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Page 1: Imagined Communities

IMAGINED COMMUNITIES

Citizenship and Nationhood

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Today

Seen examination discussion (and reassurance?)

Modular movements: from division to cohesion

National identity and nationalism

Managing belonging

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Exam review format

Select two questions from seven options

Two hours

Under standard exam conditions

One A4 page of notes allowed (both sides)

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Purpose

This is not a memory test!

The basis of your discussion should be a demonstration of your understanding of the core themes of the course

Try to integrate knowledge from different lectures

Link this understanding to the world around you

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Expectations

Demonstrate your understanding of the link between social differences and social divisions

Evaluate the causes of social divisions and the possibilities for political resistance

Consider how social cohesion is achieved

Use evidence to support your ideas http://www.hefce.ac.uk/ http://www.ucas.co.uk/ http://www.offa.org.uk/

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Question One

Critically discuss the future impacts of increases in university fees upon class stratification and social exclusion in Britain. (Lectures 2,3 and 4) What are the likely future impacts of fee increases? What evidence is there for this? What is the importance of university education?

How do you define class and social exclusion? Marx, Weber and social mobility

How will the impact of fee increases influence upon this

structure?

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Question Two

Why might some ethnicities in Britain be less likely to study science at university? (Lectures 2, 3 and 4)

Are some ethnicities less likely to study science?

Why

Biology? (explain the distinction between race and ethnicity)

Culture? (what factors are relevant – family, class?)

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Question Three

To what extent would it be justifiable to promote ‘affirmation action’ policies to encourage more men to participate in British higher education? (Lectures 4, 9 & 10) What is the difference in participation rates between

genders and what is the context for this difference? Why might this have occurred? Introduce distinction

between sex and gender What is affirmative action (positive action/discrimination)

and why would it be justified? Are there other factors to be considered?

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Question Four

Discuss the factors that influence the proportional over-representation of former ‘public school’ pupils at Oxbridge universities (Lectures 2,3 and 4)

Is there an over-representation of public school pupils

at Oxbridge?

Why are these inequalities reproduced? (class, ethnicity)

Is it a matter of (generational) meritocracy, or discrimination?

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Question Five

Critically discuss what it would mean for universities to treat disabled students ‘less favourably’ (Lectures 6, 9 and 10)

What does ‘less favourably’ and equality mean in regards to disability?

When is positive action justifiable?

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Question Six

Why would governments seek to promote wider participation in higher education? (Lectures 9, 10 and 11)

What is widening participation?

Are there inequalities in access to universities?

What is the importance of education for mobility?

Why would governments seek to achieve social cohesion and minimise inequalities?

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Question Seven

Critically discuss the impact of digital exclusion upon higher education in the 21st century (Lecture 11)

What is ‘digital exclusion’?

Why is it importance in regards to higher education?

Inequality or social mobility?

Is class relevant?

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Modular movements

Social Differences Social Divisions

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Solidarity and Cohesion

Identities and societies are distinguished by social differences, but these differences often produce divisions

These divisions are political rather than natural

Why, and how, are they reproduced so consistently?

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Our Question

What are the mechanisms through which social cohesion is achieved?

National identity (Week 8)

State control (Week 9)

Community identification (Week 10)

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Initial Responses

What are the primary mechanisms through which

social cohesion is reproduced in Britain?

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Turning to the nation

Social divisions are flattened when members identify with a (limited) larger cause

These identifications are often passionate and provide a sense of belonging

But they also define who belongs and who is excluded

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Defining the nation

‘Nations’ are a people with a shared identity

Nations differs from ethnic groups because they seek political autonomy as well as cultural unity

Nations produce social solidarity through belonging and identification

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A sense of belonging

The question of nationhood is one of belonging

Who is part of the nation and why?

‘Blood links’ and shared history?

Geographical proximity?

Commitment to shared values?

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Not belonging

Any understanding of belonging is also one of exclusion

Who is excluded from the nation (or the state)?

How is this exclusion managed politically (by the state) and justified culturally?

