MAIZE IN THE IRRIGATED FARMING SYSTEMS OF

THE PUNJAB: AN EXPLORATORY SURVEY

H. Ramzan Akhtarl

Derek Byerlee2

Paul W. Heisey2

E. John Stevens2

PARC/CIMHYT Paper No. 86-14

!Agricultural Economics Research Unit (PARC), Ayub Agricultural Research Institute, Faisalabad

2PARC/CIHHYT Collaborative Programme

1986

Maize Research Reports In This Series

Byerlee, D. and S.S. Hussain. 1986. Maize production in NWFP: A review of technological issues in relation to farmers' circumstances. PARC/CIMMYT Paper No. 86-1.

Stevens, E.J., M.Q. Chatha, M. Salim, and D. Byerlee. 1986. Farmer oriented research and the transfer of maize technology for NWFP and the Islamabad Capital Territory of Pakistan. PARC/CIMMYT Paper No. 86-2.

Fischer, K, and H.I. Javed. 1986. Production of maize grain and fodder in the Northwest Frontier Province and Islamabad Capital Territory of Pakistan. PARC/CIMMYT Paper No. 86-3.

Amir, P. 1986. Maize marketing and utilization in Pakistan. PARC/CIMMYT Paper No. 86-4.

Stevens, E.J., M. Aslam, D. Byerlee, and M.Q. Chatha. 1986. Report of an onfarm maize travelling workshop. PARC/CIMMYT Paper No. 86-5.

Hussain, S.S., M. Ahmed, M. Haq Nawaz, and S. Hayat. 1986. Maize in the irrigated farming systems of Mardan District: Implications for results and extension. PARC/CIMMYT Paper No. 86-6.

Style guidelines of PARC/CIMMYT publicat~ons. PARC/CIMMYT Paper No. 86-11.

Khan, K., D. Byerlee, M. Ahmed, M. Saleem and E.J. Stevens. 1986. Farmer managed verification of improved maize technology: Results and experiences from Swat, 1985. PARC/CIMMYT Paper No. 86-12.

Eskridge K.M., R.F. Mumm, M. Aslam and E.J. Stevens. 1986. Selection for genotypic stability using expected utility maximization and safety first rules. PARC/CIMMYT Paper No. 86-13.

Single copies of these reports may be obtained by writing to Dr Qasim Chatha, Maize Coordinator, NARC, Islamabad,

or to CIMMYT, P.O. Box 1237, Islamabad.

Published by the Pakistan Agricultural Research Council and the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre

Collaborative Programme with funding from USAID Contract 391-0489

ii.

Acknowledgements

We gratefully acknowledge contributions by staff of the Ayub Agricultural Research Institute, Faisalabad; the Agricultpral Economics Research Units and the National Coordinated Maize Programme, Pakistan Agricultural Research Council; and funding and supporting agencies/organizations. We compliment the secretarial and logistical services of Haroon Pervaiz 3nd Mrs Shama Hussain. Editorial contributions by J. W. Pilgrim Associates (Private) Ltd are acknowledged.

iii.

Table of Contents

Page

Acknowledgements . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . ... . . . .. . . iii Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

Introduction

Research Method

The Crop Production Environment

1

1

2

The Cropping System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Maize Crop Rotations . . . . . .. ..... .. . .. . . 3 Perceived Trends in Maize Area .... ..... 6

Kharif Maize Production Practices . . . . . .. . 6 Land Preparation . . . . ................... 6 Varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Planting Method and Seed Rate .. ... .... 8 Planting Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Weed Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Plant Protection . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . .. . .. .. 9 Fertilizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Thinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Irrigation Scheduling . . . ............. .. 10 Harvesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Utilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Contract Maize Grower System of Rafhan Maize Products Limited, Faisalabad .. . . ... 12

Factors Limiting Productivity of Maize 13

References 15

iv.

