the Yangshao Neolithic in time, and that the Ch'i-chia, in turn, was followed by several parallel traditions such as Hsin- tien and Ssu-wa, which were largely contemporary with the Bronze Age civilizations to the east (Andersson 1925, 1943; Palmgren 1934; Bylin-Althin 1946; Hsia 1948; Sommarstrom 1956; C. M. An 1956c; H. C. Chang 1958b, 1960; J. T. Wu 1961).

Huang- shui valley: The sites at Ma-ch'ang- yen, Chu-chia-chai, and Lo-han-t'ang have yielded a Neolithic phase that probably belongs to the Kansu phase of the Yangshao Neolithic but was slightly later than the Pan -shan and Ma-chia- yao sites. After the Yangshao stage, there was a cultural tradition, Ch'ia- yao, possibly related to the Hsin-tien in the T'ao-ho valley (Andersson 1925, 1945; Bylin-Althin 1946; J. T. Wu 1961).

Northern Eastern Kansu: In the area of Shan- tan, Min-lo, Chen-fan, and Wu-wei, the Yangshao stage of the Kansu phase was present but tapered off toward the west. It was followed by the Chi-Chia in the south and the Shan-tan (or Ssu-pa) Cul- ture in the north. These in turn were followed by the Sha-ching Culture, probably contemporary with the Hsin- tien Culture of the T'ao-ho valley (Andersson 1925, 1945; C M. An 1959a).

Shantung Ning-yang: The site at Pao-t'ou, in Ning-

yang, western Shantung, yields a rich cemetery site which probably is related with the Proto -Lungshan complex of Honan and Chiangsu (T. F. Yang 1959).

P'ing-yin: The site at Yü-chia-lin, in P'ing- yin, again in western Shantung, is another Proto -Lungshan type of Neolithic site (Anonymous 1959h).

Ch'eng-tzu-yai: Type site of the Lungshanoid stage, the site at Ch'eng-tzu-yai, near Lung-shan-chen, in Li-ch'eng Hsien, central Shantung, is a stratified site of two cultural phases: the Shantung phase of the Lungshan, and the persistent Neo- lithic culture heavily influenced by

Eastern Chou civilization (C: Li et al 1934).

Jih-chao: A series of sites in Jih-chao, among which the site at Liang-ch'eng-chen is the best known, again demonstrates the stratified relations between the Shantung phase of the Lungshanoid Neolithic and the Eastern Chou civilization (T. Y. Liu 1958a; Yuan 1955).

Hopei Han-tan: Several Lungshanoid sites near the

city of Han -tan in southern Hopei typify this Neolithic stage in that region (Anony- mous 1959g).

Ta-ch'eng-shan: Near T'ang-shan, in northern Hopei, the site at Ta-ch'eng-shan is a pioneer settlement of farmers of basical- ly Lungshanoid derivation but with heavy northern microlithic elements (Chen, Tang and Sun 1959; Kang 1960).

THE NEOLITHIC DEVELOPMENTAL SEQUENCE

The new information and reappraisal of former sites in the Neolithic stage of North China prehistory have led scholars to revise their hypothesis concerning the Neolithic development, and the following sequence has been presented as a model for understanding such development (K. C. Chang 1959a, 1959b, 1959c, 1960a, 1960b, 1962b, 1963; C. M. An 1949, 1959b, 1959c; H. P. Shih 1959; Liang 1939; T. Y. Liu 1958b), (Table 3).

The earliest known Neolithic sites are known to be confined to the so-called North China Nuclear Area and its immediately surrounding regions, namely the confluence of the Huangho, the Weishui, and the Fenho. These sites indicate Neolithic inhabitants who practised slash -and -burn agriculture, lived in semi -sedentary villages, made beautifully painted pottery, and had little social stratification and warfare. This is known as the Yangshao stage, although the site of Yang-shao- ts'un itself actually belongs to a later stage.