People can be formally included but still divided

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Nationalism

A patriotic identification with the nation over other forms of identity ‘We are all English’

Nationalism is a powerful tool for achieving social solidarity and mediating against social divisions

Appeals to nationalism and unity are a common political device, particularly when social cohesion is threatened

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Types of Nationalism

Nationalism is the desire of a people to assert their autonomy, identity and unity

There is no fixed sense of nationalism – it can be attached to other political ideologies

Conservative/primordial

Liberal/constructed

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National Instinct

Primordialism suggests that nations are rooted in biological similarities

Primordial nations are based on shared geography, languages and heritage

Often constructed around founding myths and traditions that have bound together the ‘people’

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Our shared heritage

The primordial perspective is conservative in the sense that it identifies an ‘essence’ to identity

This essence is fixed and naturally excludes those who do not fit – often violently

In large scale societies, this homogeneity is difficult to achieve and the politics of conservative nationalism are generally retrospective

Politicians often seek to return to this time British citizenship tests

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An imagined community

Benedict Anderson (1991) argued that the nation was an ‘imagined community’

National identities are not based on biological similarity but on a socially constructed image – nations are built, not born

They are ‘imagined’ on the basis of identification with national symbols

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Symbols of imagination

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Constructing Imagination

Whilst our national imaginations are based on shared symbols and ideas, they cannot be fixed

Instead national identity is always an ideological point of struggle

What defines ‘us’ from ‘them’?

What does it mean to belong to this nation?

These struggles are often passionately expressed

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Why are we so passionate about nationhood, but not

other aspects of our identity?

Should this be encouraged?

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A limited imagination

Our sense of nationhood is defined by its distinction from other nations

We know who ‘we’ are because we are not ‘them’

Whilst nationhood ‘flattens’ differences between members, it sharply defines those who belong

These distinctions are established through the state

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Nations and states

Nations might be imagined, but they are also built

Modern nations are generally coupled with states (the nation-state)

Nations are cultural constructions, states are political institutions

We will focus on the state next week, but…

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Introducing the State

States are primarily defined by their monopoly over physical force within a given territory based on a centralised authority

Weber: ‘A human community that (successfully) claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory’ (Pierson, p.7)

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The state of national identity

The role of the state is to manage the political affairs of the nation

In regards to our discussion, this is a matter of managing differences and divisions between groups

Those who seek to move beyond the boundaries of identity

Social divisions within the nation.

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Managing struggle

Western nation-states have sought to manage these struggles by;

Fostering national identity

Defining the rights and obligations of those who belong

Encouraging formal equality of participation

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Fostering Identity

National identification is actively developed through education, a primary mode of socialisation

Nationalism is most prominently displayed during sporting events

But is also encouraged through the arts and media

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Do you think that nation-states should actively seek

to develop national identity?

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Liberal Nationalism

Liberal nationalism suggests that national identity is based on an identification with shared values rather than any fixed essene

These values allow for a more inclusive sense of nationalism “Britishness is about a mongrel identity"

This is the hegemonic position in the Western world English Defence League Heritage foundation

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Inclusive Britishness

The notion of ‘inclusive nation identities has emerged in response to increasing cultural diversity

A broader sense of national identity allows for an increased sense of belonging amongst minority groups

‘Minority shaped’ British identity

Do we see this more in ‘world’ cities rather than states?

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Citizenship

Citizenship binds together the shared values of the imagined community into a legal framework

A citizen is a full member of a political community

Citizens have both rights and formal equality

Citizens are obligated to the state

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Formal inclusion, social exclusion

Whilst citizenship allows for formal equality, this status ignores social inequalities

We may have the same rights, but not the same opportunities

Those who reside within the nation but do not have citizenship rights are excluded

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We’re all in this together

National identification can become strained when groups reject national unity

Vertical inequality

Horizon divisions

To avoid open struggle or division, governments make economic and cultural concession

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Relief of the poor

‘Poor relief’ emerged in the earliest stages of the industrial revolution, although often beyond the formal grip of the state