List of Tables

Table

1. Area Under Various Crops During Rabi and Kharif Seasons in Faisalabad and Toba Tek Singh Districts,

Page

1983-84 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

v.

Figure

1.

2.

List of Figures

Kharif Maize Rotations

Spring Maize Rotations

vi.

Page

5

7

Summary

Data generated during an informal exploratory survey of maize production within the Faisalabad and Toba Tek Singh Districts, which was conducted during October, 1985 by a multi-disciplinary team of agricultural economists and a maize agronomist from the Agricultural Economics Research Unit, Faisalabad, and PARC/CIMMYT (Pakistan Agricultural Research Council/Interna~ional Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre) is reported and discussed. Socio-economic and natural circumstances of farmers located within the study area, maize cropping systems, and production and marketing practices including major limiting factors are documented.

Major features of the climate included two production seasons, neither of which were ideally suited to maize production. Cold temperatures delayed the planting and emergence of spring maize, which was often reflected in poor stand establishment. Heat stress caused plant mortality at early vegetative stages in kharif (summer) maize crops; and at later reproductive stages, infertility, kernel abortion, and poor grain fill in both spring and kharif crops. All maize crops were irrigated using canal and/or ground water which was, at times, augmented by limited rainfall. Monsoon rains often delayed the planting of maize and caused severe soil crusting. Overall water shortages were commonly reported, with maize generally being managed as a catch crop of lower manage1ial priority compared with cash crops such as wheat, cotton and tobacco. Irrigation systems which were historically designed for 50 percent summer and 25 percent winter use efficiency were realizing between 100-120 percent efficiency in areas having adequate supplies of ground water (and energy for pumping water).

Maize production during 1983-84 represented 23 percent of the kharif cropping area within the districts surveyed (74,000 ha), of which 60 percent was harvested for grain. Especially with smaller farmers, animal fodder was progressively thinned from the maize grain crop. In many instances, large farmers produced maize fodder separately from grain by utilizing high plant densities and harvesting at mid reproductive stages of phenology (growth). Individual land holdings were generally less than five hectares and usually owner operated, but tenancy was practiced.

Chemical fertilizers, insecticides and weedicides were readily available. Some farmers regularly purchased seed from recognized sources, while the majority of farmers were unaware of recently released improved varieties. Good quality seed of improved varieties was not readily available. The use by farmers of mixed material containing germplasm from 0lder varieties such as Jl, Neelam, and Akbar was recorded, hcwever, no conscious varietal maintenance (selection pressure) was practiced by these farmers.

vii.

Input and product marketing and distribution services appeared to function reasonably well, although credit availability was poor and often untimely. A shift from sugarcane to maize was reported by farmers in response to the following problems associated with sugarcane; a) reduced gross margins, b) marketing difficulties, and c) the long duration of the sugarcane crop (approximately 14 months).

Rafhan Maize Products Limited, Faisalabad, reported that they contracted between 500 and 600 farmers from the Faisalabad, Sahiwal and Multan Districts each year to produce approximately 12,000 hectares of spring maize, usually planted after potatoes. No official (Government) statistics were available for spring maize production. Rafhan contract growers reportedly produced, on average, 3.6 tonnes of grain per hectare from spring planted maize (i.e. approximately double the official grain yield average for kharif maize production).

Sub-optimal plant populations in both spring and summer planted maize fields, 10,000-25,000 plants per hectare below recommended levels, appeared to be a major factor limiting improved prodactivity. The use of appropriate agricultural mechanization (especially land preparation and planting methodologies), control of wild pigs, the use of fungicide (for spring maize), weedicides, and insecticides warrant further on-farm research in an effort to identify technologies which will improve the establishment and ultimate productivity of maize crops. Priority should be given to developing earlier maturing spring maize cultivars with cold/heat tolerance, and increasing the availability to farmers of improved varieties of maize seed adapted to current cropping systems/practices.

viii.

