Download pdf - Edexcel GCSE Geography Student Book revised edition: Unit 1

Construction anddemolition 31%

Mining and quarrying28%

Industry13%

Commercial12%

Household9%

Other7%

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Chapter 6 A wasteful world

Chapter 6 A wasteful worldTypes of waste and its productionWaste is defi ned by the European Union as ‘any substance or object that the holder discards, intends to discard or is required to discard’. It is also referred to in different places as rubbish, trash, garbage or junk, depending on the type of material. In the UK, the government classifi es waste as either ‘hazardous’ (waste that poses a risk to human health) or ‘non-hazardous’. Waste comes from a variety of different sources. As you can see from Figure 1, the main source is from the construction and demolition of buildings. But in this chapter we will be focusing on domestic (household) waste.

The differences between LICs’ and HICs’ waste productionWe all produce waste of one sort or another and it has become an increasingly important issue in many countries as they decide how it should be disposed of.

There are many different types of domestic waste. Figure 2 shows the main types of waste produced by households in the USA. This pattern is fairly typical for HICs, with paper and cardboard – much of it newspapers and packaging – being the main component. Food waste is also signifi cant, much of it being leftovers from meals.

HICs produce more waste than LICs – typically about fi ve times as much. It is estimated that in LICs the average weight of waste produced per person is 100–220 kg per year, whereas in HICs it is 400–800 kg per year. The top waste-producing countries are Ireland (800 kg/person/year), Norway (780), USA (760), and Denmark (725). The UK (600 kg/person/year) comes tenth.

It is much harder to establish accurate waste-production fi gures for LICs, but there are estimated fi gures for Laos (237 kg/person/year), Vietnam (182), Philippines (146) and Thailand (73).

Objectives

Know the different types of waste.

Be able to describe the differences between HIC and LIC waste production.

Understand what causes these differences.

Figure 1: Sources of waste in the UK Figure 2: Types of domestic waste in the USA

Activity 1

Describe the different sources of waste shown in Figure 1.

Other4%Cans

4%Textile

5%

Glass5%

Plastic12%

Food 25%

Paper andboard 45%

Top Tip

Good answers to questions about patterns should recognise that there are often exceptions or anomalies that do not conform to the general pattern. This is true in waste production. Japan, for example, only produces 400 kg per person per year, even though it is one of the richest HICs.

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Types of waste and its production

Wealth and increasing waste As countries become more wealthy, the people have a greater demand for consumer products, as they become part of what is known as the consumer society. They buy more items and they replace them more frequently. This not only leads to products becoming waste, perhaps before they have completely lost their usefulness, but it also means more packaging that then needs to be disposed of. The tendency for people to buy things and then throw them away has led to the creation of what we can call a throw-away society.

In LICs, not only is much less waste produced, but the content is also rather different. By far the biggest component is food waste, as can be seen from the data for Dhaka in Figure 3. (Although the actual amount of food wasted is small, the percentage is high as they produce so little waste in total.) Much less waste is produced in LICs because:

Consumer purchases are very limited because of low incomes.

Little packaging is used on products, so there is limited plastic waste.

Many people cannot read, so fewer newspapers are sold.

Disposable nappies and single-use drinks containers are rarely used.

Practical recycling for personal use is widespread because people cannot

afford to buy new products.

Figure 3: Types of domestic waste in Dhaka, Bangladesh

The difference between HICs and LICs is well illustrated by the amount of waste paper they produce, as shown in the table on the right.

In the UK, the biggest component of waste at the beginning of the twentieth century was ashes from coal fi res. The move away from coal fi res in the 1960s saw the disappearance of coal waste. Today the main bulk of domestic waste is paper, cardboard, metals, glass and plastics.

tActivity 2

Describe the differences in waste production between the USA and Bangladesh, as shown in Figures 2 and 3.

Country Waste paper (kg/person/year)

USA 293.0

Japan 239.0

Germany 205.0

Poland 54.0

Indonesia 17.0

Bangladesh 1.3

Other10%

Garden waste11%

Plastics5%

Paper4%

Food and vegetablewaste 70%

Top Tip

Good answers to questions about differences between countries point out that there are differences in the composition of waste as well as in the quantity.

Build Better Answers

EXAM-STYLE QUESTION

Explain differences in waste production between HICs and LICs. (4 marks)

Basic answers (0–1 marks)Give descriptions of the differences only with no explanation.

Good answers (2 marks)Offer some explanatory statements relating to the level of development, perhaps focusing on the amounts of waste produced.

Excellent answers (3–4 marks)Provide clear and full explanations of the differences in the amounts and types of waste produced.

Top Tip

Good answers to questions about harmful waste should provide a specifi c example of something that is harmful. For instance, an example of a harmful metal from a computer.

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In LICs, the rural areas produce less waste than the urban areas because they have lower per capita incomes. Urbanisation and rising incomes are the two most important factors that lead to waste generation because they cause increased demand for resources.

For example, in Bangladesh, the rural population generates only 55 kg of waste per person per year, while the urban population generates 150–180 kg.

Different types of domestic waste in HICsHICs not only produce much more domestic waste than LICs but they also produce different types of waste. Items that typically fi nd their way into HIC waste include:

Electronic goods – including mobile phones which are often discarded not

long into their potential life.

White goods – domestic appliances such as washing machines and fridges.

Packaging – including plastic bags.

In the UK we throw away 15 million mobile phones per year – that is 1,700 per hour. Mobiles contain harmful metals such as lead, mercury and cadmium – and there are thought to be over 5 billion of them in the world today.

The UN estimates that a global total of 50 million tonnes of electronic waste is being produced each year. (A sign of our throw-away society is that twelve years ago the average lifespan of a PC was ten years, but now it is just three years.) Electronic waste contains many harmful metals and gases, as you can see in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Harmful waste from a computer

Mercury is used in fl at screen displays

DEHP is used in plastic cases of keyboards

Beryllium is used in motherboards

Cadmium is used in switches

tActivity 3

Study Figure 5.

(a) Describe the composition of packaging waste (i) by weight (ii) by percentage of packaged goods.

(b) State the main differences between the two.

(c) Suggest two reasons for these differences.

Watch Out!