The time range of this Yangshao stage of Neo- lithic culture is indicated by at least three phases which were largely successive chronologically, although they overlapped in time in some regions. These are the Pan-p'o phase, the Miao-ti-kou I phase, and the Kansu phase. Stratigraphic evidence and typological comparisons have jointly established that the Pan-p'o phase was the earliest, and the Kansu phase the latest. It is therefore suggested that Neolithic culture in North




China probably began in the Big Bend region of the Huangho; we shall come back to this problem presently.

After the Yangshao stage came the Lungshan- oid development in North China. This development is characterized by the following indications: farming settlements become permanent and large in size, rice is added to the list of food crops- probably as a result of the culture's expansion into sub-tropical South China, domestication of animals increases in importance, disappearance of ceramic painting as a domestic art, the great significance of ceremonial crafts, the popularity of ring-footed vessels and tripods, intensified social stratification and industrial specialization, and indications of frequent warfare and village raids. These indications collectively show that the Lungshanoid development was a manifestation of essentially three factors at work: i.e., a grow- ing population density, an increasingly complex social order, and a general improvement of tech- niques of cultivation. These new developments gradually led to the emancipation of the Lungshan- oid farmers from the confines of the Nuclear Area and their expansion into the heretofore un- populated or underpopulated eastern low country of North China and the hills and river valleys of South China.

The Lungshanoid development was accomplished in the course of at least two chronological phases. The first is the Miao-ti-kou II or Proto- Lungshan stage. It was first recognized in 1957, but sites of this stage had been found much earlier. In fact, the site at Yang-shao-ts'un is now considered to belong to this Proto -Lungshan complex. Other sites of this stage have been widely found throughout the lower Weishui, the lower Fenho, the middle and Lower Huangho, and the Huaiho valley, indicating an explosive spread out of the Nuclear Area occupied by the preceding Yangshao farmers. Ceramic painting was still practised, but decreased in frequency of occurrence, and the Lungshanoid tripods, ting, kui, and chia, but NOTî, appeared widely. In the Nuclear Area, however, this Proto -Lungshan complex is stratigraphically situated between the Yangshao and the Lungshan, and it contained here many elements that indicate persisting Yangshao elements and foreshadow subsequent Lungshan development. There is little doubt that the Nuclear Area was where this great development first took place. The second phase of the Lungshan development is the period when a number of regional Neolithic traditions came into being on a common Proto -

Lungshan basis. As far as North China is con- cerned, at least the Weishui, Fenho, Honan, and

the Pacific Seaboard regional traditions can be recognized. In Honan, this was the period of 1^ tripods and stamped cord-marked and checker- impressed jugs, and in Shantung the classic sites of Liang-ch'eng-chen and Ch'eng-tzu-yai date in this period. It was during this phase that highly developed society and an incipient metallurgy appeared in North China, which served as the foundation upon which the Bronze Age civilizations were eventually based.

DISCUSSION

The hypothesis of Neolithic development in North China outlined above must certainly be re- garded as being highly tentative. Most archaeologists are agreed on most of its essential elements, and it is only in connection with the effort of put- ting these elements together that some original attempts can be claimed in this article.

Under this new frame of reference, a number of new problems are made explicit, and the general areas in which their solutions must eventually be sought also become clear. Of these problems, the following three are of special interest.

(a) The first question is: where, when and how did the Neolithic culture of North China begin. The "where" is, as I mentioned before, suggested by the distribution of the Yangshao stage sites, namely, the Nuclear Area. But sites where the initial transition from food- gathering to food- producing is archaeologically evidenced remain to be located. That such a transition took place in North China can hardly be doubted-in the Nuclear Area there was a Mesolithic substratum on the basis of which a Mongoloid population apparently built a distinctive and original cultural tradition. What form this transition took and whether it occurred on the Mesolithic inhabitants' own initiative or as a result of external stimuli are still problems for the future. Earlier attempts at deriving the Yangshao Culture from the Near East were exclusively based upon the comparison of a few isolated ceramic painted motifs, and today we are certainly entitled to demand much more sophisti- cated and substantial evidence to warrant such a correlation. That East-West communications took place in such early dates cannot be denied, as evidenced, for instance, by the remains in North China of wheat, cattle, and goat which were probably first domesticated in the Near East. But we do not yet know at what point during the entire time span of the North China Neolithic sequence these forms were introduced. Certain scholars postulated some years ago that prior to the