Introduction

Maize in the Punjab accounts for just under half the planted area and just under half the total production of maize grown in Pakistan. A survey conducted in the Punjab in 1982/83 .by Rafhan Maize Products Limited concluded that 60 percent of the maize area is planted primarily for grain. A small·but .. influential proportion of maize grown in the Punjab (just · over two percent of the total area) is produced by growers under contract to Rafhan, primarily in the spring season. To date, no detailed production survey has been conducted among maize growers in the Punjab for the purpose of guiding research and extension efforts in maize.

The Agricultural Economics Research Unit, Faisalabad~ in collaboration with PARC/CIMMYT and the National Coordinated Maize Programme conducted a pilot survey of maize production and marketing practices in Faisalabad Division in October 1985. This exploratory survey followed the research method explained in CIMMYT Economics, 1984, and had the followidg objectives:

(1) to generally understand the natural and socio-economic circumstances of farmers in the study·area;

(2) to describe, in general, the maize cropping system, production practices, and marketing of maize;

(3) to identify alternative criteria for delineating recommendation domains in the study are~;

(4) to examine the contract - maize grower system used by Rafhan Maize Products, Faisalabad; and

(5) to identify major factors limiting productivity in maize.

Research Method

The five-day survey was conducted in October, 1985 by a multi-disciplinary team that included agricultural economists and a maize agronomist. The areas covered in the survey were Faisalabad and Toba Tek Singh Districts. Three teams were formed each day to work in pre-selected areas which included villages near main roads as well as more remote villages.

Each team interviewed farmers or groups of farmers who were met by chance in their fields or in the villages. Interviews were conducted informally without the use of a questionnaire but guided by a check list of important issues to be covered. Interviews ranged from a few minutes to over an hour in length depending on the time and interest of the farmer. An effort was made to create a relaxed atmosphere in which farmers would feel free to express themselves and

1

provide researchers with a deeper understanding of the complexities of farmers' management practices.

Special efforts were also made to observe problems in farmers' fields such as weeds and crop stand establishment. Other people with knowledge of agriculture, such as maize traders, input dealers and extension workers were also interviewed. In addition, agronomists at Rafhan Maize Products Limited were interviewed about the contract maize growing and marketing system of Rafhan. Several contract growers were interviewed at their farms. At the end of each day of work the team met in order to exchange findings, analyse data and plan the following day's activities.

Results of the exploratory survey reported below represent a consensus of all participants of this survey.

The Crop Production Environment

Faisalabad and Toba Tek Singh Districts have a semi-arid and arid subtropical continental climate. The major features of the climate are two production seasons, i.e. a hot summer with late moonsoon rains and a relatively mild winter. The annual rainfall is'about 35 em. The hottest months are May and June, with long-term mean temperatures of 39 and 40oC, respectively. The aoils have formed in a river terrace and in the alluvial deposits of the Chenab and Ravi Rivers (Govt. of Pakistan, 1967). The pH is about 8.2, except in the case of alkali soils. The organic matter content in the surface soil is about 0.5 percent.

Irrigation is provided by canals supplemented by tube wells. The Jhang, Gogara and Rekh branches irrigate the whole of this area. Monsoon rains are also important at the time of sowing, especially for small farmers.

The main market towns in Faisalabad and Toba Tek Singh Districts are Faisalabad, Toba Tek Singh, Jaranwala, Gojra, Samundri, Kamalia and Pirmahel. Almost all villages are connected to main roads by either 'Katcha' (second grade) or 'Pacca' (first grade) roads. There are different channels of maize grain marketing in this area. The major marketing outlets include Rafhan commission agents in grain markets, direct buying from contract growers by Rafhan, and private commission agents ('Beoparies') in grain markets and villages.

Generally, land holdings are small (under five ha) in Faisalabad and Toba Tek Singh Districts. The most common form of land tenure is owner operation, although tenancy is also practiced in a few areas.