Although plastic packaging forms the highest percentage of packaging used, it is often very light and so it is not the highest in terms of weight.

(ii) by percentage of packaged goods.

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Types of waste and its production

PackagingPackaging can be defi ned as materials used for the containment, protection, handling, delivery, and presentation of goods. Packaging can be divided into three broad categories:

Primary packaging: the wrapping or the containers that are handled by the

consumer.

Secondary packaging: the larger cases or boxes that are used to group

quantities of primary-packaged goods for distribution and for display in

shops.

Transit packaging: the wooden pallets, the cardboard and plastic wrapping

and the containers that are used to enable the loading, transport and

unloading of goods.

The UK produced 10.5 million tonnes of packaging waste in 2007, of which 70% was for food and drink. Much of the primary food and drinks packaging is dirty and contains residues from its contents.

Paper and cardboard are the most widely used packaging materials in terms of weight, as can be seen in Figure 5. They account for 43% by weight of all packaging and are used to pack 25% of goods. Plastic packaging accounts for just 20% of the weight of all packaging – but 53% of goods are packaged in plastics. Because of its low weight and relative strength, plastic is one of the most energy-effi cient, robust and economic materials available. Plastic bottles are widely recycled and other plastics make a positive contribution to mixed waste sent for energy recovery (as an increasing amount of waste is).

Mixed-material packaging can in some cases have the benefi ts of being more resource- and energy-effi cient than single-material packaging. Combining materials can make subsequent recycling diffi cult but it makes a positive contribution because energy can be recovered from it. An example of this type of packaging is the ‘Tetra Pak’ which typically consists of 75% paper, 20% polyethylene and 5% aluminium foil.

Figure 5: The materials in packaging waste

tSkills Builder 1

Study this table of data, showing the different types of domestic waste produced in 2006 in one country.

(a) Draw a divided bar chart to show the data.

(b) Which is the type of waste with the highest percentage?

(c) Which type of waste is three times as high as white goods?

(d) Does this country seem to be an HIC or an LIC?

(e) Suggest two reasons for your answer.

Garden 24%

Kitchen 18%Paper & board 16%

Glass 8%Plastic 8%White goods 6%Other 20%

Plastics 20%

Plastics 53%

Paper andboard 43%

Paper andboard 25%

Metals14%

Metals7%

Glass19%

Glass10%

Mixed materials4%

Mixed materials5%

Weight of packaging material Percentage of packaged goods

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Recycling and disposal of waste

Recycling on a local scale Recycling is good. It stops our rubbish going to landfi ll. It saves energy – thereby reducing greenhouse gases. It saves resources, and it doesn’t cost us anything. It means that as members of the public we can help make our country and our world more sustainable. Recycling is an important part of the ‘waste hierarchy’ (Figure 6) which the UK government uses to show the order of priority that should exist when dealing with waste.

Recycling reduces the demand for raw materials, lessening the impact of their extraction and their transportation. Activities such as mining, quarrying and logging can destroy the natural environment and precious local wildlife habitats. Although some materials for recycling still need to be transported around the UK, their movement will have less impact than transporting raw materials from often remote locations in other parts of the world.

Recycling uses less energy than producing goods from virgin material and also results in fewer emissions. Using less energy is vital because burning fossil fuels for energy produces carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming. In addition, recycling reduces the need for waste to go to landfi ll or incineration. Figure 7 shows the symbol used on lots of packaging to show that it can be recycled.

Figure 6: The waste hierarchy

Objectives

Know how waste is disposed of and recycled.

Be able to describe how recycled waste is used.

Understand waste and recycling policies.

Prevention

Most favouredoption

Least favouredoption

Minimisation

Reuse

Recycling

Incineration

Landfill

tActivity 4

Look at some of the packaging used on products bought by you and your family. List the different materials used and identify which can be recycled.

tActivity 5

Look at each of Camden’s recycling targets. Put each under one of three headings: ‘Target achieved’, ‘Target not achieved’ and ‘Not known’.

How successful has Camden been so far in trying to meet its targets?

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Figure 7: The recycling symbol

Case study – the London Borough of CamdenCamden is a borough in north London with a population of 228,000 living in 92,000 households. In 2004, the council was collecting 85,000 tonnes of household waste each year. The proportions of the different types of waste are shown in Figure 8.

The council developed a waste strategy in 2006 with some very specifi c targets to be achieved by 2010, including 35% of household waste to be recycled. This was to be achieved by:

Increasing participation in household recycling to 60%

Increasing the amount of recycling collected from housing estates by 10%

Increasing the amount of recycling collected from schools by 10%

Recycling 70% of rubbish brought to the Regis Road Recycling Centre

Providing all parks and open spaces (where practical) with recycling banks

Putting single recycling banks, which allow three materials to be recycled

together, at all tube stations

Providing a fortnightly garden waste collection for the whole borough

Trialling a kitchen waste collection scheme

Introducing a scheme, either fi nes or incentives, to encourage more people

to recycle.

So far the council have improved their recycling signifi cantly. Currently, they provide three refuse collections a week, two of which are for non-recyclable waste. The third collection is a doorstep recycling collection or estate recycling collection. This allows residents to recycle paper, cardboard, glass, plastic bottles and aluminium cans. This service is contracted to a company called Veolia.

The Regis Road Centre allows residents to take for recycling all of the above items as well as: hard/rigid plastics (garden furniture and toys), hardcore and rubble (six sacks maximum per customer), paper-based food and liquid cartons (Tetra Paks), oil, batteries, light bulbs, metals and all electrical goods. If items are too bulky to be taken to the centre, such as white goods, they can be collected by the council, free of charge. Recycling rates at Regis Road were 58% in 2004, but reached 70% in 2008.

Figure 8: The different types of waste in Camden, 2004

33% Green/kitchen waste28% Paper and card12% Miscellaneous

11% Plastics7% Textiles6% Glass3% Metal

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The trial kitchen waste collection scheme is already operating, alongside a separate garden waste collection. The scheme started in August 2008 and only operates in a limited area in the north of the borough. The table below shows what the scheme covers.

