Transcript
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LIFE CYCLE COST 

MA10103

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Introduction

For years, the architecture and construction industrieshave focused on two primary concerns in the creation of buildings.

The first, of utmost importance to architects, is the designof a building.

Is the building enjoyable to view and occupy?

Does the organization of spaces enhance the user’sprogram?

The client expects an architect to be able to design abuilding that satisfies their aesthetic and functional goals

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Introduction

The second concern, the primary focusof contractors, is the construction of abuilding.

How will the building be built?

How much will the building cost?

The client expects a contractor to beable to construct a sound building for theestimated construction cost.

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Introduction

These are typically the primary concernsof a client when the idea of constructinga building is addressed, so it is nosurprise that architects and contractorsfocus their efforts to this end.

Granted, these are significant concerns,however they are not the only concernsthat should be addressed when planningfor the future.

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Introduction

 A third concern that is receiving more

attention as building owners investigate

the economics of facility management, isthe cost of building operations over the

life of a building.

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Introduction

The combination of economic theory and

computer technology allows for a more

sophisticated approach to the design and

construction of a facility than ever before.

Instead of merely looking at the facility in terms

of cost to design and build, owners can broaden

their perspective to include operations,maintenance, repair, replacement, and disposal

costs.

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Introduction

The sum of initial and future costs

associated with the construction and

operation of a building over a period of time is called the life cycle cost of a

facility.

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Definition

The National Institute of Standards and

Technology (NIST) Handbook 135, 1995

edition, defines Life Cycle Cost (LCC)as:

“The total discounted dollar cost of owning,

operating, maintaining, and disposing of 

a building or a building system” over a

period of time”.

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Life Cycle Cost Analysis

(LCCA) Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) is an

economic evaluation technique that

determines the total cost of owning andoperating a facility over period of time.

Life cycle cost analysis is the evaluation

of agency, user, and other relevant costs

over the life of investment alternatives

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The structure of LCC benchmark

in

Building Project

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Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) in General 

Elements of Capital Cost

Loan or Bond Fund Elements

Energy Cost Elements

Water Cost Elements

Maintenance Cost Factors

Design to Minimize MaintenanceNon-Uniform Maintenance Cost

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Elements of Capital Cost

* Construction cost

Material

Labor 

Special equipment and/or rigging

Demolition

Contractor overhead and profit Special consultants and/or design

fees

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Elements of Capital Cost

 Additional mechanical, structural, or 

electrical requirements associated with

architectural alternative.

 Additional architectural, structural, or 

electrical requirements associated with

mechanical alternatives.

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Loan or Bond Fund Elements

Percent of capital cost borrowed

Interest rate

Loan/Bond period

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Energy Cost Elements

Non-Thermal or "Base" Loads

 – Lighting

 – Domestic hot water heating

 – Process loads are not included

2. Thermal or "HVAC" Loads

 – Heating/cooling energy to offset heat losses

and gains

 – Ventilation air heating and cooling

 – HVAC fan/pump energy consumption

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Water Cost Elements

1. Indoor Water Consumption

- Plumbing fixtures

- HVAC- Water recovery/capture

2. Outdoor Water Consumption- Landscape irrigation

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Maintenance Cost Factors

Owner’s resources and/or 

capabilities…lack of resources leads to

deferred maintenance and reduced  performance life that increase

maintenance costs! 

Quality of design

Quality of construction

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Design to Minimize Maintenance

1.How can it be reached?

2. How can it be cleaned?

3. How long will it last?4. How can it be replaced?

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Non-Uniform Maintenance

CostMaintenance and repair costs that occur 

at regular, but multi-year 

intervals…caulking, painting, chiller testing, etc.

Replacement cost required by elements

having short economic lives.

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ECONOMIC LIFE

Time at which maintenance costs

exceed replacement costs.

Annual inflation factor 

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Component in a LCC Equation

Cost

Study Period

Real Discount Rate Present Value

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Initial & Future Expenses

The first component in a LCC equation is cost.There are two major cost categories by whichprojects are to be evaluated in a LCCA.