There is a general shortage of labour in these two districts, but there is no obvious shortage of labour for maize. Only big landlords need casual hired labour for harvesting and shelling maize; in this case, stalks are taken by workers as payment. Most other farmers use family

2

labour to harvest maize, although they often hire labour for harvesting othe~ crops such as wheat anc sugarcane.

During the planting period for maize, family labour is also busy hoeing cotton which leads to labour conflicts in areas where both maize and cotton are grown.

Formal credit is not easil~ available to ordinary farmers because of procedural complexities and the physical isolation of farmers from lending agencies. Farmers complained about the real cost of credit. Non-institutional credit is often used which is mainly taken from friends, relatives and commission agents. In the case of loans from commission agents, farmers have to sell their produce to these 'arthies' at lower prices, which is equivalent to the payment of interest.

Chemical fertilizers, insecticides and weedicides are readily available in all areas, mostly sold by private dealers. A few farmers complained that fertilizer was sometimes low quality or underweight.

An adequate distribution system for improved maize seed does not exist in the area. However, a few influential big landlords obtained improved and/or hybrid seed from the Maize and Millet Research Institute, Yousafwala and Rafhan Maize Products Ltd, Faisalabad. Many small farmers are unaware of more recently released improved varieties and continue using their own seed. Without knowing, many farmers use derivatives of older varieties such as Jl, Neelam and Akbar. Their seed is, however, mixed and does not conform with varietal descriptions.

The Cropping System

Wheat, sugarcane, cotton and maize are the major crops of Faisalabad and Toba Tek Singh Districts (Table 1). In 1983-84, wheat accounted for 96 and 93 percent o~ the cropped area in the rabi season in Faisalabad and Toba Tek Singh Districts, respectively. Sugarcane, cotton, maize and rice are the main kharif crops (Table 1). In 1984, maize accounted for 22 to 23 percent of the total area of Faisalabad and Toba Tek Singh Districts.

Maize Crop Rotations

The cropping systems of Faisalabad and Toba Tek Singh_ Districts are very complex. · Farmers plant a wide variety of crops; wheat predominates in the rabi season. Figure 1 shows some of the rotations in which kharif maize is grown. The commonly found rotation into which kharif maize is incorporated is maize after wheat. However, small farmers with access to water also plant kharif fodder (refer Figure 1) after wheat and then plant maize in the first or second week of August.

3

Table 1. Area under various crops during rabi and kharif seasons in Faisalabad and Toba Tek Singh Districts, 1983-84.

Crops Faisalabad Toba Tek Singh Area Percent Area Percent

(000 ha) (000 ha)

Kharif CrQQS Maize 46.2 22.7 27.8 23.3 Sugarcane 86.8 42.6 38.1 31.9 Cotton 31.9 15.7 34.4 28.8 Rice 26.7 13.1 11.3 9.5 Millet 3.6 1.8 0.8 0.7 Sorghum 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 Tobacco 2.1 1.0 1.0 0.9 Others (vegetables, 5.5 2.7 5.7 4.8 pulses, oilseeds)

Total 203.3 100.0 119.3 100.0

Rabi CrQps

Wheat 257.4 96.0 128.7 92.7 ·.

Barley 2~3 0.9 0.4 0.3 Rape & mustard 5~7 2.1 5.'3 4.2 Others (pulses, . 2.·; 7 1.0 3.9 2.8 vegetables, oil seeds)

Total 286.1 100.0 138.9 100.0

Source: Govt. of Pakistan, 1984.

4

Jan

wn~at

wh~af

(J1

wh(tat

Fig. 1. Kharrf maize rotct1ons

* sorghum# maize, or guara (legume)

Figure 2 shows some of the rotations for spring maize. Only big farmers, especially the Rafhan contract growers, were planting spring maize. Generally they were potato growers, and they were planting more area under spring maize than wheat. Also, some farmers planted spring maize in a cotton-maize rotation, but in this case cotton planting is delayed.