Residents are provided with a small container for indoor use, called a kitchen caddy, and then a choice of a 240 litre, 120 litre or 23 litre bin which is kept outside the house and is emptied weekly. Residents are also provided with compostable bags to line the containers. Residents do not have to take part in the trial. In the garden waste scheme some households do not have the space to store a container, and so the council provides reusable garden waste sacks. The use of either sacks or bins for garden waste will make the service easier to use and there will be no need to book garden waste collections in the future.

Large recycling bins (Figure 9) have been provided in the three parks in Camden where it was thought to be appropriate. These are operated together with an organisation called Rewind Recycling.

Camden has used a team of recycling advisers to encourage increased recycling in schools and housing estates. The work in schools has been successful and recycling rates have been increasing by 10% per year. The incentives were also tried on the estates, but these did not really work and rates have not yet increased very much.

By 2007 the rate of recycling in Camden was 27%, a signifi cant increase from the 17% rate in 2003/04, and moving towards the 2010 target of 35%.

After residents put their waste materials in their outside container or in a recycling bin the materials are taken to a central depot where they are sorted, bulked up and baled for onward transportation. Usually, even if materials are separated fully by the householder, there is still some further sorting to be undertaken because there is likely to be a small amount of contamination by other materials. The sorting is done at a depot called a ‘Materials Reclamation Facility’ (MRF). There are two types of MRF – ‘clean’ and ‘dirty’.

Clean MRFs only accept recyclables that have already been separated from normal refuse – though they may arrive as a mixture (glass and cans together, for example). Dirty MRFs accept mixed rubbish from households or businesses. The simplest sorting techniques at MRFs are manual, employing people to pick out materials from a raised conveyor belt. Mechanical sorting systems, however, have improved considerably over recent years, and continue to develop.

Figure 9: Camden’s recycling bins for public spaces

Kitchen waste Garden waste

All cooked and raw foods including meat, fi sh, fi shbones, bread, pasta, rice, vegetable and fruit waste, eggs, cheese and teabags.

Grass cuttings, leaves, bark, prunings, dead fl owers and twigs.

Top Tip

A good way of looking at how successful recycling schemes are is to see whether they have achieved their targets or not. Camden has already met some of its targets ahead of the planned timescale.

tSkills Builder 2

Figure 10: Rates of recycling in Oldham, Greater Manchester

Study Figure 10.

(a) What percentage of household waste was recycled in 2001/02?

(b) Describe the changes in recycling rates over the whole time period shown.

(c) Is Oldham on track to meet its 2008/09 target?

(d) Explain your answer (c).

(e) Explain two ways in which local authorities such as Oldham can try to increase their rates of recycling.

0

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520

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8

Total recycling rate

Composting rate

25% target for 2008/09

Year

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The bales are sent to ‘reprocessors’ such as paper mills, glassmakers or plastic reprocessing plants where the material is processed for use in other applications or processed directly into a new product. Some materials, such as aluminium and glass, can be recycled indefi nitely, as the process does not affect their structure. Other materials, such as paper, require a mixture of reprocessed waste and new raw material to manufacture a new product. With materials such as plastic, the waste is converted into a pellet which is then used in the manufacture of a recycled or part-recycled plastic product. Over 3,000 different products made from recycled materials are available in the UK, ranging from wine glasses and bags to fl eeces and greetings cards. In the recession of 2008/09, the market for waste materials fell signifi cantly so the value of waste fell too. This meant that local authorities such as Camden were earning less money for their waste. For example, the value of waste paper fell from £70 per tonne to £10 per tonne in December 2008.

Case study – how one HIC – Germany – disposes of its wasteGermany produces about 60 million tonnes of domestic waste each year and, like all countries, its four main disposal options are:

1. Landfi ll

2. Incineration

3. Recycling

4. Exporting waste.

Landfi llAt the most basic level, land fi lling involves putting waste in a hole in the ground and covering it with soil or rock. Today, the engineering of a modern landfi ll is a complex process, typically involving lining and capping individual cells or compartments into which waste is compacted and then covered to prevent the escape of polluting liquid or gases. In newer landfi ll sites, systems are installed to capture and remove the gases and liquids produced by the rotting rubbish.

Over recent years Germany has used landfi ll for getting rid of much of its waste and this has been possible because of the country’s geology. Mineral extraction and quarrying left large holes in the ground which were ‘restored’ by fi lling with waste. In addition, the underlying geology often provided naturally impermeable ground conditions, allowing the waste to be buried with less risk of liquids seeping out and polluting groundwater. Because of the geological conditions, therefore, landfi ll was relatively cheap. In particular, radioactive waste from Germany’s nuclear power plants is increasingly disposed of in this way, with sealed containers placed in holes several hundred metres underground. The repository at Konrad, for example, is located in a pre-existing iron mine at the exceptional depth of 1,000 metres. The use of these old mines has reduced the need for the waste to be shipped to specialist nuclear waste recycling plants, such as Sellafi eld in the UK.

IncinerationIncineration is the burning of waste. Incineration may be carried out with or without ‘energy recovery’, which means that energy is produced from the burning process. Without energy recovery, it is a form of disposal, like landfi ll – although it uses less space.

Quick notes (the London Borough of Camden):

• Waste disposal is the

responsibility of local councils.

• Local councils are increasingly

addressing recycling issues.

• Recycling can take place in a

range of ways.

• Recycled material has many

potential uses.

• Local councils set targets for

recycling.

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Energy can be recovered from waste either by ‘direct waste incineration’ (burning the unsorted waste in ‘mass burn incineration plants’) or by burning bricks or logs of refuse-derived fuel (RDF) which have previously been formed by drying, sorting and shredding general waste. In Germany, there are 68 incinerators, such as the one at Herten in Schleswig-Holstein. They have a total capacity of 18 million tonnes per year and most of them burn RDF.

The technology to burn waste has developed signifi cantly over the past fi fty years and incinerators are now much cleaner than they used to be. The energy released from burning the rubbish is often used to generate electricity, but even greater benefi ts can be gained by using the heat directly – to heat nearby housing or offi ces, for example.

However, despite improvements in the operation of incinerators, there is strong public concern about their health effects. And from a resource point of view, incineration may not be the best way to deal with waste. Even if energy is obtained through the process, incineration may be a waste of valuable resources. There is opposition to incineration in Germany because the RDF incinerators are exempt from the carbon emissions laws, which were designed to reduce the scale of climate change.