Yangshao painted pottery stage of the North China Neolithic there was an earlier ceramic horizon in this area characterized by textile-impressed pottery (Ward 1954); this stage remains to be archaeologically substantiated.

(b) Any comparison between the East and the West for the purpose of determining cultural relationships during the Neolithic period must necessarily remain inconclusive as long as the second major problem in North China Neolithic archaeology remains open. This second question, which defies even the liveliest imagination, con- cerns the time when the whole Neolithic sequence began in North China and how long each of its several stages lasted. It must be emphasized that none of these absolute dates are known, and I would not even venture any guesses. When Andersson discovered the site at Yang-shao-ts'un forty years ago (Andersson 1943) he arbitrarily gave it a date of 2200 - 1700 B.C., on the ground that the Painted Pottery preceded the Hsia Dynas- ty which in turn preceded the Shang Dynasty. The beginning of Shang was thought by Andersson, following Karlgren, to be around 1500 B.C., and he gave the Hsia Dynasty a duration of 200 years, thus arriving at the date of 1700 B.C. for the end of the Yangshao stage. Now we know that this date is much, much too late. The Shang Dynasty, which may have started in 1766 B.C. according to the orthodox chronology (which is as acceptable or unacceptable as any new chronology), was preceded, as described above, by at least the following five chronological segments: the Ho nan Lungshand phase, the Proto -Lungshan, the Miao- ti-kou I phase of the Yangshao stage, the Pan-p'o- ts'un phase of the Yangshao stage, and the hypo- thetical stage prefacing the whole known sequence. Since no serious scholars would ever attempt to claim that all cultures of the world had the same tempo of development, we cannot even guess how many years would be necessary for each of these phases to elapse. If we arbitrarily give 500 years to a phase, that would push the beginning of the North China Neolithic to 4266 B.C. If, on the other hand, we use the arbitrary figure of 1000 years to a phase, we would arrive at the date of 6766 B.C. Either of these dates is not necessarily more accurate than the other or any other, and in this calculation we have not been leaving an interval for the Hsia Dynasty. Unfortunately, Anders- son's dates are the only ones that have been pro- posed by an authority in numerical terms, and world scholars, finding no substitutes, not only still widely quote them but sometimes base the chronological alignment of prehistoric cultures in other Darts of the Far East uoon Andersson' s

Yangshao stage dates- such as the dating of many regional prehistoric sequences in Southeast Asia by Heine -Geldern and Beyer and in Siberia by Okladnikov and Andreev. Under the circumstances, the only thing we can do here is to state frank- ly and flatly that we do not know how early Chinese Neolithic culture began until absolute dates are made available by the application of such tech- niques as the Carbon- 14 determination.

(c) The third and final major problem concerning the Neolithic culture of North China is how it ended. We know that the Neolithic culture as a whole was the foundation upon which the Shang civilization grew in or near Ho nan, and that Neo- lithic culture outside the Nuclear Area came to an end as a result of acculturation under Shang and Chou influences. In the vicinity of Cheng-chou in northern Honan, a complete sequence has been tentatively worked out, in which the linear succession from the Lungshanoid Neolithic to the rise of the Bronze Age Shang culture is indicated. The picture, however, is far from complete. The cultural context of the Lungshanoid, as described above, is such that one now can state that the Shang civilization did not grow out of a vacuum, but the early history of a number of new elements of the Shang, such as bronze metallurgy and writing, remains to be documented by archaeological evidence. This, the transition from one of the regional phases of the Lungshanoid to the Shang, is one of the most urgent and important problem areas in current North China Neolithic archaeology-

GENERAL COMMENTS

The above review hopefully serves to show what scientific archaeology has accomplished in China for her prehistoric period of cultural development. Palaeolithic and Mesolithic cultures have been found throughout the country, and their developmental sequence has been firmly established in the North. Subsequent development of Neolithic farmers in North China has been made known in a relatively complete sequence which eventually led to the emergence of civilization in the alluvial plains of the Yellow River valley.