Generally, farmers did not plant spring maize because they preferred wheat. Farmers also believed that maize needed more irrigation water and had a problem with birds. Water availability, light soils, and timely monsoon rains at the end of July and August are important factors influencing the area of maize in the kharif season.

Maize is also an important source of fodder for livestock owned by small farmers. However, maize fodder and grain is usually produced in separate fields using different cultural practices. Fields planted for fodder are sown at seed rates double those for grain fields. Thinning in fields planted for fodder occurred over a longer interval, and more intensively than in fields planted for grain. Farmers with enough water might plant maize fodder twice in the kharif season. Market access and fodder prices in the nearby town were also important factors determining the importance of maize fodder.

A few small farmers were found relay cropping berseem and mustard in maize. They broadcast berseem seed in maize in early October after irrigating the field. Some farmers also intercropped rape/mustard and millet with maize.

Perceived Trends in Maize Area

The trend in maize area was also investigated. Farmers were of the opinion that areas have been shifting out of sugarcane into maize and cotton. The stated reasons for this were market1ng problems for sugarcane, high cost of inputs, low procurement prices, and the long duration of the crop.

Kharif Maize Production Practices

Land Preparation

Land preparation for maize was usually performed by tractors equipped with a tyned cultivator and followed by a planking. In this operation, a plank is attached behind the cultivator during the last ploughing. Small farmers used bullocks or hired tractors at the rate of Rs 75 to 100 per hectare per ploughing. The number of ploughings varied from three to five before maize planting. Usually, two ploughings were followed by one planking. The cropping pattern partly determined the number of tillage operations. If a kharif

6

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;,.: k h ari f ,/' . - - ..•• - - - .•• • .• • · . • • · · • • · · · · • ·--- ~

................ ·-· · spring kharif /' m~·~ '7, m~i'7,222/ .A1

~tp;~~n~~ ~' •. -·-··· A .... ..d;~;:~.~-z:~. ~- __ _

• • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • 0(6

~ • • • - --:r.~=== -.. •-- ~-7. 41 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I It I! I I I I I I I I II • • • • •• • • • • • • • •- • •

-.1

F1g. 2. Spring maize rotations

fodder crop is grown immediately preceding maize, there is less time for ploughing before planting mai.ze. A few farmers also made ridges with tractors to reduce lodging, a practice ~hich also improved drainage:

Varieties

Farmers usually planted local or one of the older improved maize varieties, e.g. Jl, Neelam, Akbar or Sultan (Sunehri is mostly planted in spring). Many large farmers also planted hybrid maize in both kharif and spring seasons. Hybrid seed is provided by Rafhan and tftml, Yousafwala. For other improved varieties, farmers used their own seed or obtained it from other farmers (friends).

Farmers prefer Neelam variety for its eating quality and early maturity. Farmers who used hybrids wished to obtain high yields. However, many farmers are not aware of the degeneration of hybrid seed when it is planted during successive seasons. Farmers also complained about the high cost of hybrid seed, which is about Rs 6/kg. This is approximately three times the market price of grain. It was observed that there was little lodging in hybrids but disease problems were greater.

Planting Method and Seed Rate

Farmers used different methods for planting maize; (1) broadcast and covered by tractor or bullock drawn cultivators, (2) 'Kera' (dropping seed by hand into furrows created by a bullock drawn plough), (3) drill (maize drill, cotton drill and a common drill for maize, wheat and cotton}, and (4) 'Pora' (dropping seed into a funnel attached to a plough). No farmers were found to be using maize planters. Broadcast and kera methods were most commonly used. Drills were used only by big farmers. Only

.a few farmers used the pora method. It was ob3erved that farmers who planted maize by

broadcasting had poor crop stands compared to those planting by other metho~s. The main reasons for farmers broadcasting seed were late sowing and unavailability of bullocks. The major problem in using the kera method was that it required more labour and time compared to broadcasting.