RecyclingGermany has very strict recycling laws, which means that people are very careful to recycle and to do it properly. Unfortunately, the country’s own recycling centres can only deal with less than a third of the material collected. This means that Germany has to ship the majority to countries like Denmark and pay for it to be recycled there.One of the most successful recycling initiatives has been the Green Dot scheme, which originated in Germany and now operates in more than twenty European countries. Manufacturers pay for a licence and put a Green Dot logo on their products, to show that they are contributing to the cost of recovery and recycling. (Manufacturers who don’t join the scheme must recover all their recyclable packaging themselves – which is just not possible in most cases.) The more packaging there is, the dearer the licence – so the system encourages manufacturers to cut down on their packaging. This has led to less paper, thinner glass and less metal being used, thus creating less waste to be recycled. The net result in Germany has been a signifi cant decline in waste of about one million tonnes per year. However, the scheme is expensive. It costs the German taxpayers $2.5 billion a year – more than $30 per person, an amount that approaches the taxes or fees already paid for regular waste-collection services.

In Bavaria, in southern Germany, residents are enthusiastic recyclers, each collecting an average of 322 kg of recyclable waste per year. Only 1% of this ends up as landfi ll with 67% being recycled and 32% incinerated.

Exporting wasteSuitable sites for landfi ll are running out, and Germany now exports 1.8 million tonnes of non-hazardous waste per year to countries such as Spain and China, who have spare capacity for landfi ll and see it as a way of earning money for their economies.

Top Tip

Top Tip

When answering questions about the benefi ts of recycling, you should point out that it would be better not to produce as much waste in the fi rst place.

Waste disposal is big business and is increasingly carried out by private companies who are trying to make a profi t. This has led to an international trade in waste which is highly competitive. (The recent recession, however, has led to a decline in the market for waste and a reduction in the profi le of green issues in general.) When answering questions about how countries dispose of their waste, try to provide evidence of it being sent to other countries.

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Advantages and disadvantages of different ways of disposing of waste

Advantages Disadvantages

Landfi ll Relatively cheap and easy.Old mines and quarries can be fi lled.

Suitable sites are running out.Gases released can be dangerous.Groundwater can be contaminated.High cost of lining/capping/gas removal systems.Governments apply tax on landfi ll.

Recycling Limited environmental impact.Resources can be re-used.Increases public awareness of environmental issues.Anaerobic digestion is an effi cient way of turning waste organic material into power.

Not all waste is suitable for recycling.Costs can be high.Capacity may be exceeded.Recycling uses energy.Some ‘recycling’ is not what it appears – e.g. plastic bottles exported to landfi ll in India.

Incineration Energy can be recovered in CHP (combined heat and power) power stations.Limited land/space required.

Atmospheric pollution from gases released.Resources are wasted.

Exporting Producing country does not have to deal with waste.No risks to the local environment.

High costs.Carbon footprint increased by transportation of waste over long distances.Often ends up causing damage to the destination environment, so global situation is worse.

Quick notes (Germany’s waste disposal):

• Germany disposes of waste by landfi ll and incineration.

• Recycling rates are much higher in Germany than in the UK.

• Germany sends waste for disposal and recycling to other

countries.

• The costs of the Green Dot scheme are very high.

EXAM-STYLE QUESTION

Suggest reasons why some countries are more successful than others in recycling waste. (4 marks)

Basic answers (0–1 marks)Only give a description of differences in recycling, with no explanation.

Good answers (2 marks)Offer some explanatory statements relating to the role of government and/or level of economic development.

Excellent answers (3–4 marks) Provide full explanations of how some governments, such as Germany, encourage recycling by education, legislation and fi nancial incentive.

tSkills Builder 3

Draw a pie-chart to show how Bavaria deals with its recyclable waste.

Figure 11: Recycling in Germany

Top Tip

Wood and biomass fuels are only renewable if equal or greater amounts are replanted to replace that being used.

114


Sources and uses of energy

Renewable energyRenewable sources of energy include:

Wind

Hydro-electric (HEP)

Solar

Tidal and wave

Geothermal

Biofuels.

Renewable fuels are the fuels produced from renewable resources, as substitutes for fossil fuels. In practice, these are what we call ‘biofuels’ (although the production of hydrogen from renewable resources may be a future development). Biofuels are any kind of fuel made from living things, or from the waste they produce, including:

Bioethanol, biodiesel or other liquid fuels made from processing plant

material or waste vegetable oil

Wood, wood chippings and straw

Pellets or liquids made from wood

Biogas (methane) from animals’ excrement

Syngas, a mixture of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and hydrogen.

The main biofuels being used at present are bioethanol and biodiesel. These are blended to produce fuel for engines and motors. A variety of crops can be used in their production, including rapeseed, palms, sugar cane, soy and maize.

The European Union issued a directive in 2003 calling for biofuels to meet 5.75% of transportation fuel needs by the end of 2010. Because of their advantages, future targets are likely to be higher, but there are some concerns

about their use too.

Non-renewable fuelsNon-renewable fuels are the fuels – like coal, oil and natural gas – that cannot be remade or ‘regrown’, because it would take millions of years for them to form again. They exist in a fi xed amount that is gradually being used up – much of it to generate electricity. In practice, the non-renewable fuels are what we call the ‘fossil fuels’ (although uranium, used in nuclear power, is also non-renewable). Coal, oil and natural gas are called fossil fuels because they were formed long ago from the remains (fossils) of living organisms. The Earth’s population cannot rely on using them in the long term because the reserves are becoming depleted.

Objectives

Know the difference between renewable and non-renewable energy.

Be able to describe the advantages and disadvantages of different types of renewable and non-renewable energy.

Understand the global energy mix.

tSkills Builder 4

Figure 12: World bioethanol production, 1997–2006

Study Figure 12.

(a) How much bioethanol was produced in 1996?

(b) By how much did bioethanol production increase between 2005 and 2006?

(c) Describe the changes in bioethanol production over the whole time period shown.

(d) Describe how ethanol is used as a ‘renewable fuel’.

(e) What are the disadvantages of using renewable fuels such as ethanol?