They are Initial Expenses and Future Expenses.

Initial Expenses are all costs incurred prior tooccupation of the facility.

Future Expenses are all costs incurred after occupation of the facility.

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Study Period

The second component of the LCC equation is time. Thestudy period is the period of time over which ownershipand operations expenses are to be evaluated.

Typically, the study period can range from twenty to fortyyears, depending on owner’s preferences, the stability of the user’s program, and the intended overall life of thefacility.

While the length of the study period is often a reflection of the intended life of a facility, the study period is usuallyshorter than the intended life of the facility.

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Study Period

The National Institute of Standards and Technology(NIST) breaks the study period into two phases:

- the planning/construction period and

- the service period.

The planning/construction period is the time period fromthe start of the study to the date the building becomesoperational (the service date).

The service period is the time period from date thebuilding becomes operational to the end of the study.

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Real Discount Rate

The third component in the LCC equation is thediscount rate.

The discount rate, as defined by Life CycleCosting for Design Professionals, 2nd Edition,is “the rate of interest reflecting the investor’stime value of money.

” Basically, it is the interest rate that wouldmake an investor indifferent as to whether hereceived a payment now or a greater paymentat some time in the future.

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Real Discount Rate

The NIST takes the definition of discount rates

a step further by separating them into two

types:

- real discount rates and

- nominal discount rates.

The difference between the two is that the realdiscountrate excludes the rate of inflation and

the nominal discount rate includes the rate of 

inflation.

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Present Value

To accurately combine initial expenses

with future expenses, the present value

of all expenses must first be determined.

The NIST Handbook 135, 1995 edition,

defines present value as “the time

equivalent value of past, present or future cash flows as of the beginning of 

the base year.

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Present Value

The determination of the present value of future

costs is time dependent.

The time period is the difference between the

time of initial costs and the time of future costs.

Initial costs are incurred at the beginning of the

study period at Year 0, the base year.

Future costs can be incurred anytime between

Year 1 and Year 20.

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Present Value

Future costs can be broken down into twocategories:

- one-time costs and

- recurring costs.

Recurring costs are costs that occur ever year over the span of the study period. Most

operating and maintenance costs are recurringcosts.

One-time costs are costs that do not occur ever year over the span of the study period.

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Present Value

To simplify the LCCA, all recurring costs

are expressed as annual expenses

incurred at the end of each year andone-time costs are incurred at the end of 

the year in which they occur.

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Present Value

To determine the present value of future one-time costs the

following formula is used:

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Present Value

• To determine the present value of future recurring costs the

following formula is used:

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Selection of Project

Alternatives Prior to beginning a LCCA, project alternatives

need to be established. These alternatives

should be distinctly different and viable

solutions to the facility issue being addressed.The chosen alternative is to be the most

reasonable and cost-effective solution to the

project problem.

 A minimum of three different project alternatives

should be incorporated into the LCCA.

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Example: some possible project options 

Listed below are some possible project options that shouldbe considered while selecting the most viable,reasonable, and cost-effective alternatives

Renovation and addition to the existing school facility Rental and remodel of an existing local facility

Purchase and remodel of an existing local facility

 Alteration of the attendance area boundary

Demolition of existing school and construction of a newschool on the same site

The use of double shifting or year round school

Sale of existing school and construction of a new schoolon a new site

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Steps in the completion of the

LCCA of a project alternative

Initial investment costs

Operation Costs

Maintenance & Repair CostsReplacement Costs

Residual Value

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Initial investment costs

The first step in the completion of theLCCA of a project alternative is to defineall the initial investment costs of the

alternative.

Initial investment costs are costs thatwill be incurred prior to the occupation of the facility. All initial costs are to beadded to the LCCA total at their fullvalue.

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Operation Costs

The second step in the completion of the LCCA

of a project alternative is to define all the future

operation costs of the alternative.