Farmers broadcast planting used higher seed rates (40 kg/ha) as compared with rates (25-32 kg/ha) used during the kera method. The seed rate for maize fodder, which is broadcast planted, was almost double the seed rate for maize broadcast planted for grain. Farmers having more livestock also used higher seed rates to provide maize thinnings for livestock.

8

Planting Time

Farmers generally plant maize from July 7 to August 7. However, a few farmers also plant late (8 to 20 August) because of a lack of water and competition for water from sugarcane, cotton and rice. Hence farmers have to wait for monsoon rains to plant maize. The other reason for late planting was that farmers were busy with cotton inter-culture and bullocks were not available for planting maize. Plantin~ date is also affected by crop rotation. Some farmers also plant late to avoid insect attack (stem borer) and wild pigs. In 1985, the main reason for late planting was the late monsoon.

Weed Control

Farmers use different methods to control weeds in maize, keeping in view their resources. Most farmers control weeds by one to two inter-cultures with bullocks using a desi plough. Inter-culture is done only in line planted fields. Big farmers often used bullock or tractor cultivators. Hoeing is also practiced by a few small farmers (especially on broadcast fields) but it is not popular because of its high labour requirements. Farmers also cut grasses and weeds from maize fields for fodder purposes. A few big farmers were found controlling weeds with herbicides (Primextra) and a good control of 'Itsit' (Trianthema monogvna) weed was observed.

Plant Protection

The majority of farmers complained that their maize crop was affected by borer attack in early growth stages. Some farmers used ins~cticides in the maize crop (Thiadine, Endrine, Furadan and Basodine). The use of insecticides is more common, however, in other crops such as cotton. The reason for limited use of insecticide in maize may be the low priority of taize with relation to other cash crops.

Fertilizers

Generally, farmers applied chemical fertilizer by the broadcast method, but a few farmers were found who applied fertilizer by drill or by the pora method. A common practice is to apply all phosphorous and some nitrogen at planting, and the remainder of the nitrogen at the first irrigation.

Most farmers in both Faisalabad and Toba T~k Singh apply fertilizer to maize. Application of 150 kg/ha of DAP (30 kg/haN, 69 kg/ha P20s) and 150 kg/ha of Urea (69 kg/ha

9

N) is a common practice. Some farmers also apply farm yard manure to maize instead of chemical fertilizers.

Urea, ammonium nitrate, nitrophos, single super phosphate and DAP are the most commonly used chemical fertilizers. Farmers who plant maize after potatoes do not use phosphorus, since they have already applied a high rate (approximately 100 kg/ha P20s) to the potato crop.

Thinning

Farmers thin maize to obtain plant densities which facilitate good grain yields. However, some farmers also thin maize fields largely for fodder purposes. In this case they use a higher seed rate, although the intensity of thinning depends on the germination percentage and the farmer's need ~or fodder. Thinning in fields grown for grain usually ~akes place after the first irrigation. Thinning in fodder fields tends to sta ·t a month after planting, and ~ontinues up to harvest :allowing a schedule determined by ~odder requirements. Many fields were noted to support subJptimal stand densities ')f less than 50,000 plants per hectare.

Irrigation Scheduling

Both electric and diesel tubewells are used in this area. Because of a lack of electricity in many villages, diesel tubewells were much more widely used despite the fact that they were more costly to operate. Generally, the water charges for electric tubewells range from 15-20 Rupees per hour compared to Rs 25-40 per hour for diesel. Between five and 7.5 hours are required to irrigate one hectare of maize. By contrast, the cost of canal irrigation for maize is about Rs 50 per hectare for the whole crop.

There are areas in Jaranwala, Samundri, Gojra and Toba Tek Singh where the quality of ground water was poor (i.e. saline), and canal irrigation is the only useable water source. In these areas, farmers complain about the severe shortage of water due to canal closures during the kharif season.