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The production and development of different energy sources have a variety of advantages and disadvantages.

Solar energy is a good example of a renewable source.


There is an unlimited supply of energy from the sun.

Initial purchase and installation of solar panels is quite expensive.

Once solar panels have been constructed, there are no carbon emissions and so the process is environmentally friendly.

The energy produced cannot be stored and kept until it is needed.

New technologies are being applied to solar panel design which is making them extremely effi cient, even on dull days.

Large areas, such as roofs or even fi elds, are needed to produce signifi cant quantities.

Solar panels produce no noise pollution. Solar panels do not operate at night.

Surplus energy can be transferred from the source to the national grid.

Solar power cannot replace oil as a source of energy for transport.

An example of a non-renewable energy source is oil.


Oil production technology already exists and so expensive new technologies for alternatives are not needed.

Burning oil releases harmful carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, contributing to global climate change.

Signifi cant reserves are thought to exist in places such as the South Atlantic and under Antarctica.

It takes a very long time to form, so supplies will eventually run out.

Developing oil production in different locations will reduce the dependency on politically unstable places such as the Middle East.

Oil extraction and transport can lead to spills and leaks which contaminate environments and food chains.

Oil is versatile – numerous useful products can be produced from it.

Oil costs are high and are currently rising as sources of cheap oil begin to run out.

As a liquid it is easy to transport by pumping it through pipelines.

The exploitation of alternative sources of oil – such as tar sands in Canada – is very damaging to the environment.

Oil can be stored until it is needed. Most of the ‘cheap’ oil left in the world is found in areas of political instability and tension.

Different attitudes to the exploitation of energyGovernments are mainly concerned about obtaining energy as cheaply as possible. They see it as vital for economic growth and for the improvement of living standards for their people. Increasingly, however, governments are showing more awareness of the environmental issues associated with energy exploitation and many now express a strong commitment to sustainable energy sources. However energy is also a source of revenue for governments in many countries because they tax it heavily; currently fuel duty in the UK is at 58p a litre.

tActivity 6

For one other renewable and one othernon-renewable fuel, list their advantages and disadvantages. Which one seems to have the greater advantages?

116


Organisations such as Friends of the Earth and Greenpeace tend to believe very strongly that energy sources should be sustainable and that environmental issues should be considered fully before developing new sources. They often oppose proposals to exploit new non-renewable sources, such as oil from tar sands, because of the potential damage to the environment that can be caused both by their extraction and their consumption. Friends of the Earth currently have a campaign called Clean British Energy which involves lobbying Members of Parliament to encourage them to support the use of wind, water and solar energy sources. The Road Haulage Association, representing those involved in transporting goods by road in lorries and vans, campaign for a reduction in the tax on fuel so that their members are able to operate more cost-effectively.

Individuals will vary in their attitudes quite considerably. Those that lack energy sources or are faced with expensive fuel bills may well want the cheapest and most plentiful sources to be exploited whatever the environmental impact. Others, perhaps already having all the energy they need, might have more environmental awareness and be in favour of the use of renewable sources.

The exploitation of energy sources will always bring costs and benefi ts to local communities. Considering the balance between costs and benefi ts will infl uence the attitudes of governments, organisations and individuals.Costs may be:

Social – for example, the impact of burning fossil fuels on the quality of the

air that people breathe

Economic – such as the high costs of developing the technology needed to

exploit an energy source

Environmental – for instance the negative impact on wildlife and habitats of

energy extraction.

Benefi ts might be:

Social – for example, the improved quality of life gained by people being

provided with a more reliable energy source

Economic – such as the cheaper costs per unit of energy for some renewable

sources

Environmental – especially the reduced carbon dioxide emissions from using

renewables rather than burning fossil fuels.

The global energy mix of energy consumptionThe global energy mix for 2011 is shown in Figure 13. It is clear that non-renewable sources – providing more than 80% of our energy – are still far more signifi cant than renewables, despite the increasing concerns about both the exhaustion of fossil fuels and the environmental issues associated with their use.However, the energy mix for individual countries varies enormously. This can be seen in the examples of India (Figure 14a) and Iceland (Figure 14b).

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The difference between the two countries is very striking. Whilst India relies heavily on non-renewable fossil fuels such as coal and oil – but also on wood and in poorer rural areas animal manure, Iceland predominantly uses renewable energy sources, such as geothermal and hydro-electricity.

There are a number of reasons for these differences:

Population. India has to meet the energy needs of a population of over

1.2 billion, whilst Iceland only has 320,000 people to supply. This means

that India has to use whatever sources are available, whilst Iceland can use

sources that may not be in great supply.

Income and wealth. Average incomes in India are very low and the

government lacks capital reserves, so people need to be provided with the

cheapest available forms of energy. In Iceland they can more easily afford

the high initial costs needed to produce energy from renewable sources.

Availability of energy supplies. Iceland does not have any fossil fuels; it

imports all the oil it uses. However, because it is a tectonically active area it

has great geothermal energy potential from high-temperature rocks not far

below the surface. It also has fast-fl owing rivers in steep, deep valleys that

provide great opportunities for the construction of dams and hydro-electric

power stations. India, on the other hand, has about 5.6 billion barrels of oil

reserves, mainly in oilfi elds near the west coast.

Environmental impacts of developing energy resourcesThe exploitation of energy resources has a varied impact on the environment because of the production of waste and the impact on both the local and global environment.

Case study of a non-renewable energy sourceThe area around the Athabasca River in Alberta, Canada has great oil resources in the form of tar sands. An estimated 180 billion barrels of available bitumen are thought to lie in the loose sand deposits here, and this can be refi ned into petroleum. For many years, it was not thought to be economically viable to extract this resource, but dwindling oil supplies elsewhere, the rising cost of oil and the development of new extraction technology resulted in the commercial exploitation of these resources. However, its exploitation has led to concern about a number of environmental impacts.

Locally:

Most tar sand extraction is carried out by surface mining and so much

vegetation has to be cleared and surface soil and rock removed, meaning a

loss of local habitats.

The energy required to separate the oil from the sand is provided by natural

gas – enough to heat 3 million Canadian homes!