The operation costs are annual costs,

excluding maintenance and repair costs,

involved in the operation of the facility.

Most of these costs are related to building

utilities and custodial services.

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Maintenance & Repair Costs

The third step in the completion of the

LCCA of a project alternative is to define

all the future maintenance and repair costs of the alternative

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Maintenance & Repair Costs

Maintenance costs are scheduled costsassociated with the upkeep of the facility.

 An example of a maintenance cost is the

cost of an annual roof inspection andcaulking of the building’s roof penetrations.

This task is a scheduled event that isintended to keep the building in goodcondition.

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Maintenance & Repair Costs

Repair costs are unanticipatedexpenditures that are required to prolongthe life of a building system without

replacing the system. An example is therepair of a broken window.

This is an unscheduled event that doesnot entail replacement of the entirewindow unit, merely the replacement of the broken pane.

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Replacement Costs

The fourth step in the completion of the

LCCA of a project alternative is to define

all the future replacement costs of thealternative.

Replacement costs are anticipated

expenditures to major building systemcomponents that are required to

maintain the operation of a facility.

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Residual Value

The fifth step in the completion of the

LCCA of a project alternative is to define

the residual value of the alternative.

Residual value, as defined earlier, is the

net worth of a building or building system

at the end of the LCCA study period.

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Residual Value

The residual value of a facility or building

system is especially important when

evaluating project alternatives that havedifferent life expectancies.

 An example is the evaluation of two

roofing alternatives, a metal roof and acomposition shingle roof.

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Residual Value

The shingle roof has a life span of 20years where as the metal roof isexpected to last 40 years.

In a LCCA over a 30-year study periodthe shingle roof will have to be replaced,thus incurring replacement costs. Themetal roof will not require replacement;thus no replacement costs will beincurred.

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Residual Value

The metal roof has a residual value of onequarter its initial cost because at the end of thestudy period three-quarters of its intended lifewill have been consumed.

The shingle roof has a residual value of half itsinitial cost because a replacement roof wasinstalled ten years prior.

Thus, at the end of the study period, half of thecurrent shingle roof’s intended life will havebeen consumed.

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Life Cycle Cost Categories

*Maintenance and Repair 

Interior Specialties

Conveyance Systems

Plumbing Piping

Plumbing Fixtures Fire Protection Systems

HVAC Distribution

HVAC Equipment

HVAC Controls

Electrical Service/Generation Electrical Distribution

Electrical Lighting

Special Electrical Systems

Equipment & Furnishings 

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Life Cycle Cost Categories*Replacement Cost (scheduled replacement of building systems or 

components)

Site Improvements

Site Utilities

Foundation/Substructure

Superstructure Exterior Wall Systems

Exterior Windows

Exterior Doors

Roof Systems

Interior Partitions

Interior Doors

Interior Floor Finishes

Interior Wall Finishes

Interior Ceiling Finishes

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Life Cycle Cost Categories

*Replacement Cost (cont.)

Interior Specialties

Conveyance Systems

Plumbing Piping

Plumbing Fixtures

Fire Protection Systems

HVAC Distribution

HVAC Equipment

HVAC Controls

Electrical Service/Generation Electrical Distribution

Electrical Lighting

Special Electrical Systems

Equipment & Furnishings

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Life Cycle Cost Categories

*Residual Value (value of facility at end of study period)

Site Improvements

Site Utilities

Foundation/Substructure Superstructure

Exterior Wall Systems

Exterior Windows

Exterior Doors

Roof Systems

Interior Partitions Interior Doors

Interior Floor Finishes

Interior Wall Finishes

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Life Cycle Cost Categories

* Residual Value (value of facility at end of study period)

Interior Ceiling Finishes

Interior Specialties

Conveyance Systems Plumbing Piping

Plumbing Fixtures

Fire Protection Systems

HVAC Distribution

HVAC Equipment

HVAC Controls Electrical Service/Generation

Electrical Distribution

Electrical Lighting

Special Electrical Systems

Equipment & Furnishings

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