The number of irrigations given to a maize crop depends upon water availability, and the frequency of monsoon rains during July and August. For farmers having adequate water supplies, the number of irrigations varies from five to nine, whereas .f there is a water shortage, the number of irrigations rarlges from three to four. However, in the case of the spring crop, the number of irrigations ranges from six to seven. Apart from the number oi irrigations, timeliness of .rrigation relative to crucial growth phases, such as ear initiation, flowering and Prain filling are important factors influencing maize yields. Farmers irrigate maize fodder five to six times.

10

Harvesting

Maize is harvested starting from the end of October and continued to mid December. Harvesting and dehusking is done manually, mostly by family labour. After dehusking, maize ears are transported to the shelling floor and dried for several days. Dried maize ears are shelled by hired maize shellers at the rate of two kg/maund (40 kg) in the case of larger farmers, or small farmers usually shell maize manually using st:cks. The shelling efficiency of a maize sheller was 20-25 maunds per hour.

Marketing

Most small farmers preferred to sell maize to private agents ('Beoparies') at the farm gate at slightly less than the market price. These 'Beoparies' bought maize from farmers and later hauled it to secondary markets in nearby towns. Some farmers, especially big landlords, also sold directly to commission agents situated at nearby grain markets. Farmers paid commission to these agents at the rate of three to five percent of the.total money value of maize (including unloading charges). Transportation charges varied from two to three Rupees per maund (40 kg), depending upon the distance from the market. Farmers also paid octroi charges at the rate of Rs 0.40 per maund. Some farmers also complained about underweighing and untimely payments by commission agents.

Rafhan Maize Products Limited, Faisalabad, purchase directly from their contract growers, and from grain markets through their authorized commission agents. Direct purchase is more common for spring maize, while market purchase is common for kharif (summer) maize. In both cases, transportation charges are born by Rafhan, and the price is pre-announced. The contract purchase price is fixed prior to planting through a written agreement between Rafhan and the grower. This price, having been fixed earlier in the season, is at tim~s lower than the prevailing market price at the time of purchase. Rafhan utilizes 15 percent moisture content in assessing the quantity of procured maize, and subsequent payment.

Selling of green cobs together with the stalks harvested before r.aturity is also a common practice in areas near towns. The: rice for green cobs varied from Rs 3,750 to 5,000 per hectcre. However, the price of barren maize stalks in the towns varied from three to five Rupees per maund.

Utilization

Smaller farmers, for the most part, planted maize as a source of grain for home consumption and to sell the surplus

11

in the market. The average home consumption of maize grain as food is five to 10 maunds per household during winter. Poultry and industrial sectors are the major market users of maize.

Contract Maize Grower System of Rafhan Maize Products Limited, Faisalabad

Generally, contract growers are large farmers who grow maize on a pre-specified contractual agreement with Rafhan. Contract growers number 500 to 600 in the spring season, whereas in the kharif season Rafhan produces only hybrid seed in farmers' fields. Rafhan also provides, on a limited scale, hybrid maize seed on a cash basis to maize growers at their own risk (signed document) during the kharif season. Spring maize grouers are usually only large farmers who have specialized crop rotations, usually potato growers. Contract growers are located in Faisalabad, Toba Tek Singh, Jhang, Sahiwal, Okara aJtd Mul tan. Together they produce 25 percent of the total maize utilized by Rafhan in a year resulting from avera~e yields of 3,Roo·k~/ha.

Contract growers receive seed, fertilizer, pesticides and information through three agronomists appointed by Rafhan and located in Faisalabad, Sahiwal, and Multan. Inputs are provided free of interest charges and the purchase price is recovered subsequently at the time of procurement by Rafhan from contract growers.

Rafhan provides the following basic recommended technologies for maize.

(1) Hybrid seed (Nos 786, 790, 791, 792, 788) sown at the rate of 37-40 kg per hectare. The price of hybrid seed during the kharif season of 1985 was Rs 6/kg, and during the spring season of 1986, hybrid seed sold for Rs 7/kg. The seed is also treated with a fungicide (Vitavax) at the rate of 100 g of ingredient per 40 kg of seed.