Figure 13: Global energy mix 2011

Figure 14a: India energy mix 2011

Figure 14b: Iceland energy mix 2011

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CoalOilGasRenewablesNuclear

GeothermalHydro-electricityOil

Coal 27.4%

Oil 33.5%

Natural Gas Plant Liquids 2.5%

Nuclear 2.5%Hydro 6.3%

Geothermal & Other 1.6%

Natural Gas 22.8%

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Large volumes of water are needed to extract the bitumen from the sands.

As much as 6 barrels of water are needed for each barrel of oil produced.

According to Greenpeace, the Canadian oil sands operations use 349

million cubic metres of water per year; twice the consumption of Calgary.

The water being used can become contaminated with heavy metals such as

arsenic, and downstream there are reports of high rates of deformity in fi sh.

Globally:

Refi ning bitumen releases 5–15% more carbon dioxide than the refi ning of

crude oil, increasing greenhouse gas concentrations.

The increasing removal of surface vegetation, mostly spruce forest, will

affect the amounts of oxygen in the atmosphere.

Case study of a renewable energy sourceSo far, Britain has made slow progress towards the goal set by the European Union of generating 15% of our energy needs from renewable sources by 2020, and towards the target set out in the Climate Change Act of 2008 of cutting carbon emissions by 80% by 2050. Yet the government believes our reserves of wind, wave and tidal power will enable us to meet the targets. It estimates that offshore wind alone could meet Britain’s current demand for electricity ten times over, and environmental campaigners are urging the government to make the most of its potential.

The London Array, off the coast of Ramsgate in Kent, is planned to be ‘the world’s largest offshore wind farm’. When the fi rst phase is complete (by the end of 2012) 175 wind turbines will generate 630 megawatts of electricity – enough power for more than 470,000 homes, or two-thirds of the homes in Kent.

Although renewable energy sources are generally regarded as being very environmentally friendly, they can also have some negative impacts.

Locally:

Turbine blades cause on average about four bird deaths per turbine per year.

However, this is far fewer than the numbers killed by other energy sources.

The turbulence created by turbines can lead to temperature changes in the

air around them – warming at night and cooling during the daytime.

Turbines produce noise; older designs typically produced 40–50 decibels.

However, modern designs produce less and 40 decibels is only equivalent to

the noise of a 15 km/hour wind.

Globally:

Although the electricity generated by wind turbines does not produce any

carbon dioxide, the construction of the blades and pillars does.

In January 2009, a government study of coastal waters in the UK concluded that there is scope for between 5,000 and 7,000 offshore wind turbines to be installed without an adverse impact on the marine environment.

Clearly wind power has a much lower environmental impact than oil production from tar sands.

Figure 15: The tar sand reserves of Alberta, Canada

Figure 16: Part of the London Array

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CalgaryBRITISH

COLUMBIA

ALBERTA

WASH. MONT.IDA

HO

Northwest TerritoriesSA

SKA

TCH

EWA

N

Edmonton

Fort McMurray

CANADA

ALASKA

U.S.A.

GREENLANDARCTIC OCEAN

Peace R.

North Saskatchewan R.

Athabasca R.

0 150 km

Tar-sands area

Through the roof

Through windowsand doors

Through the floor

Throughthe walls

45%

35%

10%

10%

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Management of energy usage and waste

Objectives

Know the ways in which energy is being wasted.

Be able to describe the carbon footprints of countries at different levels of development.

Understand the possible solutions to energy wastage.

Figure 17: Domestic energy waste

tActivity 7

List the points about how energy is lost from homes under two headings: ‘Carelessness’ and ‘Building design’. Which would seem to be the main reason for energy loss in homes?

tActivity 8

Draw a simplifi ed version of the house in Figure 17. Add labels to show how heat loss by each ‘escape route’ could be reduced.


How energy is being wasted – domestically and industriallyEnergy is wasted in homes through a combination of carelessness and inadequacies in building design. The percentage of energy lost from homes in different ways is shown in Figure 17. This might include:

Leaving lights on when they are not needed

Leaving phone chargers plugged in after the phone has been charged up

Leaving electronic equipment on ‘standby’

Not having double glazing

Not having loft insulation

Not having hot water tank insulation

Not having cavity wall insulation

Having thermostats set too high

Leaving doors and windows open.

Many of these points also apply in factories. In addition, energy may be wasted by:

Poorly serviced or poorly maintained machinery

Vibrations in machinery

Leaks from compressed air valves

Poorly insulated factory buildings

Out-dated ineffi cient machinery

Workers leaving machinery running when it is not being used

Lights being left on when offi ces are empty.

Carbon footprints for countries at different levels of developmentA carbon footprint is a measure of the impact our activities have on the environment and, in particular, their impact on climate change. It relates to the amount of greenhouse gases produced in our day-to-day lives through burning fossil fuels for electricity, heating and transport, and so on.

The carbon footprint is a measurement of all the greenhouse gases we are individually responsible for producing. It is expressed as kg of the equivalent carbon dioxide:

The average worldwide carbon footprint per person is about 4,000 kg

The average for the industrial nations is about 11,000 kg

The average footprint for people in the UK is 9,700 kg

The worldwide target to combat climate change is 2,000 kg.

Watch Out!

Do not confuse carbon footprint with ecological footprint. This is a different measure based on the much wider impact that people have on their environment, not just their carbon production.

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The relative importance of the contributions to a person’s individual footprint is shown in Figure 18. Your individual footprint consists of primary and secondary footprints. The primary footprint is calculated by dividing the amount of energy used in your house by the number of people in your house, added to the energy used in your journeys. The secondary footprint involves recreational activities and the energy used to supply you with your goods and services. In practice, this is very diffi cult to work out accurately. However, good estimates can be made, and you can try it for yourself on websites such as www.carbonfootprint.com.

Figure 19 shows the carbon footprints of a range of countries. The graph clearly suggests that HICs, such as the USA and UK, have much higher footprints than LICs like Bangladesh and Tanzania. Although this graph does not show many countries, it is a good representation of the overall pattern.

Figure 18: Contributions to individual carbon footprints

Figure 19: The carbon footprints (per person per year) of selected countries

Possible solutions to energy wastage in the UK

Domestic scale solutions The main solution to energy wastage in homes is for greater energy effi ciency to be included in building design. In the UK, all new homes have to be designed and constructed to meet high energy effi ciency standards. And owners of older homes can take fairly simple (and relatively cheap) steps to make their homes more energy effi cient.