This mediated against the strongest demands of the poor and maintained order

But also involved struggle over who deserved the support of the state

This struggle continues today within the ‘Welfare state’

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Welfare

The formal welfare state emerged in response to unrest caused by the cycles of the industrial revolution and the growing prominence of the labour movement

The ‘nanny state’ had a responsibility to its citizens’ different needs, which required different responses from the state

Citizenship welfare has focused on the obligations of the citizen to the state ‘workfare’

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Affirmative Action

‘Positive Discrimination’ is to select someone on the basis of their social characteristic and is illegal in the UK

‘Positive action’, or targeted encouragement to special groups, became legal in April 2011

These measures focus on equality of outcome rather than equality of opportunity

But the ultimate aim to is to produce equality of opportunity for social mobility

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Active Discrimination

“Positive discrimination is the process of giving preferential treatment, especially in employment, to minority groups of society that have been prejudiced against in the past. It should be noted that ‘preferential treatment’ does not mean that these individuals will automatically be preferred to another candidate, but rather should two candidates be deemed a similar level, the individual from the minority group will be preferred”

http://www.findlaw.co.uk/law/employment/discrimination/500553.html

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Brunel and Disability

Brunel University will: “Interview all applicants with a disability who meet the essential (minimum) criterion for a job vacancy and consider them on their abilities.”

Law Society example: “A family law department has a NQ vacancy. The entire department is female. Two trainees interview for the role. Both have spent 6 months working in the family team and have had excellent appraisals throughout their traineeship. They both completed their LPCs at the College of Law and hold the same class of degree. The department decides to recruit the male trainee as men are under-represented in the family law team.”

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For and against

Generally produces ‘positive’ results, but…

Discrimination is discrimination

Doesn’t change the causes of under representation

Encourage prejudices against supported groupings and reinforces power dynamics

Will result in resentment and political backlash from the ‘discriminated’ against majority

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Under what conditions could ‘positive’ action or

discrimination be justified ?

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Positive Discrimination at

University

Widening participation: Targeted activities and programmes to encourage participation in higher education

Universities are able to charge maximum fees if they target under-represented groups on the basis of social mobility

“Access without support is not opportunity” (Engstorm and Tinto)

The Office for Fair Access (OFFA) is an independent, non-departmental public body. Our role is to promote and safeguard fair access to higher education for lower income and other under-represented groups following the introduction of higher tuition fees in 2006-07.

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Why are governments concerned with

widening participation?

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Multi-culturalism

Multi-culturalism is the (un) official recognition of the equal right to express differences

Citizens have equal rights, but within a united framework that allows for cultural and political expression of difference There are significantly differences between nations

Nonetheless, this framework is itself culturally weighted

If so, do we need to encourage the ‘celebration’ of

difference?

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State multi-culturalism

Multi-culturalism focuses on difference rather than the sameness that defines national identity

Consequently, the patriotic binds that hold together divided societies are likely to become weakness

Indeed, some of those divisions begin to be ‘celebrated’

The fear is that difference will get out of hand and the state will lose its powers of coercion (sharia law being the prime example of this law)

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Does multi-culturalism make it harder to

maintain a coherent national identity?

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Wither, national identity?

Does it matter if minority cultures do not identify with the normative majority?

At what point does multi-culturalism become segregation?

To what extent does multi-culturalism require the integration of cultures, or can national culture itself be multi-cultural?

‘clear sense of identity open to everyone’.

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But, is there a limit?

Yes. The illegal immigrant

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Present, but excluded

Illegal immigrants, asylum seekers and refugees

Excluded from the political community, yet they still hold a part within it – a ‘part with no part’

Often held within detention centres without formal rights

Produce an anxiety within the national community ‘Flood of asylum seekers’

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Important Points

Nation identity is a strong source of social cohesion and belonging

Yet, belonging is defined by exclusion

Nationalism can take a number of modes

These modes have different ways of managing the boundaries between inclusion and exclusion

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Next Week

Turning to the state – and the control of violence

The reading (Pierson – The Modern State) is on Blackboard in the ‘Reading List’ section


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