After Neolithic cultures began in the North, the rest of China was still occupied by Mesolithic survivors. Neolithic technology and the food- producing way of life, however, did not fail to dif- fuse among some of these peoples, and a series of local Neolithic revolutions took place in the




various regions. I have reviewed elsewhere the prehistoric data and their interpretation in Man- churia (K. C. Chang 1959a, 1959b, 1961, 1963), Mongolia (K. C. Chang 1959a, 1959c, 1963), and the whole of South China (K. C. Chang 1959a, 1959b, 1959c, 1963).

The current picture of Chinese prehistory un- doubtedly will be enriched and modified, if not drastically changed, as new data appear in some of the areas still blank and for some of the prehistoric segments. It is my opinion, nevertheless, that a broad framework of Chinese prehistory can now be considered established on the basis of the archaeological data unearthed in China during the past four decades (Sekai Koko- gaku Taikei 1960; Cheng 1959; Watson 1961a, 1961b; K. C Chang 1963). Data gathering, to be sure, remains an essential part of prehistoric research in China as elsewhere, but particular urgency attends the following areas.

The first of these areas in which urgent information and research are called for in the immedi- ate future is chronology. I have pointed out above that in order to focus Chinese prehistory in a world-wide context a more precise chronological framework than the one currently available is a prerequisite. It is now known that the Chinese Mousterian cultures appeared toward the end of the Reddish Clay stratum or during the Great Interglacial period, that the blade tradition achieved a full-fledged development during the fourth glacial period, and that Homo sapiens first appeared in China sometime during the Upper Pleistocene in the Chinese Southwest. These broad chronological characterizations, however, are far from sufficient if we are to know their respective relationships with corresponding events taking place elsewhere in the world. Perhaps a minute subdivision of the Fourth Glaciation such as the one available for Western and Central Europe, and a similarly minute subdivision for the early post-glacial period like that in northwestern Europe, would be too much to ask for in the foreseeable future. But at least we must necessarily have some idea as to the relative chronology of the various industrial assemblages in the Chinese area if we are to make any comparative study at all. For the Neolithic period a difference in age in the range of millennia if not centuries makes a vast difference in our interpretation of the origins and movements of cultures.

The second of these urgent problem areas is the comparative study of Chinese prehistoric data with the archaeology of adjacent regions in the Far East. Many scholars have made extended

efforts at comparing the Chinese data with the prehistory of distant West Asia and the Middle East and even with Nuclear America, but greater fruition will surely come about if our comparative activities are first to focus upon the areas that are close by, such as Siberia, Korea, Japan, and Southeast Asia. The relationship of the Fenhoian and the Ordosian with the Mousterian and Upper Palaeolithic cultures of the Altai, Siberia, and Japan; the relationship of the pre-Yangshao horizon in North China with the Japanese Jomon, on the one hand, and with the late Hoabinhian and Bacsonian of Southeast Asia, on the other; and the relationship of the Neolithic cultures in South China with the Neolithic cultures of the south- eastern Asiatic tropics and the Pacific regions all merit close scrutiny and careful study, but have yet to be carried out to any considerable extent on the latest available evidence.