EXAM-STYLE QUESTION

With the use of examples, explain how the level of development of a country affects its carbon footprint. (6 marks)

Basic answers (Level 1)Give a description of carbon footprint only, with no explanation.

Good answers (Level 2)Offer some explanatory statements relating to level of development, perhaps relating to standards of living and the use of energy in homes.

Excellent answers (Level 3)Provide full explanation of different reasons, perhaps also recognising that production and transportation of consumer goods is a major contributor.

Share of public services12%Financial services

3%

Recreation and leisure14%

House − buildingsand furnishings

9%

Car manufactureand delivery

7%Clothes and personal

effects4%

Food and drink5%

Holiday flights6%

Public transport3%

Private transport10%

Home − electricity12%

Home − Gas, oil and coal15%

USA

Austra

lia

Irelan

d UK

China

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

kg C

O2

per

pers

on p

er y

ear

India

Bang

lades

h

Tanz

ania

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Method Effect Cost (approx.) Benefi ts (per year)

Hot water tank jacket Reduces heat loss and energy use £12 Saves £20 on bills

Reduce central heating temperature by 1oC

Less heat used Nil Saves up to £70 on bills

Cavity wall insulation Reduces heat loss through walls £500 Saves about £90 on bills

Floor insulation Reduces heat loss through fl oor £90 Saves £45 on fuel bills

Loft insulation Reduces heat loss through roof £750 Saves £110 on fuel bills

Condensing boilerMore effi cient way of supplying hot water

About £1,000 Saves £200 on fuel bills

Double glazing Reduces heat loss through windows £5,000 Saves £90 on fuel bills

Switch off appliances, rather than leaving them on standby

Reduces electricity use Nil Saves £37 on electricity bill

Fit energy-saving light bulbs Use less electricity than normal bulbs About £3 each Saves £50 on electricity bill

The table below shows the steps recommended by organisations such as the Energy Saving Trust. Figures are based on average homes.

The UK government is encouraging energy saving by offering grants as well as advice and guidance. Under the Warm Front Scheme, grants of up to £3,500 for heating and insulation may be available. Some homes needing oil central heating may receive a grant of up to £6,000. Applicants must be in receipt of one of a range of qualifying benefi ts and be owner-occupiers or private renters. The government is also encouraging energy companies to promote energy effi ciency. British Gas, for example, currently offers free cavity wall insulation to any of its customers who are on certain government benefi ts.

Newly built homes in the UK typically include energy-effi cient features such as:

Polystyrene insulation under a concrete fl oor slab

Thick carpets and underlay

Engineering quality hard bricks

Thermalite high-performance blocks for the foundations

130 mm insulating lightweight concrete blocks for the internal walls

75 mm wall cavity, fi lled with mineral wool insulation

Double glazed windows fi lled with argon gas

Full draught proofi ng

Foil-backed plasterboard on the ceiling

200 mm of fi breglass loft insulation.

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Two examples of this type of design policy can be seen in Milton Keynes, Buckinghamshire. In Giffard Park, thirty-six fl ats and ‘starter’ houses were built by Giffard Park Housing Cooperative in 1984. The challenge was to achieve a 60% reduction in space-heating fuel requirements for no more than an additional £500 in construction costs. This was achieved partly through the use of solar heating. In Two Mile Ash, four timber-framed ‘superinsulated’ houses were built in 1985. These had extremely low space-heating fuel requirements, achieved not by solar methods or special heating appliances but by heavily insulating the fabric, paying great attention to air tightness and introducing controlled ventilation, based on Finnish designs and construction methods.

Local scale solutionsA number of local projects are taking place in the UK to try to provide greater energy effi ciency for whole communities, as well as for individual households.

One such project is the Eastcroft District Heating Scheme in Nottingham, shown in Figure 20. Operated by Waste Recycling Group (WRG), the scheme involves burning 150,000 tonnes of waste material each year in an incinerator. This produces steam which is used to supply heat to around 1,000 homes in the St Ann’s area, as well as the Victoria shopping centre, an ice rink, Nottingham Trent University and government buildings and offi ces. It also generates electricity for about 5,000 homes. WRG had submitted plans to increase the amount of waste burnt to 250,000 tonnes per year, but following opposition it is now drawing up a completely new plan to expand the whole facility with a new, more modern design. Nottingham currently sends over 100,000 tonnes of waste to landfi ll sites outside of the city, so much of this could be burnt at the new facility.

Nottingham is a low-performing council in terms of recycling, but this scheme has reduced the amount of waste going into landfi ll by about 150,000 tonnes per year. The plant also recycles metal from the incinerator which is left behind after burning. About 3,000 tonnes of iron and steel is reclaimed per year and used in the construction of girders. Even the ash produced is recycled, being used in road construction at other sites. The incinerator operates at very high temperatures – between 850°C and 1,100°C – to ensure complete combustion, and the emissions are then fi ltered before being released into the atmosphere.

There is opposition to the scheme because gases are released into the atmosphere during the process and because the ash produced contains poisonous metals, such as mercury and lead. Some critics also believe that the scheme encourages the production rather than the reduction of waste. Much of the waste burnt is industrial rather than domestic and some is brought in from surrounding cities, such as Leicester. Nottingham Friends of the Earth estimate that the plant costs the local taxpayers £1m per year. They also believe the emissions are not monitored or regulated properly.

500 homesprovided withenergy

A B

C

D

E

FG H

I

Incinerator

4,600 homesprovided withenergy

Roads

Electricity cables

Connected to theEastcroft scheme

Eastcroft energyfrom waste incinerator

Key

A – Nottingham Trent University

B – Victoria shopping centre

C – Theatre Royal

D – Old Market Square shop

E – Broadmarsh shopping centre

F – Inland Revenue

G – Magistrates’ court

H – Capital One offi ces

I – Ice stadium

Figure 20: The Eastcroft District Heating Scheme

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National scale solutionsCurrent government policy on energy effi ciency is related to its plans for reducing greenhouse gas production. As far as business and industry is concerned, the government offers 80% reduction on the Climate Change Levy to companies that meet their energy effi ciency targets. They also fund the Carbon Trust which offers advice and training to businesses on issues such as energy effi ciency. A video has been produced as part of this process which companies can use to educate their workforce. Also ‘smart’ energy meters are being trialled to allow businesses to monitor their energy use more effectively and easily.