(2) Generally, Rafhan recommends 168 to 222 kg of nitrogen per hectare and 111 kg of phosphorus per hectare. In the case of maize grown after a potato crop, only 57 to 114 kg of nitrogen per hectare is recommended.

(3) The recommended plant population is 74,000 plants per hectare for spring planting and 67,000 plants per hectare for kharif crops. Row to row distance is 75 ern and plant to plant distance 18 em in spring and 20 em in kharif season maize. Earthing-up (ridging) is also recommended.

(4) Three insecticide applications of Malathion (0.8 litres of formula per hectare), Basodine (12.35 kg of formula per hectare) and Diazinin (17 kg of formula per hectare) are recommended.

( 5) The recommended planting seaso11 for maize is February 10 to March 15 in the spring se~son.

12

Factors Limiting Productivity of Maize

Historically, the irrigation system within the study area was designed for realizing approximately 75 percent efficiency; 50 percent during the kharif season and 25 percen~ during the rabi season. Depending on rainfall, canal/channel maintenance and water supply, farmers reported cropping intensities in excess of 100-120 percent under favourable conditions. The complexity of cropping patterns/sequences illustrated in Figures 1 and 2 highlight the range of lucrative cash crops, other than maize, grown in the study area.

Maize grain production within the area surveyed is not seen by farmers as being of primary importance within the majority of rotations, especially those practiced by large farmers. Hybrid maize seed and general grain production practiced during the spring season (usually following potatoes) is, ho~ever, an exception, as is hybrid seed production during the kharif season. Generally, priority allocation of sc~rce resources such as land, labour, fertilizer and water is given to wheat, cotton, sugarcane and tobacco; sunflower being a relatively new crop.

Specialist maize fodder production represents 40 percent of the total maize area. This crop is usually cultured separately from maize grown for grain, and generally appears to be of higher priority than the grain crop. The fodder component of maize managed as a mixed culture for both grain and fodder was also reported to take priority over grain production, especially where farmers had numerous milk animals and/or smaller farms.

In many areas, especially those which lacked good quality ground water and tubewells, maize was managed as a catch crop. Maize is often planted late since farmers tend to wait to see how much rain they will receive to augment irrigation supplies; or sacrificed early if water shortages are encountered. Heat stress during anthesis (flowering) was commonly reported for spring maize crops and early vegetative stages for kharif maize. Spring maize varieties often flower and mature so late that these cultural events conflict with the planting of cotton. Spring rains were also reported, at times, to delay cotton harvest to the point of conflict with the planting of spring maize.

Plant populations in maize fields throughout the survey area were generally 10,000-25,000 plants/ha less than levels recommended by local research scientists and extension staff. Addition~! data supplied by the Maize and Millet Research Institute (Yousafwala) supported the hypothesis that low plant populations are a recurrent problem for both spring and kharif maize production. Priority research areas for improving maize production within current cropping systems were noted to include; 1) appropriate agricultural mechanization (especially land preparation and planting methodologies); 2) control of wild pigs; 3) the use of

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fungicide (spring maize), weedicides and insecticides; and 4) the development of earlier maturing, spring maize cultivars with cold/heat tolerance. Inadequate supplies of improved varieties of maize seed and poor farmer appreciation of the need to use quality seed was also noted to represent a major constraint for improved maize production within the cropping practices and priorities described in this report.

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References

CIHMYT Economics, 1984. The farming system perspective and farmer participation in the development of appropriate technology. In C.K. Eicher and J. Staaa (ed). Agricultural Development in the Third World, John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.

Govt. of Pakistan, 1967. Reconnaissance soil survey of Lyallpur (Faisalabad) area. Directorate of Soil Survey, West Pakistan, Soil Survey Project of Pakistan, Lahore.

Govt. of Pakistan, 1984. Agricultural statistics of Pakistan. Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Cooperatives, Food and Agriculture Division (Planning Unit), Islamabad.

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