The third problem area of greatest urgency is the matter of theory. Chinese archaeology has come a long way in this respect, and we must certainly be encouraged by this. Traditional archaeology in China can only be properly described as antiquarianism, whose main concern had been the intrinsic attributes of the artifacts rather than the cultural and historical information that these artifacts could possibly provide. After 1920 when the field methods of western archaeology were introduced into China, the gathering of prehistoric data has not only been recognized as an essential part of prehistoric science, but has also been developed into a mature technique in which stratigraphy and typological studies play leading roles. In recent years, Chinese archaeology has grown to the stage where interpretation of the prehistoric way of life and the prehistoric peoples' cultures and societies has become the generally recognized goal of research. However, a large amount of work in this latter sphere remains to be done to offset the over-indulgence in typological studies and descriptive analyses. Moreover, culture theorists have only just begun to utilize the Chinese prehistoric data for making syntheses and developmental schemes that are purported to be universally applicable. Alfred North Whitehead once remarked that China formed the greatest volume of civilization that the world has seen. We have now passed beyond the stage of saying that cultural theorists cannot afford to leave China out of any world-wide consideration. It is now more appropriate, rather, to say that we must realize that Chinese prehistoric archaeology has already offered much food for thought that a general cultural historian can ill-afford to pass up and can use to great advantage in




making world-wide theoretical generali- zations.

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1956 Tsai Chung-kuo fa-hsien ti shou-fu (Hand-axes Discovered in China). Ko- hsüeh-t'ung-pao 1956: 12, pp. 39-41, Peiping.

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Yale University New Haven, Conn.




Map 1. Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Sites in China. Circled sites are Palaeolithic; dotted sites Meso- lithic. (1) Choukoutien Locality 1; (2) Choukoutien Locality 4; (3) Choukoutien Locality 13; (4) Choukou- tien Locality 15; (5) Pei-lou-ting-shan, Anyang; (6) Ku-lung-shan, Yang-ch'eng; (7) Nan-hai-yü, Yüan- ch'ü; (8) Hou-chia-p'o, Shan Hsien; (9) P'ing-lu Hsien sites; (10) Ho-ho and Hsi-hou-tu, Jui-ch'eng; (11) Chang-chia-wan, T'ung-kuan; (12) Hsi-kou, Hou-ma; (13) Nan-liang, Hou-ma; (14) Ting-ts'un, Hsiang-fen; (15) Tung-ko-ta, Yu-she; (16) Ts'ao-chia-yai, Wen-shui; (17) Chiao-ch'eng Hsien sites; (18) Tsao-yen, P'ing-ting; (19) Ching-lo Hsien sites; (20) Ning-wu Hsien sites; (21) Shou Hsien sites; (22) Ta-tung; (23) Wu-pao; (24) Sjara-osso-gol (Hsiao-ch'iao-pan, Ta-kou-wan-ts'un, and Ti-shao-kou- ts'un); (25) Yü-ho-pao; (26) Yu-fang-t'ou; (27) Shen-mu; (28) Pao-te; (29) Ho-ch'ü; (30) P'ien-kuan; (31) Ch'ing-shui-ho; (32) Tokto; (33) Chungar; (34) Northwest Ordos; (35) Shui-tung-kou; (36) Chung-wei; (37) Ch'ing-yang; (38) Chien-p'ing; (39) Pan-la-ch'eng-tzu; (40) Darien; (41) Ch'ang-yang; (42) Wan Hsien; (43) Between I-ch'ang and Chungking; (44) Tzu-yang*, (45) Between Chungking and Ta-chien-lu; (46) Han-yüan; (47) Li-chiang; (48) Yih-liang; (49) Wu-ming; (50) Liu-chiang; (51) Ma-pa, Ch'u-chiang; (52) Djalai-nor; (53) Hailar; (54) Ku-hsiang-t'un and Ta-kou; (55) Upper Cave, Choukoutien; (56) North- east Ordos; (57) Sha-yüan; (58) Ch'iu-pei; (59) Wu-ming; (60) Kwei-lin; (61) Tung-hsing; (62) Hsi-chiao- shan, Nan-hai; (63) Hong Kong.




Map 2. Distribution of Neolithic Cultures and the Shang Civilization in China, with the Location and Stratigraphy of Ten Important Sites in the North.




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