In terms of building design and energy effi ciency, the government have incorporated high standards of energy effi ciency in the new regulations that cover any building plans. Energy Performance Certifi cates have been introduced to show how energy effi ciency can be improved. For existing homes, £1.8m of funding has been provided to support grants under the Warm Front scheme which enables homeowners to improve the energy effi ciency of their property.

The government itself operates many buildings and offi ces, and in 2008 it made a commitment to reduce its own energy use by 15% by 2010 and 30% by 2020.

Another major strategy is that of education. This includes educating homeowners and designers about energy effi ciency as well as providing educational materials and support for schools through the funding of organisations such as the Energy Saving Trust.

The views of governments, individuals and organisationsDifferent groups will have different views on the value of schemes to reduce energy wastage.

In the UK, the government is committed to the target of the Climate Change

Act of 2008 to cut carbon emissions by 80% by 2050. One way of doing

this is to reduce energy wastage so that less has to be produced. They are

therefore very keen to see such schemes work effectively. However, the

government has recently reduced the payments made to those producing

surplus electricity from solar panels, perhaps a result of the recession and the

pressure on government expenditure.

For most individuals, reducing energy wastage will save them money on their

energy bills, and so they tend to be quite willing to respond to the aims of the

schemes. However, some may feel that the amount of the savings does not

justify the efforts involved. The length of time it takes for the money spent on

ways of saving energy to be saved, known as the ‘payback time’, may be quite

long. It is estimated to be approximately 10 years for solar panels.

There are a number of organisations in the UK that aim to help people

reduce their energy usage. The Energy Saving Trust was formed in 1992.

They work in partnership with government, local authorities, other

organisations and businesses to ‘provide people with reliable information on

saving energy so they can cut their bills and keep warm’.

Chapter 6 A wasteful worldexamzone


■ The variations in waste production from country to country

■ How the level of development of countries helps explain these variations

■ How consumer societies have led to greater waste creation

■ The differences between types of consumer waste, including packaging and electrical goods

■ How waste is recycled

■ A case study of the different ways in which recycling is carried out

■ A case study of waste disposal by an HIC and the advantages and disadvantages of ways of disposing of this waste

■ The advantages and disadvantages of renewable energy, and how some sources are easier to develop than others

■ The advantages and disadvantages of non-renewable energy

■ How energy mix varies globally

■ How the development of energy sources affects the environment through a case study of a non-renewable resource and a case study of a renewable resource

■ How energy is wasted in homes and workplaces

■ How to calculate carbon footprints

■ Possible solutions to energy wastage

■ Some of the policies being used to try to save energy in the UK on both a local and a national scale

■ The different views of individuals, governments and organisations about such schemes

As countries grow and develop they create more and more waste. Managing that waste is a problem because although some can be recycled successfully, other methods are less environmentally friendly.

You should know…Carbon footprintConsumer society Energy effi ciencyEnergy mixFossil fuelsIncineration

Landfi llNon-renewable fuelsRecyclingRenewable fuels‘Throw-away society’

Key terms

Which key terms match the following defi nitions?

To check your answers, look at the glossary on page 263

A Disposal of rubbish by burying it and covering it over with soil

B The proportion of different energy sources used in a country

C Processing waste materials so that they can be used again

D A wealthy society in which people tend to dispose of goods once they are fi nished with, rather than reusing or repairing them

E Non-renewable resources that can be burned – such as coal, oil or natural gas – that have been formed in the Earth’s crust

F Destruction by burning, e.g. of waste materials

G Combustible sources of energy – like biofuels – that can be regrown or regenerated

H A measurement of all the greenhouse gases we individually produce, expressed as tonnes (or kg) of carbon dioxide equivalent

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Foundation Question: Describe advantages and disadvantages of renewable energy. (4 marks)

Overall comment: Always re-read your answers to make sure they are precise. Examiners want to reward good answers so make it easy for them!

Higher Question: Explain why the amount of waste produced by countries tends to increase as they become wealthier. (6 marks) (Total for spelling, punctuation and grammar = 4 marks)

Overall comment: Be careful not to confuse waste with pollution and environmental damage in general.

Student answer (awarded 1 mark)

Feedback comments Build a better answer (awarded 4 marks)

Renewable energy is not likely to run out very quickly, which is the big advantage.

It doesn’t really produce all that much energy because it isn’t cheap to make energy in this way.

• Renewable energy is… is awarded no marks. Very quickly makes this part of the answer incorrect as renewable fuels are never likely to run out.

• It doesn’t really… receives 1 mark. A second mark would be given if it was supported by an example.

Renewable energy does not run out which is an advantage. An example is wood that re-grows as long as it is replanted.

Wind power and solar power are both renewable, but neither are reliable because it is not always windy or sunny. This is a disadvantage.

Student answer (awarded Level 2 + 2 spag marks)

Feedback comments Build a better answer (awarded Level 3)

Because people are wealthy they don’t care about the environment so they treat it badly.

Wealthy people often have cars which pollute the air and create other waste like oil.

Many goods today have lots of packaging. Wealthy countries buy lots of goods and all this packaging, such as cardboard boxes and tins, just gets thrown away, creating waste.

• Because people are… is neither true nor really relevant because waste is not mentioned. No marks are awarded here.

• Wealthy people often… This is awarded 1 mark. It needs some detail about car ownership or further explanation about the pollution.

• Lots of goods today… is awarded 2 marks because an idea is presented along with an explanation of it.

HICs are consumer societies and a lot of goods are purchased. Making these goods obviously creates waste at each stage; for example, cars that are made of steel, plastics and lots of other materials.

Many goods are transported long distances, creating waste products. Making electricity creates waste, fuel oil needs to be disposed of and, in some countries, nuclear waste has to be made safe.

Many goods today have lots of packaging. Wealthy countries buy lots of goods and all this packaging, such as cardboard boxes and tins, just gets thrown away, creating waste.

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